GLOBAL ANALYSIS POSSIBLE EXAM QUESTIONS

What is culture?

The term culture was first defined by Sir Edward Burnett around the XIX century as a complex and
integrated whole of beliefs, values, customs, characteristics and habits that we acquire as active
participators in society. Nevertheless, culture can be defined in other ways such as the habits,
customs, beliefs and values that shape our behavior, learnt through language and by interaction
with other members of society from one generation to the other (enculturation), and which we use
to adapt to and transform the world we live in.

Nowadays, due to the process of globalization by which the world is coming together, we may
speak about “the global culture”, an added culture to that that we had, including values and beliefs
shared by the majority of the earth’s population. Therefore, we can add to the definition that
besides being something individual, it can also be multiple, evolving and shared.

Despite many different interpretations of this term, one thing is certain: culture, especially
technology and symbolic thought, is what differentiates the human species from other living
beings.

What are the characteristics of culture?

In broad terms, there are four essential characteristics of culture: learnt, shared, symbolic and
integrated.

Culture is learnt, it is not naturally inherited or instinctive, although we have the instinct of being
social, as it characterizes humans. We learn culture as it is passed to us from one generation to the
other, we could even say that it is “imposed” on us but not in a forced manner. However, most of
our learning is done unconsciously through interaction with, firstly, our relatives and close peers,
and later, other members of society (process of enculturation). It teaches us the ways and patterns
through which to satisfy our biological needs and how to socialize. As R. Linton said, “culture is
society’s social heredity”, which means that we learn it by growing up with it.

Culture is shared, not only with members of our group, but even with the society as a whole and
the world (referring to global culture). A society, in fact, is a group of people sharing one “general”
culture, there may exist subcultures within, groups of people following a different set of values
and standards but sharing some cultural patterns with the “mother culture”. Nevertheless, one
thing is clear: there is no culture without society. Furthermore, despite it being shared, it does not
mean that it is completely equal. This feature is what gives us a sense of identity, cohesion and
feeling of belonging to something much bigger than us as individuals.
Culture is symbolic, being the most relevant symbols age, arty, religion, money and language. All
these stand for something which is shared within society, used as means to express ourselves and
to give meaning to our actions and our everyday living. Language is considered as the most
important of the elements because it is essential for the process of enculturation, for
communicating and transmitting knowledge about our culture.

Culture is integrated, it is so complex and intrinsic that we can’t understand one of its components
in isolation. Social, economic and political aspects are interrelated, if one is modified, it is likely
that the others will shift in the same manner, adapting to the novelties. To this, we can add a final
characteristic: culture is dynamic, modified due to the environment, changes in characteristics,
innovation and contact with other cultures (acculturation).

What are the differences and similarities between acculturation and enculturation?

Understanding acculturation as the assimilation of another culture or features of it as the result of

constant contact between two different cultures, also involving a “force” or “not free” component
in the sense that it is not something that one would initially be willing to accept; and enculturation
as one’s first-hand experience with the culture of the society he lives in, passed from one to another
through language and unconscious learning by contact with members of the group.

We could say, that similarities between these two processes are the fact that both involve learning
of cultural features; that in some way so as to be transmitted it needs of symbolic elements,
sometimes language or some method of communication; and that both processes can be done by
free will of the people, as in enculturation, we freely adopt our culture, and in acculturation,
despite the contact being somewhat forced, we undertake some of the features of the other culture
because we want so, or because we see it as favorable.

Regarding differences, we can extract a long list that can be summarize into:

 Enculturation is the process of learning one’s culture without modification, while

acculturation is that of learning from another culture or being subsumed hanging your own.
In addition, the former is first-hand contact, our first experience with culture, while the
latter could be even third-hand familiarization.
 Acculturation is not necessary for survival but it is learnt when necessary, while
acculturation is necessary for as to belong to a society and survive within it. Moreover, the
former can lead to assimilation, giving up one’s culture for another, while the latter is no
such risk.
 Enculturation does not need two cultures to meet so as to happen, something which is
necessary for acculturation. Furthermore, in the former, no culture’s presence makes a
difference, and it is not seen as forcible although it is imposed for positive reinforcement;
 while in the latter the “dominant” culture has the influence over the other and it is seen as
a forcibly imposed mechanism done with a purpose.

What are the mechanisms of change? (He can ask just to define one of the groups)

The mechanisms of change may be free or forcible. Those that are free are the following:

 Innovation is one of them, defined as the ultimate source of all change, the introduction or
discovery of new practices that achieves widespread acceptance within a society. There
exist two types of innovation: primary, referring to the chance discovery of new principles
or elements due to the cultural context we are surrounded by, rather than mere changes in
the environment; and secondary which refers to the discovery or creation of new principles
derived from the deliberate application of those already known. The acceptance of new
principles will be successful to as the degree they are compatible with the culture’s values
and traditions as people tend to stick to what they are used to; also, if the innovator had
certain recognition within the group.
 Diffusion is another mechanism of this type that involves the borrowing of cultural
elements from one culture into the other seen as “compatible” in a free manner.
Nevertheless, sometimes these borrowed traits undertake sufficient change so as to be
adapted to the home culture. Furthermore, ethnocentrism, the belief of one’s culture as
superior to the others, is considered a barrier to diffusion as something that isn’t
homegrown won’t be seen as worthy, against tradition or acceptable.
 Cultural loss is the last of these traits, understood as the disappearance of old traditions
by the substitution for new ones considered innovative or modern. However, this change
in culture is not forced not is it seen as negative, we could say it is due to the evolvement
of the culture itself made from within. The issue comes when these cultural traits are lost
without replacement.

On the other hand, the forcible mechanisms of change are divided into:

 Acculturation could be considered as the most relevant and the source of all mechanisms
of change depending on the interpretation. Theoretically, it is defined as the process by
which one culture forcibly undergoes major change due to intensive and constant first-
hand confrontation with another. In this, there is usually a division between the dominant
and submissive culture, which adopts the features of the former. It can have several
consequences ordered from the least to the most extreme one: retaining one’s own identity
as a member of a subculture or ethnic group (risking discrimination), the merger or fusion
between cultures known as syncretism, and finally, extinction of the culture though
complete assimilation.
  Genocide is understood as the extermination or mass killing of people belonging to one
culture by the hands of the members of another, usually in the name of progress. It may be
done in a deliberate manner, because of conflict, feeling threatened by the opposite, or
because of political, social, religious, economic or ethnic interests (as demonstrated by the
Holocaust or the genocide in Rwanda); or simply as a result of activities performed in one
place with little regard for the impact on the local societies.
 Directed change is considered as the most extreme form of acculturation by which military
action or conquest leads to one culture forcing another to adopt and engage in completely
new activities without option. This mechanism tends to break cultural traditions, isolate
individuals and destroy the integration of their societies; as well as triggering issues such
as migratory and refugee crises

What are the main reactions to forcible change?

The reactions to forcible change may be divided into revitalization movements, rebellion and
revolution, and modernization.

Revitalization movements are deliberate attempts by the members of a society to construct a better
or more satisfactory culture through the fast acceptance of a pattern of multiple innovations. This
might be done though accelerating acculturation, assuming features of the other culture;
constituting a destroyed but not forgotten culture within the whole society; or sometimes members
of the “inferior” groups would attempt to create a new social order. When these movements are
aimed at changing the ideological system, they’re termed: revolutionary.

Rebellion and Revolution are two other common reactions to forcible change, when this is
extremely “radical”, defined as the violent or mobilized attempt to change the established order
because it goes against beliefs and values; thus, aimed at a centralized political authority. From the
four greatest revolutions, there have been extracted certain triggers to these movements: the loss
of political legitimacy of leaders because of failed policies or promises; the lack of consistent
policies which leads to socio-economic crises; and the existence of a charismatic leader to an easily
mobilized group of people. When these are aimed against an outside invading power or authority,
it is termed: independence movement.

Modernization could also be considered as a reaction to change, defined as the socio-cultural

change of a society considered as developing, adopting features of the industrialized ones. It
usually undergoes different sub-processes as traditional knowledge shifting to the application of
scientific methods; agriculture going from subsistence to commercial; industrialization of the
productive factors, using unanimated sources of energy; and urbanization. There are usually two
features that go with modernization: structural differentiation, which is the specialization in only
one matter of single traditional generalized roles; and integrative mechanisms, which are forces
opposing differentiation within societies (i.e.: state ideology).

What are the differences between centralized and un-centralized systems?

Although somewhat complex, un-centralized political systems are usually types social
organizations conformed by people bound together by marriage, kinship or close acquaintance,
usually including a limited and small number of members. Resources are usually harvested for
consume, which makes the main economic type that of subsistence. Usually, power is shared
between the members of the group, and there is no superior authority; reason why it can also be
termed egalitarian or stateless system. So as to make important decisions concerning the group, the
larger aggrupation may convene a group of elderly or elect one due to its merits; or resort to a
mechanism of public decision-making.

On the other hand, we have the centralized political systems, defined as an aggrupation of people
in a society that interact on a daily basis but do not necessarily share ideals or interests, and are not
bound by kinship or close acquaintance; governed by a hierarchical political structure. The
economy is no longer that of subsistence, but for commercial and commodity reasons. In these
systems, the population is of a larger number and due to innovations and technology also it
becomes more complex to control and make decisions by meetings of the whole. For this it is
created a centralized political authoritarian figure or group that makes decisions, in theory, for the
benefit of all; reason why it can also be termed non-egalitarian or state system. In addition, one of the
most special characteristics is that of coercive power.

UNCENTRALIZED CENTRALIZED

Members are bound by marriage, kinship, close Members don’t necessarily share beliefs, nor are they bound
acquaintance or believed common ancestry by kinship or acquaintance

No hierarchy or government, but that of maybe the elected There is a hierarchical structure, usually that of a leader,
elderly or leaders when groups grow sub-leaders and institutions

Power is shared Power and coercion is held by the authority

Subsistence economy Commercial economy

Small number of members Large number of members

Flexible, autonomy and equality of the groups Prestige, power and wealth define status

What are the un-centralized systems?

The un-centralized or egalitarian political systems are those of bands and tribes.
A Band is usually defined as a small group of related families or households within a particular
location that may split periodically into smaller family groups which are politically and
economically independent. Its membership is usually very small, not surpassing 50 people, reason
why there is a relatively small probability that conflict arise. However, if they do they are
informally settled through gossip, direct negotiation or mediation. It can happen that if the
problem is not solved, the person leaves the band. Regarding the division of labor there might be
age variation but no gender division, as tasks are usually communal.

As their economy is based on subsistence, they need to change location when the conditions of the
environment are no longer favorable. For this, is a leader sometimes elected by its merits, and keeps
being so as long as it maintains the confidence of the group. However, for crucial decisions
concerning the band adult members try to make them by consensus, not majority.

A Tribe can be defined as a group of independent communities or clans, characterized by a belief

on common ancestry and beyond-kinship ties, occupying a region but not necessarily living
together; sharing a language and culture and integrated by a common factor. In addition, members
belonging to a tribe tend to give up part of its autonomy in exchange for greater security within
the whole. Its membership increases in respect to the band, as it can go up to 250 people, which
makes the task of governing more complex.

For this reason, there is more of a “hierarchical” structure composed by temporal and informal
group of people or leader elected for its age that is linked to the assumed wisdom; sometimes also
alliances of the different subgroups conforming the tribe, so as to achieve a solution by
cooperation., going back to its autonomous state afterwards. In case that a solution is not found,
the social mechanisms are withdrawal of cooperation, gossip, and criticism. The economy is also
of subsistence, however, there is more food production and more possible conflicts arising over its
unequal distribution.

Another form of tribal kinship besides the clan, which is the most common, is the segmentary lineage
system, a form of political organization in which a larger group is broken into clans, which are
divided into lineages. Its economy is just above the subsistence level, and production is small-scale.
As each lineage produces its own goods, there is no dependence on each other for survival. The
political authority is also informal, neither political offices or chiefs, but members may exercise
some kind of authority. Segmentation is usually the way it grows, however, temporary associations
for action are likely.

In these types of political systems, it is common the age grade organization.

What are the centralized systems?

The centralized political systems are usually chiefdoms and states.

A Chiefdom is usually defined as a regional polity in which two or more local groups are
organized in a hierarchical system of people headed by a chief, a position which is hereditary. His
authority serves to unite people and to define status depending on closeness. He also delegates on
other authorities whether major or minor in control of subdivisions. There is such division because
population is larger than in un-centralized systems and there is a need to delegate onto others so
as to maintain control over the population.

The chief is in charge of making the important decisions concerning the whole, and at the economic
level, he also controls the resources through a redistributive system: goods are gathered by quotas,
and later distributed in a different pattern to the community. In these systems, wealth is symbol of
power. The issue comes when one chiefdom is conquered or overthrown by another, because it
leads to little consistency in authority, values and religion within the group.

A State is the most formal and centralized of the political systems, under which socially stratified
populations within a defined territory are managed by a central government and its institutions A
special characteristic of the state is that it is an entity which holds coercive power and legitimate
use of force, so as to regulate the life of the citizens and the external relations of the whole. These
systems develop due to the need to manage a great number of people, conforming a pluralistic
society, and which relations are not conducted by kinship but through citizenship.

To achieve cohesion and allow for diverse groups to function as an integrated whole this system
establishes institutions such as the military, bureaucracy and official religion, with delegated
power. Moreover, the state has several and essential tasks regarding governing: controlling the
population through census and borders; delegating power onto the police and the military to
maintain peace and security; ensure a stable financial system; and protect law and justice. In this
system, the economy is usually controlled and for commercial reasons, completely surpassing
subsistence, and resources are not equally distributed or acquired.

There is a need to distinguish between the state and a nation, which is a community of people
united as “one” by ancestry, history, institutions, language or ideology, without really the need to
live within the same territory.

What are the economic systems?

The three economic systems are reciprocity or gift-giving, redistribution and market exchange.

Reciprocity is the exchange of goods having more or less the same value, for ritual or prestige
purposes, most commonly done in tribes and bands, as it is very difficult to apply to a larger and
more complex society. It is defined by cultural ideologies and patterns; and it’s done face to face,
allowing for the building of relationships and the feeling of holding bargaining power. These
goods are valued for their practical sue, instead of having a price. There are three different types
of reciprocity:
  Generalized, performed between close kin members and involving a high degree of moral
obligation. The value and the time of repayment is not established.
 Balanced, performed between close friends or tribes in a peaceful manner, where giving
and receiving goods of similar value at specific times (i.e.: birthdays or weddings) is seen
as an “obligation”.
 Negative, performed between hostile and strangers to each other with opposite interests.
Usually one party, the giver, tries to get the better part of the exchange, being the most
extreme form taking something by force; and a less extreme, using deception or hard
bargain.

Barter and trade are also types of negative reciprocity, since scarce items from one group are
desirable goods for the other, exchanged according to their relative value. Despite an outward
show of indifference, sharp trading is usually the rule. It can happen that exchange of goods adopts
the form of silent trade, in which no verbal communication between the two interested parties or
face to face confrontation takes place.

Redistribution is a system of exchange by which all goods produced by the working labor force
of a society are gathered and contributed to a centralized institution in which they are sorted,
countered, and given back to the society in a completely different pattern.

Market Exchange is defined as the buying and selling of goods and services set by the powers of
supply and demand within the market. Therefore, an abstract value in terms of a multipurpose
medium is given to a certain good in depending on how desirable it is for the population. In
addition, there is the need for people to go to a place for the purchase of the good, which also
allows for the exchange of information and entertainment.

What are the origins of Judaism?

The origins of Jewish faith are explained in the Torah, the most sacred part of the Hebrew Bible
containing the essential texts, basis of the law and practices of Judaism: The Five Books of Moses.
According to the first of the books, that of Genesis, God first revealed himself to a Hebrew man
named Abraham, who became known as the founder of Judaism. From then, followers of this
tradition believe that God made a special covenant with Abraham and that he and his descendants
were chosen people who would create a great nation.

Isaac, the son of Abraham, and Jacob, his grandson became key figures in Jewish history as the
latter took the name of “Israel”, leading to the following generations being known as Israelites.
More than 1,000 years after Abraham came the hundred years of slavery of the Jewish people by
the Egyptians, triggering the appearance of the second prophet: Moses. He led the Israelites out of
Egypt and back to Canaan, where, in Mount Sinai, according to scriptures, God revealed his laws,
known as the Ten Commandments, to him. Those, together with the sacred covenant with God are
basic pillars for the origins of Judaism.

Who are the fathers of Judaism?

The main founder of Judaism was Abraham, a man that was born in Mesopotamia who began to
doubt on the stars and the moon as worship symbols, and believed for the first time in a divine
being: God, rediscovering monotheism. Eventually, God called upon Abraham to leave Ur and
settle in Canaan, the promised land for his descendants. He agreed to the pact, which formed the
basis of the Sacred Covenant with God, fundamental to Judaism as through this pact both, God
and the people, were accountable; people owed obedience to the divinity and in return, favors
would be granted.

Another one of the founders of this faith was Moses, considered the greatest prophet who ever
lived. He was the savior of the Jewish people, liberating them from the slavery of a hundred years
they suffered in Egypt, taking them back to Canaan. Shortly after, Moses went to Mount Sinai and
received the Ten Commandments, the essence of the Torah. The most famous of these
commandments are the Ten Commandments. But there are actually 613 commandments covering
every aspect of life including law, family, and personal hygiene and diet. His brightest achievement
was the creation of the Torah, God’s laws and practices for a moral life, the foundational text of
Judaism, known as the Five Books of Moses.

What are the sources of Judaism?

The main sources of Judaism are mainly the Covenant that Abraham signed with God, to which
both are accountable and the Ten Commandments given by God to the prophet Moses in Mount
Sinai. However, and formally speaking, we can say that the main text of Judaism, in which all
important sources are collected is the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. It is composed by and the Torah or
Pentateuch, containing the Five Books of Moses which collect Jews’ law; the Nevit’im, the words of
the prophets covering the time from the entrance of the Israelites into the Land of Israel until the
Babylonian captivity of Judah; and the Ketuv’im, the Hebrew writings.

One of the first sources is the Torah or Five Books of Moses, containing:

 Genesis, the story of the creation of the world by God, that of Noah, and the key story on
Judaism of Abraham and his grandson Jacob.
 Exodus, the story of Moses and the liberation of the Jews from Egypt, led by him with the
help of God back to Canaan, their original place. This book also records the Code of
Alliance with God and the Ten Commandments given in Mount Sinai, the laws governing
Jew life and practices. The Commandments or mitzvoth are another of the main sources of
Judaism, being a totality of 613, divided into 248 positive and 365 negative coinciding with
the body parts and the days of the year respectively.
  Leviticus, on the laws of sacrificial worship.
 Numbers, speaking on the rebellion of a group of Israelites against the established order.
 Deuteronomy, Moses last words on God and his most important laws governing Jew life.

The central beliefs recorded in the Torah are those of monotheism, of the existence of only one God
creator of the world as the major theme. The love towards God as the main commandment
governing their relation, and the shema Israel as the central prayer. Furthermore, in the Torah it is
established the sacredness of human life, the importance of being created by God and behaving
morally according to his norms. Furthermore, in this sacred text it is said that all people are
potentially equal.

Moreover, the final source of Judaism: the Talmud, important text of rabbinic Judaism, a written
compendium of the oral Torah, law and argument, with no beginning or end. It is composed of
two elements: the Mishnah or oral Torah, divided into 63 chapters; and the gemara, the rabbis’
comments on the former. There are two of them, with the same Mishnah but different gemara: the
Babylonian Talmud, considered as an encyclopedia of Jewish tradition and law; and the Jerusalem
Talmud, emphasizing the importance of the study of the Torah to increase one’s holiness.

What are the branches of Judaism?

What are the sacred practices of Judaism?

The sacred practices of Judaism are those revolving around the Jewish Temple, later the Synagogue
and the Mitzvoth.

The whole Jewish tradition and practices originated and were established around the Holy Temple
in Jerusalem. During many years, it was a center of congregation of faith, recitation of psalms,
prayer and sacrifice for God and for absolving one’s sins; together with special offerings on Sabbath
and Jewish holidays. In this sacred building, a prayer service was performed, where it was recited
the Shema Israel, the first two words of the Torah covering the monotheistic essence of Judaism:
“the lord our lord, the lord is one”.

Nevertheless, this element of unity of the Jew society was firstly built by King Solomon, and
secondly by Cyrus the Great. As there were two temples, so were there two destructions: the first
by the Babylonians around the 586BCE and a second attack by the Romans in the 70CE. This was
a moment of fragility for the Jew tradition, and persecution of the followers of this tradition
triggered the diaspora, the spreading of the Jews around the world. As they needed a source for
unity that thought destroyed, people shifted to the Oral Torah and traditions as an instrument for
cohesion and common language and practice.
Because the Temple was no longer available for all, new buildings were created termed
synagogues, the current house of worship. In these sacred buildings, ritual sacrifices were
substituted with communal readings of the Torah, prayers and teachings on the Jewish law and
the mitzvoth. These are the Commandments given by God to Moses, which are in fact 613, divided
into 248 positive and 365 negative coinciding with the body parts and the days of the year
respectively; governing over Jewish lives and practices. According to the Talmud, all moral laws,
especially those within rabbinic Judaism, are derived from these divine commandments.

What are the origins of Christianity?

Early Christianity had its roots in Hellenistic Judaism and Jewish messianism, the belief that a
“savior” would come to earth in help of those there living; main reason why in the Bible, the sacred
text of this tradition, the stories of the Tanakh are recorded within the Old Testament. A number
of divergent Christian communities departed from the Pharisees and other Jewish interpretations,
becoming “Orthodox Christianity” for the former, and Rabbinic Judaism for the latter. Christianity
as such started to develop during the period of the Roman Empire around the life of the thought
Messiah: Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish prophet and teacher believed to be the Son of God. He urged
for the “purification” of the Jewish tradition that would free Israel and establish the kingdom of
God on Earth.

For this, he preached a moral code based on love, charity and humility, and asked for the faithful
to follow his lessons abandoning worldly concern. Initially, Christian converts were Jewish by birth
and followed the basic Jewish law, but their belief that Christ was divine as well as human, and
thinking of him as the Messiah is what differentiates Christianity from Judaism.

Who is the father of Christianity?

Jesus is considered to be the father of Christianity, since he was the Messiah, the savior that citizens
on earth were expecting close to the Final Days. According to the doctrine of incarnation, he was
the divine son of God, born in Bethlehem, although some interpretations argue that it was in
Nazareth, before the common era (the time Christians denominate as year 0 and begin their
counting). Little is known of his life, as little is told in the Bible. There are some important passages,
such as the time when just being a child, he demonstrated his sacred connection with God, during
Passover with his parents and spent some time in the Temple discussing with the rabbis; or when
he was baptized by John at 30, a moment which many followers see as the “consecration of
messianism”.

Christian tradition is fully based on his life and teachings of love, charity and humility. The main
teaching was to love, God and your neighbor as yourself. This meant that one must put God first
in life, and provide selfless service for everyone. He also renovated Jewish Law, especially the Ten
Commandments of the Torah, with the beatitudes, promising blessings and salvation if followed.
Furthermore, he was regarded as the savior because in his crucifixion at Golgotha he sacrificed
himself to save humanity from its sins. Afterwards, it happened that Jesus resurrected, symbol of
his holiness and bond with God, to transmit his final message and speak for the promotion of the
faith to the rest of the world though his apostles. The final passage on his life is that of his heavenly
Ascension in body and soul, in front of his closest followers.

What are the sources of Christianity?

The main source of Christianity is the Bible or Gospel, which is composed of two Testaments or
covenants with God. The Old Testament contains the Five Books of Moses or Torah, the Jewish law
concerning how Israel was founded, and how its people are called on to serve as a positive example
to other nations following the practices and mandates sent by God through the prophets. The
central teaching of it is that God has made a covenant with the nation of Israel, beginning with a
covenant He made with Abraham, the founder of Israel.

Christians believed that the promises of the Old Covenant had been fulfilled in the life and ministry
of Jesus, therefore a New Covenant was instituted: The New Testament, used to further interpret
and clarify the Old Testament, establishing mainly the relation between the Church and God.
Within it is contained the life and teachings of Jesus, central theme in this tradition, and the
Gospels, the oral transmission of the stories and discourse of God by Lucas, Mateo, Marcos and
Juan. The first was Marcos, and Juan was the one who differed from the rest in differs as it contains
much information not found in the other Gospels, and has a different chronology.

What are the branches of Christianity?

What are the sacred practices of Judaism?

The sacred practices of Christianity are the Seven Sacraments, the continuation of Christ's ministry
in history, based on Jesus’ holy actions and practices.

 Baptism: receiving the life of Christ through water, purifying the newborn from original
sin, and birthing in a new Holy spirit.
 Confirmation: seals our life of faith in Jesus, is one’s conscious confirmation of
membership to the Church and following the life and teachings of Jesus.
 Eucharist or Holy Communion: nourishes our life of faith though the bread and wine we
receive - the Body and Blood of Christ - a ritual meal.
 Penance: we receive God’s forgiveness through absolution of our confessed sins by the
priest.
 Extreme Unction: unites a sick person’s suffering with that of Jesus and brings forgiveness
of sins though Oil, a symbol of strength.
 Holy Orders: men are ordained as priests, deacons, or bishops as spiritual leaders of their
communities, and to remind us of our baptismal call to help others.
 Matrimony: baptized man and woman are united with each other as a sign of the unity
between Jesus and his Church.

What are the origins of Islam? Who is the father of Islam?

The rise of Islam is intrinsically linked with the Prophet Muhammad, believed by Muslims to be
the last in a long line of prophets that includes Moses and Jesus. Because Muhammad was the
chosen recipient and messenger of the “last” word of God through the divine revelations, Muslims
from all walks of life strive to follow his example. After the holy Qur'an, the sayings of the Prophet
(hadith) and descriptions of his way of life (Sunna) are the most important Muslim texts.

Muhammad was born into the most powerful tribe in Mecca, the Quraish, around 570 A.D. The
power of the Quraish derived from their role as successful merchants, and as several trade routes
intersected at Mecca, they controlled trade along the west coast of Arabia, north to Syria, and south
to Yemen. Mecca was home to two widely venerated polytheistic cults whose gods were thought
to protect its lucrative trade, performing rituals and sacrifices in the Kaaba.

When he was roughly forty, he began having visions and on one of these occasions, the Archangel
Gabriel appeared to him and instructed him to recite "in the name of [your] lord." This was the first
of many revelations that became the basis of the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam. These early
revelations pointed to the existence of a single God, contradicting the polytheistic beliefs of the pre-
Islamic Arabian Peninsula.

Initially overwhelmed by the significance of what was being revealed to him, Muhammad found
unflinching support in his wife and slowly began to attract followers. His strong monotheistic
message angered many of the Meccan merchants. They were afraid that trade, which they believed
was protected by the pagan gods, would suffer. From that point forward, Muhammad was
ostracized in Mecca. For a time, the influence and status of his wife and his uncle, protected
Muhammad from persecution; however, after they died, his situation became dire. Emigration
became the only hope so in 622, they headed to Medina, another oasis town, where they were
promised freedom to practice their religion (Hijra, marking year 1 of the Islamic calendar).

In Medina, Muhammad continued to receive divine revelations and built an ever-expanding

community around the new faith. The conflict with the Quraish continued, but after several years
of violent clashes, especially that of the Battle of Badr, Mecca surrendered. Muhammad and his
followers soon returned and took over the city, destroying all its pagan idols and spreading their
belief in one God. This point was seen as the shift of the Islam tradition from persecution to
appreciation, and the establishing of Islam and monotheism as the sole religious practice.

What are the sources of Islam?

The major sources of Islam are the Qur’an, the Sunna, and the Hadith.

The Qur’an is the central religious text of Islam, contained the revelations dictated to Muhammad
by the Archangel Gabriel and written down in Arabic. It represents Divine guidance for every
Muslim. It has three mystical layers: first, a reference to a particular person or situation, followed
by a spiritual lesson and closed by a deeper mystical significance. The chapters in this book touch
upon all aspects of human existence, including matters of doctrine, social organization, and
legislation. Although the central topics are those of the unity of God, and the woes of those who
not follow. The Quran confirms the revelations given to earlier Prophets, though these might not
be accessible to us, in the form they were originally revealed as they respect their authority, but
don’t believe on their divinity, as there is only one divine being: God. Its recitation can only be
performed in a purified state, and is thought to have soothing and healing effects.

Hadith’s are a collection of traditions containing sayings/actions of the Prophet Muhammad that,
with accounts of his life and sayings (the Sunnah, third source of Islam), constitute the major
source of guidance for Muslims apart from the Quran. The Hadiths were collected and shared by
those who directly knew him during the first few decades after the Prophet Muhammad’s death.

What are the branches of Islam?

Islamic tradition fragmented after the death of Muhammad, although others argue it was after the
Battle of Siffin. However, as the Prophet left without successor or appointing one, people decided
to establish the figure of the Caliph. The first three Caliphs were Abu Bakr, Umar and ‘Uthman,
chosen by the larger community. However, another smaller group, which also included some of
the senior Companions of the Prophet, believed that his son-in-law and cousin, Ali, should be
Caliph. They understood that the Prophet had appointed him as the sole interpreter of his legacy,
in both political and spiritual terms. These factions were called Sunni and Shia. Sunnis are in the
majority and occupy most of the Muslim world, while Shi'i populations are concentrated in Iran
and Iraq, with sizeable numbers in Bahrain, Lebanon, Kuwait, Turkey, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

The Sunni are called the “people of Sunna”, as they follow the prophet’s sayings and practices
collected by the Sunni caliphs. They also believe that the matter of succession was left to the Umma,
the Muslim community as a whole. The authority is that of the Qur’an, Hadith and Sunna, being
the Caliph the leader of worship and administrator of the Sharia law, sacred Muslim law, although
with no capacity to interpret the law, as revelations ended with Muhammad.

The Shia believe that the matter of succession was left to Ali as the original successor of
Muhammad’s spiritual power because it was thought that on its final days, Muhammad laid a
hand on his shoulder and said: “whoever I protect, Ali is also his protector”. The Shia are mainly
devoted to the memory of the prophet’s relatives: Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Hussain; and trust that
as Ali and Hussain did, suffering is worthy of truth and integrity. Instead of Caliphs, they have the
figure of the Imam, leader or guide, being the first three: Ali, Hasan and Hussain. The Imams have
the political leadership and divine guidance of the Shia community as they are closer to the divine
receiving religious knowledge and interpreting Sharia law.

Both groups, however, agree that Muhammad is God's messenger and follow the five ritualistic
pillars of Islam, which include fasting during Ramadan, five daily prayers, and the Hajj, an annual
pilgrimage to Mecca. In addition, both share the holy book of the Quran.

What are the five pillars of Islam?

Testimony or Shahadad: believing and professing the unity of God and the messenger-ship of
Muhammad: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet”, to which Shi’ites add “and Ali
is the Master of the believers”. Most importantly, although the Qur’an requires the faithful to tell
others of Islam, it rules out the use of coercion.

Prayer or Salat: the performance of a continual round of prayers or salaat. Praying five times a day
(before sunrise, early afternoon, late afternoon, immediately after sunset, and before retiring),
while facing the Kaaba at Mecca, is intended to focus the mind on God; and it is seen as a personal
communication that expresses gratitude and worship. It is compulsory, but flexibility in the
specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language,
and consists of verses of the Qur’an; performed in mosques, places of worship for Muslims, who
often refer to it by its Arabic name: masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve
as a place for prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study.

Zakat: giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or
needed; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those in debt or bonded labor. It is
considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the
needy because their wealth is seen as “trust from God’s bounty”.

Fasting or Ramadhan or Sawm: performed in the ninth month of the Islamic lunar year, with no
eating, drinking, smoking, or sexual intercourse from dawn until sunset, thought to encourage a
feeling of nearness to God. During it, Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence
on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Because Muslims use the lunar calendar
of 354 days, the month of Ramadan gradually moves through all the seasons. It is not obligatory
for several groups, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly. Nevertheless, the hardship
of abstaining is for all an unselfish surrender to God’s commandment and assertion of control over
the lower desires.

Pilgrimage or Hajj: performing the annual pilgrimage to the Kaaba at least once in one’s adult
lifetime, provided one can afford the journey and leave enough provisions for one’s family. Rituals
of the Hajj include:

 Walking seven times around Kaaba, like the continual rotation around the One by the
angels and all of creation, to the seventh heaven
 Walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of
Abraham’s wife while she was looking for water in the desert before Mecca developed into
a settlement
 Spending a day in the desert at Mina and then a day in the desert in Arafat praying and
worshiping God and following the foot-steps of Abraham
 Symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina recounting Abraham’s actions

Who is the founder of Buddhism?

Siddhartha Gautama, wish-fulfiller, was the one who became the Buddha or “awakened one”,
reportedly born India and Nepal. He is portrayed as the reincarnation of a great being who had
been born many times before and took birth on Earth once again out of compassion for all suffering
beings. However, he is not considered a God by his followers.

He was raised in the lap of luxury, but he rejected this life at 29 years-old. According to the legend,
the gods arranged for him to see “four sights”: the bent old man, a sick person, a dead person and
a mendicant seeking lasting happiness rather than temporal pleasure. With the three first sights,
he was dismayed by the impermanence of life and the existence of suffering, old age and death.
The sight of the monk piqued his interest in a life of renunciation.

He embarked on a wandering life in pursuit of a very difficult goal: finding the way to total
liberation from suffering. After studying with a Brahmin teacher, he lived six years of extreme self-
denial techniques: nakedness, exposure to great heat and cold, severe fasting… but later shifted to
a Middle Way, rejecting self-indulgence and self-denial. On the night of the full moon in the sixth
lunar month, he sat in deep meditation beneath the Bodh Gaya tree, and experienced awakening.
He recalled all his previous lives, and had the realization of the wheel of repeated death and rebirth
or samsara, in which our good or bad deeds are reflected in future lives due to Karma. For him the
final shore was Nirvana, the ideal state of mind free of attachment and no karmic consequences.

Out of the abundant and varied scriptures attributed to Buddha, historians agree on the validity
and centrality of a core of teachings that became known as the Dharma: the teachings and laws of
conduct given by Buddha: The Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Three arks of Existence,
and other guidelines for achieving liberation from suffering. His death at the age of eighty was the
evidence of his selfless desire to spare humankind from suffering. He appointed no successor and
appointed no one to lead the order.

What are the sources of Buddhism?

The main source of Buddhism is the Dharma the teachings and laws of conduct given by Buddha
that are divided into, most importantly, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Three
arks of Existence, and other guidelines for achieving liberation from suffering.

The Four Noble Truths were given in his first sermon at Sarnath as the foundation of his teachings:

1. Life inevitably involves suffering, dissatisfaction and distress. It is the existence of dukkha,
suffering and dissatisfaction at some time in our life, implying that happiness does not last.
What we regard as “self” is an ever-changing bundle of fleeting feelings, impressions and
ideas.
2. Suffering is caused by craving (material and immaterial), rooted in ignorance. The origin of dukkha
is craving and clinging to sensory pleasures and things that stay as they are. It leads to
suffering due to ignorance, because we grasp at things and hold onto life as we want it to
be, rather than seeing things as they are, in a constant state of flux.
3. Suffering will cease when craving ceases. The remedy for unhappiness was awareness of
dukkha, anitya and anatman. There is no separate, permanent or immortal self; we are an
impermanent composite of interdependent physical, emotional and cognitive components.
Insight into anatman reduces attachment to one’s mind, body and selfish desires.
4. There is a way to realize this state: The Noble Eightfold Path.

In this Four Noble Truths, he diagnosed the human condition and proposed a cure.

The Noble Eightfold Path is a systematic approach for humans to extricate themselves from
suffering and achieve the final goal of liberation. It offers a way to purify the mind of afflictive
emotions and avoid unwholesome actions. Ultimately, it leads to freedom from the cycle of death
and rebirth, and the peace of nirvana.
 1. Right understanding. Comprehending reality correctly through deep realization of the Four
Noble Truths; seeing though illusions and gradually learning to question old assumptions.
2. Right thought or motivation. Uncovering any afflictive emotions such as selfish desires or
tendencies to hide our imperfections.
3. Right speech. Relinquish the propensity to lie, gossip, speak harshly or engage in divisive
speech; instead, using communication in the service of truth and harmony.
4. Right action. Observing the five basic precepts for ethical conduct: avoid destroying life,
stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and intoxicants.
5. Right livelihood. Making sure that one’s way of making a living does not violate the five
precepts.
6. Right effort. Striving to eliminate the impurities of the mind.
7. Right mindfulness. Liberation requires discipline and the cultivation of awareness.
8. Right meditation. Mental discipline to quiet the mind and develop single-pointed
concentration.

What are the sources of Hinduism?

The main source of Hinduism are the Vedas, which origins and antiquity are unknown; a reveled
collection of ancient and sacred hymns, first transmitted to sages and later orally from teacher to
student. They are not written by humans, but shruti texts, which are those that have been revealed.
The oldest is the Rig Veda, praising and imploring the blessings of the controlling forces of the
cosmos or devas including opaque earth gods and transparent deities of the sky and celestial realms.
The major devas are Indra, god of thunder; Agni, god of fire; Soma, associated with a sacred drink;
and Ushas, goddess of dawn.

Other ancient shruti texts include

 Brahmanas. Directions about performances of the ritual sacrifices to the deities, reserved
for advanced seekers of spiritual truth. It does not focus on outward rituals but on inner
experience as the path to realization and immortality. The rishis or seers of the supreme
truth, explain that the bodily senses are made for looking outward, but what is real can
only be discovered by turning away from worldly things.
 Aranyakas. “Forest treatises” by sages who went to the forests to meditate as recluses.
 Upanishad. Teachings from highly realized spiritual masters that explain several doctrines
central to all forms of Hinduism. They include:
 Reincarnation. The soul leaves the dead body and enters a new one, but the “self”
reminds the same. Being born as a human being is a precious opportunity for the
soul to advance towards merging with the Absolute Reality.
 Karma. It means action and the consequences of action; every though and desire we
have shapes our future experiences. The ultimate goal is not creation of good lives
 by good deeds, but a clean escape from the karma-run wheel of birth or samsara.
The liberation from limitations of space and time are called “moshka”.

What are the ideological characteristics of Fundamentalism?

Reactivity to the Marginalization of Religion

Fundamentalism is reactive, a militant effort triggered against the processes and consequences of
secularization and modernization that have penetrated the larger religious community to
counteract the erosion and displacement of true religion. To qualify a movement as pure
fundamentalism it must be concerned first with the erosion of religion and its proper role in society;
and second, it must be aimed at protecting some religious content, a set of traditional beliefs and
norms of conduct. This defense of religion is the sine qua non of fundamentalism. In addition, the
Fundamentalist movement may (1) seek to gain control of the state in order to de-secularize that
powerful instrumentality; (2) be defensive, seeking to survive in the face of majority preemptive
ethnoreligious movements.

Selectivity

Fundamentalism is selective in three interrelated ways:

1. It is not merely defensive of tradition but selects and reshapes particular aspects of the
tradition, especially those that clearly distinguish the fundamentalists from the
mainstream.
2. It selects some aspects of modernity to affirm and embrace; modern science and technology
is accepted and employed. In reacting to threats and selecting the parts of the tradition to
be defended. Syncretic fundamentalism may imitate the theological and organizational
structures of threatening religions.
3. Select certain consequences or processes of modernity and single these out for especial
attention, usually in the form of focused opposition; such as the cases of abortion on
demand in the United States.

Moral Manicheism

Fundamentalist movements hold a dualistic world view; one in which reality is uncompromisingly
divided into light, which is identified with the world of the spirit and of the good, and darkness,
which is identified with matter and evil. Although the movement does not guarantee perfect purity
to its members, it does provide certitude and a minimum standard by which members may be
assured at least protection from contamination.

Absolutism and Inerrancy

The Torah, the Talmud, the Qur’an, and the Bible are of divine (inspired) origin and true and
accurate in all particulars, reason why there is no such space for inerrancy and fundamentalism is
more successful in these Abrahamic traditions. On the other hand, eastern religions spiritual
leaders have a “freer hand” in retrieving of sacred texts. Therefore, we can argue, the degree to
which there can be a belief in “inerrancy” or its analogues depends on whether there is a sacred
code, set of codes, or canon in the tradition. Nevertheless, there is still an affirmation of the absolute
validity of the “fundamentals” of the tradition.

Fundamentalists share an approach to religious sources: (1) opposition to hermeneutical methods

created by secularized critics as these are not appropriately applied to sacred texts; (2)
interpretations are monolithic, not submitted to the canons of outside critics; and (3) they employ
their own strategies including hardened traditional approaches to preserve the absolutist character
of the sacred text or tradition.

Millennialism and Messianism

These movements believe on the miraculous culmination of history: the goodwill triumph over
evil; immortality over mortality; the reign of eternal justice will terminate history. Messianism and
millennialism promise victory to the believer: millennialism, by ensuring an end to suffering and
waiting; and messianism, by assuring the coming of an all-powerful redeemer. While Abrahamic
cosmology offers both, the non-Abrahamic traditions lacks it.

What are the organizational characteristics of Fundamentalism?

Elect, Chosen Membership

Fundamentalist movements tend to have an elect, chose, divinely called membership, described
variously as the faithful, the remnant, or Covenant Keepers. Some movements divide in an elect
inner group and a periphery of sympathizers; as a powerful means of achieving group solidarity
and cohesion. The enclave may not be able to offer material rewards, but the belief in a divine
mandate provides spiritual and psychological boosts; it makes risks and costs bearable.

Sharp Boundaries

The theme of separation, of boundaries between the saved and the sinful, is general among these
movements. The notion of a dividing wall, which may be physical and other spatial metaphors are
characteristic (i.e.: ultra-Orthodox Jews’ requirement to live within a certain distance from the
synagogue). Separation may be implemented through audiovisual boundaries, through a
distinctive vocabulary or dress code, and through control over access to the media.

Authoritarian Organization

Membership in a fundamentalist movement is voluntary, and orthodox insiders are presumed to

be equal. The typical form of organization is charismatic, a leader-follower relationship in which
the follower imputes extraordinary qualities, heavenly grace, special access to deity, deep and
complete understanding of sacred texts, etc. However, the tension between voluntarism and
quality, and charismatic authority makes these movements somewhat fragile, reason why the
smaller the division, the better.

One man is set, trusted to implement decisions due to his extraordinary qualities, special access to
the deity and activity. There are different kinds of fundamentalist leaders depending on their skills
and specialization: ideological catalyzers, and organizers and coalition makers. Yet leadership does not
operate in a vacuum; there must be a mobilizable mass of potential followers.

Behavioral Requirements

Broadly speaking, the member´s time, space, and activity and activity are group resource, not an
individual one. Elaborate behavioral requirements create a powerful affective dimension, an
imitative, conforming dimension. This feature is closely related to the boundary-setting function.
There are established hymns, rules for dress, proscribed sinful behavior, censorship of reading
material, close supervision of listening and viewing practices, dating and mate selection, etc.