Topic 8: Nuclear Physics

• Nucleus
– Nucleons (A) = Protons (Z) + Neutrons (N)
– Density and stability

• Radioactivity
– Formula (exponential decay)

• Radioactive Processes
– α, β, and γ-rays
– Natural radioactivity series

• Fusion/ Fission

Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Page 1

Nucleus: Particle Composition

• Z protons + N neutrons = A nucleons (1 – 10 fm dia.).

• 1920: Rutherford hypothesized neutron = electron + proton.

– Why not? Uncertainty principle violated!
(Emin = 100 MeV in 10 Fm)
– Nuclear moment too small.
(Bohr magneton µB = 2000 × Nuclear magneton µN).

• 1932: Chadwick discovered neutron (new nucleon!).

• Isotope: same Z (# protons), different N (# neutrons).

– 15O and 16 O or 12C and 13 C

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 Nucleus: Particle Properties

Particle Charge amu Spin µ

Proton +e 1.007276 1/2 +2.79µN
Neutron 0 1.008665 1/2 – 1.91µN
Electron –e 5.4858×10-4 1/2 +1.00µΒ

• Proton, neutron and electron are all fermions (spin 1/2).

• Proton and neutron are “heavy” baryons composed of 3 quarks.
[proton = up, up, down quarks and neutron = up, down, down]

Electron is a “light” lepton.

Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Page 3

Nucleus: Particle Potential Wells

• Electron is only bound with negative total energy, and can never
escape.
• Nucleon can be bound with positive total energy, and can escape by
tunneling through the Coulomb barrier → nuclear decay processes.
– Leads to radioactive processes.

Nucleon Nuclear Potential Electron Coulombic Potential

Energy

Radius r

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 Nucleus: Density Distribution

• Nucleus has ~uniform density

Charge Density ρ (1025 C/m3)

ρ with radius r.

• ρ = Ro A1/3 where Ro = 1.2 fm He

ρ varies by 4× from lightest to
heaviest elements.

• ρatom ~ 103 kg/m3

ρnucleus = 1017 kg/m3
(mm3 = mass of supertanker!!)

Bi

Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8)

Radial Distance r (fm)
Page 5

Nucleus: Stability vs. N/Z Ratio

Last stable element
• 3000 known nuclei, but only Z = 83 (Bi)
266 stable ones!
–Z > 83 elements not stable ! Line of Stability
Neutron Number N

100
• Tendency for N ≈ Z,
but N > Z for larger Z.
(due to proton repulsion)
N=Z
• Unusual stability for
50
“magic numbers.”
Z, N = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
(analogous to electronic shells)

50 100

Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Proton Number Page

Z 6

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 Nucleus: Binding Energy B
• Nuclear mass is slightly less than mass of constituent protons and
neutrons due to nuclear binding energy B.
∑ Parts Whole
Bnuclear = [ Z mHc + N mn c ] – [ M Ac2 ]
2 2

where mH = 1.007825amu and mn = 1.008665 amu

Binding Energy / Nucleon ( MeV)

• Binding energy per nucleon
peaks at A = 56
(~8 MeV/nucleon) and Peaks at Fe
slowly decreases. (A = 56)
Fission
• Energy is released when a (A ~ 200)
heavy nucleus (A~200)
fissions into lighter nuclei
near A~60.
Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Nucleon Number APage 7

Radioactivity: Historical Overview

• 1896: Becquerel accidentally discovered that uranyl crystals emitted

invisible radiation onto a photographic plate.
• 1898: Marie and Pierre Curie discovered polonium (Z=84) and radium
(Z = 88), two new radioactive elements.
• 1903: Becquerel and the Curie’s received the Nobel prize in physics
for radioactive studies.
• 1911: Marie Curie received a 2nd Nobel prize (in chemistry) for
discovery of polonium and radium.
• 1938: Hahn (1944 Nobel prize) and Strassmann discovered nuclear
fission - Lisa Meitner played a key role!
• 1938: Enrico Fermi received the Nobel prize in physics for producing
new radioactive elements via neutron irradiation, and work with
nuclear reactions.

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 Radioactivity: Why?
• Number of protons & neutrons
in nucleus is limited. Neutron Dripline

–Limits marked by driplines

(outside dripline, nucleus Line of Stability

Neutron Number N
spontaneously emits proton or 100
neutron).

• Nuclei decay to stable isotopes

(Z ≤ 83) via radiation.
50
• Initial mass of a radioactive Proton Dripline
nucleus is greater than its final
mass plus any decay product
masses. (E = mc2 )
50 100

Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Proton Number ZPage 9

Radioactivity: Relevant Equations

• Radioactivity is the decay of nuclei to more stable configurations via
emission of “radiation” (α or β particles, γ rays, etc.).
• Decay rate dN/dt is proportional to the number of nuclei N, leading to
a 1st order differential equation with an exponential solution.
dN
= −λ N N = N0 e −λt
dt
N t
dN dN
R= = N 0 λ e − λ t = R0 e − λ t
∫ = −λ ∫0 dt
No N
dt
 N  ln2
t1 / 2 = = τ ln2
ln   = −λ t λ
 No 
• where λ = decay constant
τ = 1/λ = lifetime (or 37% original), t1/2 = half- life (50% original)
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 Radioactivity: Graphical Representation

• Quick formula:
–(rate %) (half- life in yrs) = 70

• Where is the 70 from?

• If an animal species is dying at a

10% annual rate, how long until
the population is halved?

• If you have a 5% return on your

money, how long until it is
doubled?

• If you double your money in 7

years, what is the growth rate?
Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Page 11

Radioactivity: Overview of Units

• Activity: Becquerel (Bq) = 1 decay / s

1 curie (Ci) = 3.7×1010 decays / s (or Bq)
(disintegration rate of 1g of radium)

• Ion Dose: Ionizing behavior of radiation is most damaging to us!

Roentgen = 2.6×10–4 C/ kgair (or 0.0084 j/kg)
• Energy Dose: rad = 0.01 j/kg
– Energy Dose for Human Health Considerations:
rem = # rads × quality factor (α = 10 and β,γ = 1)

• Dosages: 0.5 rem / yr = natural background

5 rem / yr = limit for nuclear power plant workers
500 rem = 50% die within a month
750 rem = fatal dose (5000 rem = die within 1 week)
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 Radioactivity: Half-life/Rate Problem

The counting rate R from a radioactive source is 1000 s–1 at time

t = 0, and 250 s–1 at time t = 5 s. Find the half- life t1/2 and the rate R
at t = 12 s.

Solving for t in the decay equation R = Ro exp ( −t τ ) gives:

t 5 s
t= = = 3.61 s and t1 / 2 = t l n 2 = (3.61 s)(0.693) = 2.5 s
R  1000 
ln  o  ln  
 R   250 
R = Ro exp ( −t τ ) = (1000 s −1 )exp ( −12 s 3.61 s ) = 36 s −1

Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Page 13

Radiation Processes: α, β, γ

Type of Radiation Charge/Mass Penetration

alpha α = He nucleus (2p + 2n) +2q/4mp sheet of paper
beta β = electron or positron –q/me or +q/me few mm metal
gamma γ = high-energy photon no charge several cm lead

× × × ×
× × × × α
× × × × γ
–
e × × × ×
× × × ×
B field

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 Radiation Processes: Alpha Decay
Before After α
226 222
88 Ra 86 Rn
Parent Daughter
• Parent nucleus decays to daughter nucleus plus an alpha particle.
• Disintegration energy Q appears as kinetic energy.
(= negative binding energy)
– Lighter α particle carries away most of the kinetic energy.
– Why? Conservation of momentum!
A− 4
A
Z X → Z −2 D + 4
2 He
Q =  M ( ZA X ) − M ( AZ −−42 D ) − M ( 42 He )  c 2

Phys 320 - Baski

whereNuclear
mHePhysics
= 4.002603amu
(Topic 8) Page 15

Radiation Processes: β– Decay (e– Emission)

• Parent nucleus decays to daughter nucleus plus electron and anti-
neutrino.
– Anti- neutrino is 3rd particle that explains range of electron kinetic
energies.
• If atom (Z) has greater mass than its right neighbor (Z+1), then β –
decay is possible.
• Free neutron can decay into a proton.
– t1/2 = 10.8 min, Q = 939.57 – (938.28 + 0.511) = 0.78 MeV

A
Z X → A
Z +1 D + e− + v
Q ( MeV ) =  Mass ( AZ X ) − Mass ( Z A+1 D ) c 2
*electron mass included in daughter nucleus
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 Radiation : β– Decay for Carbon Dating
• β-decay of 14 C used to date organic samples.
– 14C → 14N + e– + ν e

• When organisms are alive, cosmic rays create

14C in atmosphere to give constant 14 C/12 C

ratio in CO2 gas.

– 14C / 12 C = 1.2×10–12 in living organism

• When organisms die, 14 C is no longer

absorbed and 14 C/12 C ratio decreases with
time.
– Half- life t1/2 of 14 C = 5730 yr.

• Measure age of material by finding 14 C

activity per unit mass.
– Effective for 1,000 to 25,000 years ago.
Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Page 17

Radiation Processes: β+ Decay (Positron Emission)

• Parent nucleus decays to daughter nucleus plus positron and neutrino.

• Free proton cannot decay into a neutron via positron emission.

– Contrasts free neutron decay into a proton.

• Bound proton inside nucleus can sometimes emit a positron due to

nuclear binding energy effects.
– Only natural positron emitter is 40 K.

A
Z X→ A
Z −1 D + e+ + v
Q ( MeV ) =  Mass ( ZA X ) − Mass ( Z A−1 D) − 2 me  c 2
*explicitly add electron/positron masses

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 Radiation Processes: Electron Capture

• Parent nucleus captures one of its own orbital electrons and converts a
nuclear proton to a neutron.

• If atom (Z) has greater mass than its left neighbor (Z–1), then electron
capture is possible.
– Note: If mass difference between atom (Z) and neighboring atom
(Z–1) is greater than 2me, then positron decay is also possible.

A
Z X + e− → A
Z −1 D+v
Q ( MeV ) =  Mass ( ZA X ) − Mass ( Z A−1 D ) c2
 
*added electrons on both sides cancel

Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Page 19

Radiation Processes: Gamma Decay

• In gamma decay, an excited-state

nucleus decays to a lower energy
state via photon emission.

• Such nuclear transitions are

analogous to atomic transitions, but
with higher energy photons.
λ = 1240 eV nm / Mev = 10–3 nm.

• γ-ray emission usually follows beta

decay or alpha decay (see figure).

• Mean lifetimes are very short.

τ = hbar / ∆E = 10–10 s

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 Radiation Processes: Decay Energy Problem
80Br can undergo all three types of β decay. In each case,
(a) write down the decay equation and (b) find the decay energy Q.
β – Decay Process: 80Br → 80Kr + e– + νe
Q(β–) = M( 80Br)c2 – M( 80Kr)c2
= 79.918528 uc 2 – 79.916377 uc 2
Q(β ) = (0.002151 uc 2) (931.5 MeV/uc 2) = 2.00 MeV
–

β + Decay Process: 80Br → 80Se + e+ + νe

Q(β+) = M( 80Br)c2 – M( 80Se)c2 – 2mec2
= 79.918528 uc 2 – 79.916519 uc 2 – 2(5.4858×10–4)uc 2
Q(β ) = (0.00091184 uc 2) (931.5 MeV/uc 2) = 0.85 MeV
+

e – capture Decay Process: 80Br + e– → 80Se + νe

Q(ec) = M( 80Br)c2 – M( 80Se)c2
= 79.918528 uc 2 – 79.916519 uc 2
Q(ec) = (0.002009 uc 2) (931.5 MeV/uc 2) = 1.87 MeV
Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Page 21

Radiation Processes: Natural Radioactivity

• Three series of naturally occurring radioactive nuclei.

– Start with radioactive isotope (U, Th) and end with isotope of Pb.
• Fourth series starts with an element not found in nature (237 Np).
• A few other naturally occurring radioactive isotopes occur (14 C, 40K).

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 Fusion and Fission: Why?
•Plot Mass Difference ∆M (= M– Zmp – Nmn ) vs. Nucleon Number A.
–Equals “Inverse” of graph for Binding Energy vs. A.
•Elements with high ∆M have unstable nuclei.
–Decay via fusion (low A) or fission (high A) to form more stable nuclei.
–Total mass decreases and energy is released!
∆Mass / nucleon (MeV/c2)

Why??
Fission
Fusion E = mc2
(A ~ 200)

Nucleon Number A
Phys 320 - Baski Nuclear Physics (Topic 8) Page 23

Fission: Process
• Neutron collides with a 235 U nucleus to form an excited state that
decays into two smaller nuclei (plus neutrons) plus ENERGY!
• Example: 235 U +n → 92 Kr + 142 Ba + 2n + 180 MeV
– (238U does not work!)

235 U willnot
fission without
being “kicked”
by neutron.

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 Fission: Chain Reaction
• Use neutrons from fission process to initiate other fissions!
• 1942: Fermi achieved first self-sustaining chain reaction.

• For nuclear bomb, need

more than one neutron
from first fission event
causing a second event.
• For nuclear power plant,
need less than one
neutron causing a
second event.

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