Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 439–444

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Additive Manufacturing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/addma

Full Length Article

Fabrication and durability testing of a 3D printed façade for desert climates T

Giulia Grassi , Sonia Lupica Spagnolo, Ingrid Paoletti
⁎

Department of Architecture, Built environment and Construction engineering (ABC), Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The use of 3D printing in architecture has grown tremendously over the last decade thanks to its strong re-
Shading system putation as a versatile, cheap and fast technology. However, its ability to maintain its initial performances over
Additive manufacturing time cannot be taken for granted. Its durability, in fact, depends on several factors (above all design accuracy,
Durability testing quality of materials and environmental aggressiveness), which may lead or contribute to rapid performance
3D printed façade
decay over time. With this in mind, the paper describes the design-to-production process for a façade shading
Computational design
system using additive manufacturing and the associated testing campaign to assess the feasibility of the design
and durability of materials. The aim of the project was to create a second skin for an overlay pavilion at Expo
2020 in Dubai with a façade design that evokes desert dunes. Horizontal lamellas, with a complex curved
geometry, were generated using computational design optimised for additive manufacturing. In order to select
the most suitable 3D-printable material, tests were conducted on different polymers in a climatic chamber at
Politecnico di Milano to monitor material performances over time at high temperatures such as the ones in
Dubai. The data gathered from these tests was crucial to the correct design of the façade manufacturing process.

1. Additive manufacturing in architecture
In recent years, production techniques for architecture have devel-
oped extremely rapidly in terms of innovation, types and morphological
complexity. Indeed, the potential for advanced customisation is one of
the main advantages of the combined use of computational techniques
and fabrication [1]. Of the various manufacturing techniques termed
‘digital’, in which the design and production process are information-
driven, additive manufacturing (AM, or more commonly ‘3D printing’)
seems to be one of the most promising, and has grown from a niche
industry to a fully developed manufacturing technology [2].
3D printing is disrupting manufacturing industry by localising it,
increasing interactivity between consumers and designers (blurring
traditional roles) and replacing the competitive dynamics of traditional
economies-of-scale production with an economies-of-one production
model [3]. Advantages in the construction field, besides geometric
freedom, include the potential to reduce timescales, costs, and material
usage [4], as well as improving structural efficiency through topology
optimisation [5]. Nevertheless, lack of regulations [6], coupled with a
lack of environmental and economic understanding of the process (in
terms of LCA, Life Cycle Assessment, and LCCA, Life Cycle Cost Ana-
lysis) [7] and the extensive testing required, bear a large share of the
responsibility for the struggle to ‘scale up’ such technology.
Some of the latest architectural applications are based upon the
following: binder jetting of cementitious compounds (D-Shape) [8],
material (usually concrete) deposition modelling (MDM) such as con-
tour crafting (CC) [9], mesh-mould (6-axis robotically extruded ther-
moplastic polymers) [10], and robotic metal welding [11].
Thanks to its widespread availability and affordability, thermo-
plastic polymer extrusion is the most common printing technique [12].
However, in architecture, there is widespread reluctance to use plastic
polymers, which are not seen as a durable material and, especially for
building applications, create the impression of an aseptic, cold en-
vironment. In spite of this, some examples of 3D printing of polymers in
architecture have emerged, especially for façade design. In 2014, DUS
Architects initiated the “3D print Canal House” in Amsterdam, a re-
search project focusing on 3D-printed, polymer-based, in-situ, housing
solutions, with the aim of eliminating waste and minimising transport,
using the building site as a growing exhibition [13].
ACTLAB (Politecnico di Milano) recently completed Trabeculae
Pavilion, a bio-inspired, load-responsive 3D-printed structure in HT-
PLA (high-temperature-resistant) that maximises material efficiency
through varying sizes, topology and orientation [14]. Further projects
include SPONG3D and Fluid Morphology; two different 3D-printed,
multifunctional façade panels in PETG, integrating façade functions
such as load transfer, insulation and ventilation [15,16].
Material selection is pivotal, as it depends on the application re-
quirements, the 3D printing technology adopted plus environmental

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: giulia.grassi@polimi.it (G. Grassi), sonia.lupica@polimi.it (S. Lupica Spagnolo), ingrid.paoletti@polimi.it (I. Paoletti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.05.023
Received 27 September 2018; Received in revised form 17 May 2019; Accepted 21 May 2019
Available online 22 May 2019
2214-8604/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
G. Grassi, et al.
and mechanical stresses acting on the component during its lifetime.
Indeed, AM encompasses a set of complementary expertise such as
design for manufacturability (including, for example, topology opti-
misation) [17], knowledge of material properties and awareness of
machine constraints. Furthermore, in the case of thermoplastic material
extrusion, high thermal expansion coefficients of polymers generate
delamination of layers and warping, also causing detachment from the
build platform. Large-scale 3D printing amplifies such 3D printing is-
sues, as even a small degree of thermal strain can induce a deformation
of several millimetres [18]. However, this has the advantage of making
cracks and holes discernible to the eye and easier to be detected.
2. Project description
Research was undertaken on a 3D-printed shading system for a
service pavilion at Expo 2020 in Dubai, by ABC Department, Politecnico
di Milano, with a focus on design strategies and durability tests.
The purpose of this paper is also to show how crucial additive
manufacturing has been in meeting the project requirements, not only
by enabling complex morphology but also fulfilling the design needs of
temporary architecture.
The design as well as the material choice were driven by the con-
text, a desert environment. Due to high temperatures, a material with
low thermal expansion coefficient and low thermal conductivity is
preferable, in order to limit thermal expansions and heat propagation.
For the same reasons light colours are recommended, whilst being
careful in preventing glaring. Since sand storms are not uncommon,
dust can easily accumulate, intricate joints and concave surfaces have
to be carefully minimised.
2.1. Concept
Three-dimensional curves were generated by a set of porosity,
curvature and thickness parameters in order to evoke the local land-
scape and the winds drifting through the sand dunes. Furthermore, the
concept of the shading system recalls the tradition of filtering light and
creating privacy through ornamental screens. Shapes, colours and ma-
terials call to mind the sand of the desert and create a dynamic perfo-
rated wall.
Indeed, the facade is created by establishing a gradient of solids and
voids on the façade, taking into account the presence of the window on
the left side, hence allowing filtered sunlight into the building while
having a denser pattern on the right portion. Moreover, the thickness of
lamellas is progressively reducing in height, in order to lighten their
weight, and each element is slightly inclined towards the outside, for
the purpose of avoiding sand accumulation in the case of sand storms.
Fig. 1. rendering of the project.
Fig. 2. concept design.
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 439–444
Fig. 3. 3D printed prototype.
Fig. 4. on-site application of the pattern to test dimensions.
2.2. Design requirements
The shading system is a second-skin façade of a service pavilion for
Expo Dubai 2020, hence, the design requirements typical of overlay
design for temporary exhibition buildings need to be met. Ease of
transport and on-site construction, together with simplicity of as-
sembly, are key factors and are achieved using modular, lightweight
elements. Computational design makes it possible to control parameters
such as porosity, weight, and panel size according to machine dimen-
sions. At the same time, modularity and flexibility ensure the capability
to fulfil several functions and to be usable despite different constraints.
In fact, the design is easily replicable even in situ, by means of a 3D
printer, and is also feasible for other overlay spaces. Additionally, the
need to reflect the identity of the hosting country is a fundamental
aspect that is addressed.
2.2.1. Technology selection
Of the available technologies, 3D printing of thermoplastic poly-
mers was selected to fabricate the shading system, as it meets the re-
quirements of: i) lightness, ii) ease of transport and assembly, iii) the
additional benefits of cost reduction, iv) wide availability of tools and
materials, and v) reliability. Polymers are feasible for outdoor tem-
porary sun-shading as they are low conductive, sufficiently mechani-
cally resistant (the system is non-structural) and, to a certain extent,
durable (as later described in Section 3.2). The choice of material was
also guided by aesthetic requirements such as colour and finish in order
to recall desert sand. Therefore, additives such as fibres and colours
were implemented in the compound. However, thermoplastic material
may suffer from delamination and warping, which (as highlighted in
Section 1 above) are magnified for large-area additive manufacturing.
Hence accurate printing tests are required.
2.3. Design and fabrication strategies
The printing campaign took place at Wasp, in Massa Lombarda,
between December 2017 and April 2018. Such large-scale 3D printing
was viable, in terms of time and costs, thanks to a Delta Wasp 3 M T
printer with a pellet extruder. The printing volume of the machine is ø
1000 mm x 1200 mm, with an extruder of 3 mm ø with a resolution
ranging from 0.5 to 2 mm.
2.3.1. Optimisation for additive manufacturing
The design underwent fine-tuning in order to respect parameters
such as machine dimensions, printability of pieces (taking into account
the maximum inclination of surfaces), lightness (ensured also by the
G. Grassi, et al. Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 439–444

absence of supports inside the three-dimensional closed elements) and 2.3.2. Assembly system
material constraints (risk of cracking). Indeed, the deposition of hot The anchoring system (Fig. 8) is provided by the constructor and
material onto cooler material causes residual stresses and warping [18]. consists of vertical profiles with a T-shaped section fixed to the wall by
Failure prediction is still largely unexplored and, in this application, means of steel plates. The façade is assembled simply by slipping panels
experience and testing were the main means of perfecting the design into mullions, one on top of the other, preventing horizontal and lateral
through trial and error (as illustrated in Section 3.1) (Figs. 1–4) movement. In fact, each lamella was designed with an opening in its
Besides, in AM, the orientation of the geometry during the printing terminal portion, allowing vertical profiles to fit into it (see Fig. 9).
process has a strong impact on the aesthetic results as they are strongly
influenced by the manufacturing process, which involves the over- 3. Material testing campaign
lapping of several layers of material [19]. In particular, mechanical
anisotropy leads to a directionality in the material properties [20], and Since the materials were created ad hoc for this application, a
there is greater resistance both in tension and in compression along the testing campaign was conducted in parallel on the polymers: on the one
fibres (with filaments oriented longitudinally) [21]. Initial tests were hand to test the suitability of the compounds for printing and, on the
printed in a vertical direction (Fig. 5) causing cracks and detachment of other, their thermal performance.
layers in the load-bearing sections of the panels due to stress patterns
which were orthogonal to the layers. The printing direction was 3.1. 3D printing tests
therefore changed, as shown in Fig. 6.
The whole façade was divided into panels 75 cm wide, with a In order to find a suitable compound that could satisfy both aes-
variable height according to their shape, fitting perfectly into the thetic and performance requirements, many specimens were tested
printer build platform, making it possible to print them horizontally. from December 2017 to April 2018 with the Delta 3 M T. The first tests
This printing direction also enhances the final result aesthetically, as it were conducted with HT (high-temperature) beige PLA with 20% of
shows the curves in the direction of the layers and highlights the geo- wood fibres to give the “sandy” appearance. Although HT-PLA was very
metry of the panel; it emphasises the characteristic layering of the promising in terms of thermal resistance (as illustrated in Section 3.2
printing process, making this kind of manufacturing an element of
value (Fig. 7). In addition, as previously noted, having layers aligned
with bending stresses improves mechanical resistance.
As the system is self-bearing, the panels in the lower part are less
porous, and thus heavier at the bottom, gradually becoming lighter
higher up. For the same reason, the lamellas have a thicker frontal
section towards the right side of the façade while they are thinner
where the windows are placed.
The lamellas were printed without an internal support or infill,
following the contour of their shape, given that the wall thickness was
sufficient to provide stiffness (3 mm derived from the dimension of the Fig. 7. aesthetic result for horizontal layers and curves.
nozzle of the extruder). The tests verified the feasibility of the geometry
in relation to the printer’s features at each section of the sliced three-
dimensional piece (every 0.8 mm, corresponding to the height of the
layers).

Fig. 8. diagram of the assembly system.

Fig. 5. initial printing direction.

Fig. 6. new printing direction. Fig. 9. side opening in the panel.

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G. Grassi, et al. Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 439–444

below), the high concentration of wood fibres caused delamination

between the layers, thus excluding its suitability for printing. A second
option was thus explored by mixing PLA and a smaller ratio (5%) of
wood fibres. In order to improve adhesion between the polymer and the
build platform after a few layers of brim printing, the panels were
screwed to a wooden base plate. This procedure prevented their de-
tachment that could have potentially occurred due to the large contact
surface and long printing time (around 8 h for each panel).
Thermal tests on PP showed that it is stiffer and more suitable for
exterior applications. Hence, the last samples were printed in PP with a
perforated stainless-steel plate and the extruded material was sunk into
the holes, increasing adhesion. The aesthetic results of PP printed pieces
were unsatisfactory in terms of colour and finishing. Hence the pro-
ducer is willing to add beige colour and a small amount of sand (< 5%)
into the compound. Fig. 10. the climatic chamber containing samples and prototypes in the LPM
laboratory.
3.2. Accelerated ageing for durability testing
While the mechanical anisotropy of 3D printed pieces is well
The aim of durability assessment is to predict service life (SL), which
documented in the literature, it is not clear if the thermal resistance
is a key factor in the design phase as well as for maintenance planning
depends on the direction of printing. Consequently, each sample was
[22]. In this case the main aim is to identify materials that can be ex-
printed both with horizontal and vertical layer orientation and each one
posed to the rigours of the Dubai climate. We applied the methodology
had a twin copy that was used for comparison at the end of the test.
used in the experimental evaluation of Reference Service Life (RSL) in
The printer settings (Delta Was 20 × 40) were: nozzle size 0.7 cm;
order to exclude material with poor performance over time. A climatic
layer height 0.4 cm; wall thickness 0.8 cm; top/bottom thickness
chamber was used to simulate accelerated ageing and understand the
0.8 cm; infill 5%; brim 3 mm. Polypropylene samples were printed
different behaviour of materials in hot conditions in order to predict
through a 3 M T with 3 mm nozzle size. Due to difficulties in printing
thermal expansion, potential cracks and changes in colour due to ex-
with the smaller printer, they were already laterally deformed before
posure to ultra-violet rays.
the test. Printing temperatures (extruder and bed) were varied ac-
Several studies [23–25] show that long-term weather conditions can
cording to material properties.
cause the properties of PLA-based materials to deteriorate significantly (by
The materials used were (see Fig. 11):
up to 90%), due to the degradation mechanisms of UV radiation in the form

• 1-1a ASA (Acrylonitrile Stirene Acrylate)

of photolysis associated with Norrish II type photo-cleavage reactions and

• 2 PP (Polypropylene)
photo-oxidation reactions, while the main degradation mechanism of

• 3-3a PLA (Polylactide)

moisture (condensation) cycles is hydrolysis. All of these mechanisms can

• 4-4a PLA (Polylactide)

lead to main chain scissions in the PLA matrix. However, these tests were

• 5 HT-PLA with 20% wood fibres (High Temperature Polylactide)

conducted under severe conditions for prolonged cycles, while the scope of

• 6-6a-6b HT-PLA with 20% wood fibres (High Temperature

our investigation is to assess material properties for typical Dubai weather
conditions during the 6-month life of the panels.
Polylactide)
• 7-7a PLA (Polylactide)
• 8-8a PETG (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol-modified)
3.2.1. Materials and methods

• 9-9a PLA (Polylactide)

The durability assessment was conducted in three phases:

• weather analysis to set up climatic chamber parameters

• material/printing-setting selection for specimens
• examinations of the samples after the climatic chamber test
3.2.2. Results
After the test, white PLA (3) had not suffered significant changes
either in colour or shape. Red-coloured PLA (4) showed high variations
We conducted an analysis on the Dubai climate in order to develop
in colour but not in shape, highlighting the sensitivity of colour to UV
tests with realistic assets based on data that we collected online through
rays. PLA with metallic colours (7, 9) exhibited significant deformations
the Weather Underground (WU) and Meteonorm databases. We calcu-
as well as some cracks, probably due to the larger quantity of additives
lated Sol-Air Temperatures in 2016 and 2017 by combining global ra-
in order to obtain such finishing. Generally, no significant difference
diation data from Meteonorm with maximum daily temperatures from
was observed between the two printing orientations (Figs. 12 and 13)
WU. This initial study allowed us to set a maximum temperature (70 °C)
This test allowed the materials that best maintained their properties
which was kept constant in the test, as well as 90% RH and UV rays by
to be identified: ASA, HT-PLA and PP. ASA was not feasible for this
means of a UV lamp. During this phase it was not considered necessary
project because of high costs and printing temperatures (250 °C for the
to induce thermal shocks or to implement the system with rain.
extruder, 100 °C for the bed), which cannot be reached by the 3 M T.
Specimens were tested inside a climatic chamber at LPM
HT-PLA with wood fibres (6) performed well under accelerated
(Laboratorio Prove Materiali) for one week (12–19 February 2018). The
weathering conditions but was deemed an unsuitable material because,
sample dimensions were 8 × 8 x 1 cm except for some prototypes of the
as previously mentioned in Section 3.1, the fibres themselves were
lamellas in different materials. In order to obtain a broader comparison,
causing layer delamination. Thus HT-PLA, with its lower wood-fibre
large amounts of thermoplastic polymers were selected. In particular
content, was chosen. Although PP (2) printed specimens did not display
many PLA with different colours and fibres coming from different
deformations, they became yellowish due to exposure to UV rays; hence
producers, in order to evaluate the influence of additives on the thermal
it would be possible to employ PP by applying an UV-resistant coating
properties of the material.
to the printed pieces. HT-PLA with a low concentration of wood fibres
Results were observed both in terms of deformations (specimens were
was selected as the preferable material, due to its sustainability and the
measured before and after the process) and colour changes (directly ob-
preservation of its properties under accelerated ageing.
served visually) due to heat, humidity and UV exposure (Fig. 10)

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G. Grassi, et al.
Fig. 11. material samples before entering the climatic chamber.
Fig. 12. comparison before/after accelerated ageing.
4. Conclusion
In May 2018, an initial mock-up of a portion of the façade, 2.5 m in
height, was printed in HT-PLA with a low concentration of wood fibres
and exhibited in Dubai.
The mock-up can be exposed to weather conditions in Dubai with
the aim of validating the reliability of the system and the durability of
the material. Another feasible material for this application, as high-
lighted in Section 3.2.2, would be PP, which therefore must undergo
testing with the addition of colouring agents and sand. Tests with sand
(silica) are yet to be implemented, and further improvements would
include the application of UV-resistant coating to prevent colour
change. In addition, mechanical tests may be useful to compare per-
formances before and after ageing.
The final façade design (30 m2) was divided into 80 panels, each
measuring approximately 75 by 50 cm and weighting 4–6 kg, resulting
in a cost of 100–120 euro/m2 and a total of 800 h of printing.
Considering two printers fabricating two panels each per day, the
overall design can be printed in 20 days. Moreover, the flexibility of the
design would open up the possibility of replicating the façade for
Fig. 13. mock-up.
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 439–444
different overlay spaces providing shade and unique identity.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to WASP and Lapo
Naldoni for their assistance during the fabrication campaign. We wish
to thank Renaud Danhaive for his help in the computational design
process.
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