PVA Course Material 03.08.10

Reliability Maintenance Institute
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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION ANALYSIS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Machinery Vibration or Vibrations are manifestation of the health condition of

operating machines. The accurate measurement and correct interpretation of vibrations
can help in precisely diagnosing machinery problems during operation.
The use of Vibration Analysis on rotating machines is an accepted and effective method
to assess :
1. Presence of minor inaccuracies, if any

2. To prepare corrective action plans
3. To hand over the machine in a good health condition for a continuous operation
4. To prepare an effective Dynamic Predictive Maintenance Programme
Vibration is the language of machines which if one can listen and understand is enough to
diagnose their complaints and ailments.
Vibration is not related with the direct performance of a machine. Machinery vibrations
are produced due to defects and inaccuracies in the machine components or in the
machine assembly. An ideal machine (a machine with Zero Defect) will not vibrate at
all, and all the energy supplied to the machine would be channeled into useful work.
Vibrations are harmful to the machinery health and therefore all efforts are to be taken up
to enter the vibration levels on all operating machines. But, even a very healthy machine
will produce vibrations due to the minor imperfections in the system. Such vibrations
can be usefully measured and analysed to understand the health condition, to pinpoint and
to identify the machinery defects.
Machinery vibration is an indication of operating Machine’s Health. If the vibration

amplitudes are high, the health of the machine is not good. If the vibration of a
machine is smooth, it can be understood that the defects and inaccuracies in that machine
are very minimum and it’s health can be considered as “Good”.
Machinery vibration can be considered as the ‘Heart Beat’ of a machine. The vibration
pattern depends on it’s health and the monitoring of machinery vibration will give a clear
indication of the defects in each machine.
Practical Vibration Analysis

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MACHINE VIBRATION
Machinery vibration is, the movement of a machine part, “back and forth” from its
neutral (normal) position. This back and forth movement of the machine part is caused
by forces being generated in the machine. These vibratory forces are created by defects
in machines. A simplest method to understand machinery vibration is to consider the
motion of a “Spring-Mass system” as shown in Fig.1 .2
Fig no: 1.2 SPRING MASS SYSTEM
IMPORTANCE OF MACHINERY VIBRATION
Machinery vibration is very important to understand the health condition of a

machine because :
Ø All machines (which are in operation) will vibrate.
If we say that any operating machine is not vibrating, it means that the
health condition of the machine is excellent and thereby the vibration
amplitudes are very low.
Ø Machines vibrate because of imperfections. We, as human beings have not

learned to make a perfect machine. Minor imperfections are always
permissible and that is why , we have tolerances, permissible limits etc., for
various parameters. When the imperfection is more, we call it a “Defect”.
That means machines are vibrating because of “Defects”.

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Ø There are various defects (causes) that can produce vibrations. The vibration
characteristics of different defects will be different in nature. Therefore, a
careful understanding of the vibration characteristics will help in identifying
the defects.
The method of vibration measurement and analysis is based on the three basic principles
i.e.,
Ø The measure of vibration is an indication of machinery health

Ø Machinery vibrations are caused due to defects in the machine
Ø Different defects produce vibrations of different characteristics
The basic purpose of vibration measurement and analysis is to identify machinery

health condition and detect various defects. Therefore, the first stage is to understand
the various defects that can produce vibrations in plant machines.
VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Vibration Analysis is the measurement and interpretation of machinery vibrations. The

purpose of vibration analysis are
Ø To identify Health Condition

Ø To detect the Defects and Inaccuracies
Ø To Pinpoint the Defective locations of any rotating machine.
Therefore, in practical sense, the analysis involves answering the following three basic
questions.
Ø How much vibration is present on the machine ?

Ø What are the defects in the machine ?
Ø Where are the defects in the machine ?
These questions can be answered by measuring and interpreting the vibration

characteristics.
IMPORTANT VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS
The vibration characteristics can be learned by considering a vibrating “Spring-

mass” system. A Spring-mass is selected for understanding vibratory motion of a body,
because all vibrating parts of a machine have
Ø Mass
Ø Springness in the system
Ø Damping forces

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Example :- We can consider one of the Fans in a plant supported by two Bearings. Each
Bearing supports certain weight of the Fan. Depending on the construction, lubrication
type, bearings etc., there is always an effect of springness and damping in the system.
During the operation of the machine, forces are generated in the system. Therefore, a
vibrating machine is compared to a spring mass system as illustrated in the figure 1. It
could be seen that , vibration of the Mass starts from the Neutral position by the
application of a Force. It can be noted that until the force is applied on the weight to
cause it to move, the mass will not vibrate. If we apply a force in the upward direction,
the mass will move upwards and the spring will be compressed. If we release the mass,
then it would drop downwards. Now the movement of the mass shall be in the downward
direction and it will pass through the neutral position. Due to the effect of the spring,
the mass will stop at a bottom position , known as its bottom limit of travel. The mass
will then travel upwards through the neutral position to the top limit of motion and then
back again through the neutral position. This motion will continue to occur in the
same manner , as long as the force is reapplied on the mass. This one cycle of motion
from its neutral position to the top limit of travel and to its bottom limit of travel and
then back to the neutral position is known as “One Cycle of Vibration”. Now, we can
consider this One Cycle of Vibration for learning various vibration characteristics.
Let us consider the plot of One Cycle of Movement of the vibrating part against time.
This plot is shown in Fig.1.5. The time taken to complete one cycle of vibration is called
“The period of Vibration”. If a Period of One Second is required to complete One
Cycle of Vibrations during One Minute, the vibration cycle will be repeated 60 times.
Therefore, we can see that the vibration is occurring at 60 cycles per Minute. This is a
measure of the number of cycles during a given interval of time and it is known as
“Frequency of vibration”. For the practical purpose, of vibration measurement and
analysis, it is always preferred to specify the vibration frequency in Cycles Per Minute
(CPM) because we specify machine speeds in RPM.
The important vibration characteristics are
• Vibration Displacement
• Vibration Velocity
• Vibration Acceleration
• Vibration Frequency
• Vibration Phase.

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Fig no:1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION
Each of the characteristics are explained below:
Vibration Displacement
The total distance moved by the vibrating part from one extreme limit to the other
extreme limit of travel is defined as “Peak to Peak Displacement”. The peak to peak
displacement is normally measured in Microns, where One Micron is called 1/1000 of a
Millimeter.
1 Micron = 1/1000 mm or 1 Micron = One Millionth of a Meter

10 = 0.001 mm
1.5.1.1 Use of Vibration Displacement
The use of vibration displacement, velocity and acceleration can be defined by

considering the failure mode of various machinery part. A slow speed equipment
normally fails due to excessive stress. The stress is proportionate to the deflection from
its normal path. In terms of vibration, the displacement is a measure of deflection.
Therefore, wherever stress concentrated failures are likely; the characteristic to be used
for assessing severity is the “vibration displacement”.
Fig no: 1.5.1 VIBRATION DISPLACEMENT IN SPRING MASS SYSTEM

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1.5.2 Vibration Velocity
The vibrating part is moving up and down as explained above. This movement is with
some speed, which is continuously changing. At the top limit of travel, the speed is
Zero, because the mass has to stop before it moves in the downward direction. The
Speed or Velocity will be maximum as the part passes through the neutral position.
The velocity of motion is a definite characteristic of vibration, but the velocity is
continuously changing through out the cycle. The vibrating part will have the maximum
or peak velocity while passing through the neutral position. This peak velocity is selected
as one of the major vibration characteristics.
The vibration velocity is measured in Millimeter per Second. The vibration velocity can
also be expressed as Root Mean Square Velocity.
1.5.2.1 Root Mean Square Value
The Root Mean Square value gives a direct relation to the energy content in
vibration and therefore, the destructive abilities of vibration can be understood from
the RMS value. The permissible limits of vibration is specified in terms of RMS velocity
as per ISO 10816.
1.5.2.2Use of Vibration Velocity
Most of the medium speed equipments fail due to fatigue. Fatigue is proportionate to
the vibration displacement and the number of vibratory cycles. If ‘X’ is the displacement
and ‘ω’ is the Angular velocity; the vibration velocity is equal to ‘X’ multiplied by ‘ω’
(Omega).
ω= 2 Πn / 60, where N is the rpm.
In terms of vibrations N can also be considered as frequency. Therefore, the vibration

velocity is proportionate to the vibration displacement and the vibration frequency.
Fig no: 1.5.2 VIBRATION VELOCITY IN SPRING MASS SYSTEM

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1.5.3 Vibration Acceleration
As we have seen in the vibratory movement, the vibration velocity of the part is falling
between Zero at the extreme limit of travel to maximum value at the neutral position.
Since, the part has to stop at the limit of travel and then to pick up speed to obtain a
maximum value at the neutral position, it must accelerate to pick up speed, as the part
travels towards the other limit of travel. This acceleration is another important
characteristic of vibration. Acceleration can be defined as “The rate of Change of
Velocity”.
Referring to the motion plot indicated in Fig no: 1.5.3 acceleration of the vibratory part
is maximum at the extreme limit of travel, where the velocity is Zero.
As the velocity of the part increases, the acceleration decreases. At the neutral position,
the velocity attains a maximum value and acceleration will decrease to Zero value.
As the part passes through the neutral point, the velocity will decrease and hence the
motion is decelerated. When the part approaches the other extreme limit of travel, the
acceleration will be at its peak once again .
Vibration acceleration is normally expressed in “g” peak, where 1g is acceleration

produced by the force of gravity at the surface of the earth. The value of acceleration
due to gravity is equal to 980.665 Centimeter per second .
Fig no: 1.5.3 Vibration Acceleration In Spring Mass System
1.5.3.1 Use of Acceleration
In very high speed equipments, the failure is normally due to excessive force. As
we know,
F=mxa
where m = Mass of the vibrating part ; a = The vibration acceleration; F = Force
applied
Normally, the mass of the vibrating part remains constant and varying parameter is the
vibration acceleration. Therefore the force is directly proportional to vibration
acceleration.
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Normally, acceleration measurements are used to determine the health of very high
speed equipments. The displacement, Velocity and Acceleration will determine the
quantity or the severity of the vibration . Therefore , these three characteristics are
commonly known as “Vibration Amplitudes”.
1.5.4 Frequency
The Spring-mass system illustrated in the Fig no: 1 is indicating a cyclic motion. Each
cycle is completed in a definite time. If the machine takes one second to complete one
cycle , it will complete 60 cycles per minute. This is called the Vibration Frequency.
Vibration frequency is the number of completed cycles of vibration in unit time. This can
be expressed either in cycles per second or in cycles per minute. In relation to vibration
analysis, it is advantages to use the unit of frequency as cycles per minute, because we
always measure the speed of the machine in rpm. (Revolutions Per Minute).
The period of vibration is a simple and very meaningful characteristic which is very
important in machinery problem diagnostics. The vibration frequency, f = 1/T period.
Where T = time period of completion in one second, the frequency is equal to 1=1/T
cycle per second. The frequency in cycles per minute, is 60 cycles per minute.
Fig no: 1.5.4, visualize the vibration frequency with respect to the Spring mass system.
Fig no: 1.5.4

As explained earlier, it is always easily understandable to refer vibration frequency in
cycles per minute, especially to compare with the speed of the machine in RPM. For
example, if the speed of the Pre-heater Fan is 990 RPM, it is advantages to refer to the
vibration frequency as 990 cycles per minute instead of 990/60 cycles per second.
The vibration frequency resulting from various machinery defects will have a definite
relation with the rotational speed. For example, if a Fan is having unbalance, it will
produce one cycle of vibration during one rotation. If the machine is having looseness, it
will produce the vibration frequency equal to twice the rotational speed. Like that the
effects of common defects in a machine can be correlated with the vibration frequency
which shall be equal to certain multiples of RPM.

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1.5.5 Phase
Vibration Phase is another very important characteristic. Vibration Phase can be

defined as the instantaneous position of the vibrating part with reference to a fixed
reference or with reference to another vibrating part.
The Phase measurement is useful to compare One vibratory motion with another. It
also helps in identifying the relative position of one vibratory part with reference to
another vibratory part.
The measurement of vibration phase with reference to a stationary part is illustrated in

Fig1.5.5
1.5.5 : Vibration Phase With Reference To A Stationery Part
In this Fig, the rotating shaft is taken as the reference mark and vertical axis is taken as
the reference position. At the particular instant of vibration, it could be seen that the
reference mark (arrow mark) is 90° in the anti-clockwise direction with reference to
the vertical axis. Hence, we say that the phase of the vibratory part at this instant is 90° .
1.5.6 Significance of Vibration Characteristics
Displacement, velocity indicates Health of the Machine

Acceleration
Frequency indicates Causes of Vibration
Phase indicates Exact location of Defects. (Phase is
also used for Dynamic Balancing of
Rotating Parts)
1.6 Acceleration Enveloping
Acceleration Enveloping is a method for intensifying the repetitive components of a

dynamic signal to provide an early warning of deteriorating mechanical condition.
Common applications are concerned with rolling element bearings and gear mesh fault
analysis.

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The vibration frequency caused by a race or anti-friction roller bearing defect depends
upon how often the defect strikes another part of the bearing. The rolling element impacts
the defect and the repetitive impulse depends on number of balls, bearing geometry, and
defect location. For example, if there is a chip on an outer race, each roller will strike it as
it goes by and cause a vibration signal. This signal can often be identified as some
multiple of shaft rotational frequency. The multiple is estimated by knowing a bearing’s
geometry and number of rollers.
A vibration signal from a defective bearing is made up of low frequency signals from
rotational components, defect impulse signals, and machine noise. Often bearing fault
signals are of very short duration which translate in the frequency domain as small
harmonic amplitudes spread over a wide frequency range and buried in machine noise.
Machine noise masks the early stages of bearing faults making spectrum analysis alone a
difficult diagnostic tool.
Envelope analysis first filters out the low frequency rotational components from the
complex signal. The high frequency repetitive components are enhanced and converted
down to the bearing spectrum range while machine noise is reduced by a significant
signal-to-noise factor. If vibration amplitudes appear in the envelope spectrum that is
related to bearing defect frequencies it can be deduced that an incipient bearing defect is
in progress.
Envelope analysis techniques permit an earlier prognosis of an eventual bearing failure

by reducing masking noise and by enhancing the significant spectral components relating
to bearing
performance.
1.7 SEE (Spectral Emitted Energy)
SEE Technology is a new type of bearing fault detection method developed by SKF in
order to better monitor bearings. This method of monitoring bearings breaks away from
the traditional approaches to the problem by using high frequency, acoustic emission
detection in the frequency range of 250,000 Hz to 350,000 Hz. This technique has
characteristics that set it apart from normal vibration analysis at 0 to 20 kHz and other
enveloping techniques at 5 kHz to 60 kHz. SEE provides an excellent way of monitoring
problems with bearings that other current technologies cannot provide. Some of these
advantages are detection of: early bearing defects, lubrication problems, which stem from
contamination, and fretting.
An acoustic emissions transducer is sensitive to metal-to-metal contact that occurs when

bearing elements roll over a bearing race without an intervening lubricating layer. The
transducer emits a high-frequency, pulsed voltage that gives evidence of the defective
event. Thus SEE Technology, like enveloping, provides an early warning of deteriorating
mechanical condition.

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A higher-than-normal SEE reading, based on a statistical mean and standard deviation,

would suggest either insufficient lubrication or the beginnings of a bearing defect. If the
readings were to return to normal after the application of additional lubrication, you can
assume that the proper corrective action was taken.
SEE readings can appear to return to the normal range after a defect spreads. At this
point, acoustic emissions may be reduced as the impact stress factors between ball and
race become marginal.
1.7.1 Taking SEE Measurements
Low frequency vibration is measured by firmly placing a sensor close to the part of the
machine being measured. The more securely the sensor is placed, the better the reading
is. This is not true with SEE readings. Secure placement doesn’t necessarily mean better
readings.
A vibration probe actually moves with the machine it is resting on. The machine’s
vibration is transferred to the probe which has a crystal inside which shakes with the
probe. The crystal converts the mechanical motion into electrical signals.
The SEE sensor is, for all practical purposes, a microphone. It does not have to be held
firmly against the machine to get a good reading. The SEE sensor is listening for acoustic
signals to be transmitted from the surface under it.
Since these acoustic signals attenuate very easily, and air is an excellent attenuator for
acoustic signals, they certainly will not reach the SEE sensor if the transducer is just held
against the machine.
The secret is in the coupling between machine and sensor. The coupling most widely
used is grease. Grease fills the air gap between the sensor and the surface of the machine
resulting in the acoustic signals traveling from the machine, through the grease, to the
SEE sensor.
Because of the nature of the SEE signal generating mechanism, it is important to note that
zero readings or trends do not necessarily indicate that there is no bearing defect.
Experience with SEE measurements and case histories developed by successful use of
SEE have provided the following guidelines:
0 to 3 SEE No identifiable problem.
3 to 20 SEE Lubrication problem, contamination, bearing defect with light load, or a

small bearing defect with normal load.
20 to 100 SEE Bearing defect or contamination.
100 SEE Severe bearing problem. and above

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1.8 HOW MUCH VIBRATION IS TOO MUCH ?
As explained above, the amplitudes of vibration the displacement, velocity and

acceleration is a measure of the severity of defects in a machine. Therefore, it is
important to know how much of vibration is too much for a machine. The answer to
these questions will help in identifying the health of the equipment that needs corrective
actions.
Our main objective is to use the vibration checks, to detect and pinpoint the defects
and problems in a machine. Such identification should be done, preferably in early
stages; so that required corrective actions can be implemented, before the machine
fails.
It should be borne in mind that the goal of vibration measurement is not to find out how
much vibration a machine can withstand before it breaks down. The main
objective is to get an advance warning of the impending problems and defects in a

machine so that suitable corrective actions can be implemented at the right stage.
The permissible vibration limits (vibration tolerances) cannot be specified in absolute

terms, because it is impossible to select a vibration limit, which, if exceeded will result
in immediate Break Down of the machine. The development of failures in a machine is
a complex mechanism because of many possible ways of failures of machinery part.
Since machinery vibrations are caused due to defects and inaccuracies in the machine,
the vibration can be used as an effective indicator of machinery health condition. The
guide lines given for the permissible limits of vibration as per ISO 2372 have been
formulated after several decades of experience gained from machinery vibrations and
their harmful effects on machine health condition. A careful implementation of these
limits on machines shall be very effective
Ø In Pinpointing machinery defects

Ø To prepare action plan for implementation
Ø To achieve maximum operating life of plant machines
Ø To establish a Condition Based Dynamic Predictive Maintenance
Ø To achieve the ultimate goal of obtaining maximum productivity from the
installed plant and machines, at minimum cost.
1.9 CONCLUSION
The important vibration characteristics are explained in this chapter. The use of vibration
characteristics to identify,
Ø Health Condition of Machine
Ø Defects in a Machine
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Ø Location of Defects
The use of vibration amplitudes (Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration) of machine in

a plant to detect whether the machine is running smooth or the machines are having
problems, is the first stage of assessing operating condition. These simple parameters are
to be correctly understood and applied by operators and maintenance technicians.

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Notes:

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Notes:

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2.0 VIBRATION SIGNATURE ANALYSIS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
All operating machines give rise to vibration. A deterioration in the machine’s running
condition almost always produces a corresponding increase of the vibration level. By
monitoring vibration level it is therefore possible to obtain information about a machine’s
condition. As the main sources of faults in industrial machinery have a mechanical
origin, it is logical to choose a mechanical phenomenon as the representative parameter
of machine condition. Mechanical vibration has proved to be one of the most reliable
parameters to use in machine health monitoring to check machine condition. A doubling
of dynamic force will typically result in a doubling of vibration measured at the forcing
frequency.
2.2 MACHINERY SIGNATURES
When broken down into spectral components, the complex waveforms, referred to as
machinery vibration, or acoustics may in general be defined as a sum of harmonic
functions of discrete amplitudes and frequencies. This is often referred to as the
`Machinery Signature’ typical of which is depicted in Fig. 2.2 For example, in the case
of an unbalanced shaft rotating at an angular velocity `w’, in a circular orbit with radius
`A’ the vibration displacement signal may be represented by a single harmonic function.
FIG NO.2.2
Fig N o:1
FAULTS Fauilts inMACHINE
IN DIFFERENT differ entELEMENT
ma chine e lement
WILL will genera te
GENERATE
pea FREQUENCY
PEAKS IN SPECIFIC ks in specifRANGES
ic frequency ranges.
nb X (t) = A sin w t (1)
where `t’ denotes time.

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By differentiation, we have that the velocity and acceleration are given by :
X (t) = A w cos w t (2) and
X (t) = - A w2 sin w t (3)
The preceding expressions (1), (2), & (3) illustrates how velocity and acceleration
components of a complex signal (and thus, the signal itself) are dependent on the angular
frequency `w’. The velocity increases in direct proportion to frequency while
acceleration increases in proportion to frequency squared. For example, if displacement
is held constant while the frequency is doubled, velocity doubles and acceleration
increases by a factor of 4.
It can be shown with a simplified model of a rotor element of mass `m’ operating in
bearings with spring coefficient `k’ and viscous damping factor `c’ that the total dynamic
force during vibration may be represented by an expression of the form:
.. .
F(t) = m x + c x + k x (4)
We here recognize the terms as those of inertia, damping and elastic forces respectively.
By substitution of equation (1), (2) and (3) into (4), we find that the relative size of the
elements of (4) are dependent on factor `w’. An important observation to be made at this
point is that at high frequencies, the force component due to acceleration (or velocity)
may dominate. Thus, it is entirely possible to have large forces acting even with
unmeasurably low displacement amplitudes. It is indeed these high frequency
components, which remain undetected by displacement criteria, that often cause sudden
catastrophic fatigue failures.
One may conclude that displacement alone, as often applied, can be a poor measure of
vibration severity since this should always be considered in conjunction with frequency.
To overcome this particular difficulty, maximum velocity criteria have often been
suggested in order to include the frequency parameter and total dynamic forces concept
into the measurement of machinery condition. The adequacy of even such criteria is,
however, suspect since frequencies of interest in process machinery analysis form a wide,
continuous spectrum from the sub-audio range of 10 to 15 Hz through the ultrasonic
range approaching 100 kHz. Within this spectrum are the subharmonic `whirl’
frequencies from approximately 40 to 90 Hz, once per revolution frequencies from 60 to
700 Hz, centrifugal compressor vane passing frequencies from 2 to 5 kHz, turbine and
gear passing frequencies from 5 to 30 kHz, and finally, antifriction bearing characteristics
from 20 to 100 kHz.
With this vast range and amount of data to be considered, the problem facing the
industrial user is one of how to acquire, reduce and present the information in a form
conducive to effective and meaningful evaluation.
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2.2.1 MACHINERY VIBRATION SIGNATURE
A Plot of the vibration amplitude verses various frequencies is known as a Vibration

signature. It is also known as vibration profile. The Vibration signature or Profile
breaks the total vibration signal into its frequency components and will exhibit the
existing vibration amplitudes at each of these frequencies.
In a vibration signature the X axis always indicates the vibration frequency either in the
Linear Scale or in the Logarithmic scale. The Y axis indicated the vibration amplitudes
like displacement, velocity or acceleration.
Depending on the type of instrumentation and or the analysis requirements the vibration
signatures can be arranged in different fashions in a single format or in a multiple
formats.
One very useful method of arrangement is to accommodate the horizontal, vertical and
axial vibration signatures of a particular bearing in a single data format ; so that data
interpretation becomes more effective. The arrangement of vibration signatures in a
continuous fashion (in a 3D format is known as Water-fall for curve. This depicts the
behavior of the vibration signature over a period of time which will be helpful in
understanding the variations / changes taking place at different frequencies over the
period under consideration. Since the method of enter r g this data computation and
comparisons in different formats mainly depends on the type of instruments and
softwares being employed for such purposes. Basically; the analysis in the frequency
domain is the technique by which the vibration signals are resolved displayed as narrow
band spectra components. Hence the frequency enter r converts the complex vibration
signal, from the time domain to the frequency domain, spectrum displayed of various
frequency verses amplitudes.
Analysis in the frequency domain is a technique where the vibration signals are resolved
and displayed as narrow band spectral components. Here the frequency enter converts
the complex vibration signal from the time to the frequency domain producing a display
of frequency versus amplitude. In its simplest form, a frequency enter may be a manually
tuned filter slaved to a plotter with frequency and amplitude positioning the X and Y axes
respectively. This method is far too slow and inaccurate for machinery vibration analysis
purposes, however, and while a wave enter with automatic programmed frequency scan is
more accurate, the analysis speed is till too low.
The real time frequency spectrum enter (RTA) combines accuracy with rapid analysis to
produce an output which may be displayed on an oscilloscope. This instrument receives
the complex analog vibration signal directly or from magnetic tape and converts it to
digital form. A time compression technique translates the digital representation to a high
frequency where the signal is analysed with a broad band filter.

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The high frequency broad band filter permits a rapid scan rate while producing a very
good frequency resolution. Thus, dynamic changes in the frequency domain such as
beats and harmonics can be conveniently observed as they occur.
The spectrum can be preserved either by directing the output to a plotter or by

photographing the oscilloscope. In order to gain statistical accuracy and insure that the
graphic spectral representation reflects an average rather than an instantaneous condition,
a spectrum average is usually utilized with, the enter in this mode.
2.3 ROTATING MACHINERY SIGNALS
Fig 2.3 shows a schematic drawing of an electric-motor-driven gearbox, driving a ball

Mill
7 8
5 6
1 2 3 4
FIG 2.3
LOW FREQUENCY RANGE
(Refer Fig 2.3)

Frequency spectra obtained from measurements made on the motor bearings or gearbox
bearings will reveal low frequency components at shaft revolution speed originating from
unbalance, misalignment, bent shaft, etc. At the second harmonic, i.e. twice the rotation
speed, components originating from bent shaft and misalignments will also be found. In
other words, by comparing the change in these components with time the appearance of
such faults can be detected and diagnosed.
The major problem with journal bearings is hydrodynamic instability in the system
consisting of shaft/oil film/bearing housing. Oil whirl is a self-excited vibration, when
the center of gravity of the shaft moves around within the clearance of the bearing at
sub-synchronous speed. It arises typically at lightly loaded high speed shafts, and at
frequencies between 40% and 49% of rotational speed, although oil whirl has been seen
at higher frequencies. It seems to depend on the surface of the shaft and bearing.
Hysteresis whirl is another self-excited instability. It arises when the rotor passes through
its critical speed, and then it will maintain that frequency, independent of the rotor speed.
It originates from mechanical hysteresis in the rotating system. Another instability of

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flexible rotors is flow-induced, and it appears at the same frequencies as hysteresis whirl,
but has another mechanical background.
A last type of fault appearing in this low frequency area is mechanical looseness. In
many cases mechanical looseness will create inter harmonic and sub-harmonic
components, i.e., a `half’ harmonic, a `one-and-a half’ harmonic, a `two-and-a half’
harmonic etc.
MEDIUM FREQUENCY RANGE
Higher up in the frequency range, components originating from the tooth mesh in the
gear box will be found and are in this context referred to as medium frequency
components.
They will be at a frequency corresponding to rotational speed multiplied by the number

of teeth on the gear, and referred to as the tooth meshing frequency.
A new and healthy gearbox will clearly exhibit this frequency, but not just by itself. Due
to mechanical loading the tooth will deflect, but they will deflect differently depending
on how many teeth there are in mesh. When the gearbox wears, the gear profile will
gradually change due to sliding between two teeth in mesh at any point except at the pitch
point.
This indicates that changes due to wear in a gearbox will turn up at the second harmonic
of tooth meshing frequency and, since the change is not sinusoidal, higher harmonics
will be revealed as well. An initial local fault, on the other hand, will not increase the
level at tooth mesh frequencies and its harmonics.
Imagine a cracked tooth which is not yet broken, and will consequently not be noticed by
the operation personnel. However, it will, due to its weakened mechanical condition,
deflect more under load than the other (healthy) teeth when it goes into mesh. This can
be viewed as an ordinary signal from a healthy (but may be worn) gearbox, superimposed
by a series of pulses, originating from the excessive deflection. A series of pulses will
create a line spectrum, with each line spread with the repetition frequency. The envelope
of this spectrum will be identical to the spectrum of each individual pulse (although at
different scales).
Thus an incipient fault will turn up in the frequency spectrum as an increased level in the
sidebands spaced with rotation speed below, as well as above the tooth meshing
frequency. But below the tooth meshing frequency we find all the low frequency signals
already mentioned, originating from unbalance, bent shaft, misalignment, etc. and as
these signals have much more energy, the weak signals from the cracked tooth will not be
seen here. The tooth meshing frequency and its harmonics also have much more energy
than the signals from an incipient fault in the gearbox. It will however, often be possible
to see these small increases between the harmonics of the tooth meshing frequency.
______________________________________________________________________ 21
As the fault spreads out in the gearbox to cover several defective teeth, the signal will
change character from the pulse-like one just described to one which has more energy
and which looks more like an amplitude modulated signal. Its spectrum shows
similarities with this, and has high amplitude sidebands around tooth meshing
frequencies and its harmonics, spaced at rotational speed.
The effect of general wear is indicated by the slight increase in the level at the tooth
meshing frequency, but much increases in the second and third harmonics of tooth
meshing frequency. Significant increases in the level of components spaced at rotational
speed are also revealed between the tooth meshing frequency and second harmonic.
This indicates the presence of a local incipient fault in the gearbox. The Ghost
component is due to geometrical inaccuracy of the gearwheel originating from the
index-wheel during manufacture. It disappears with general wear.
HIGH FREQUENCY RANGE
Another source of signals to consider are those signals originating from incipient faults in
rolling element bearings. An incipient fault in a rolling element bearing will typically be
a crack or corrosion pit either on the inner race, on the outer race, or on the rolling
element itself. This crack will create small impulses every time one of the rolling
elements pass over it. These impulses will transmit energy to the bearing housing, which
in turn will vibrate at its natural frequency and decay with the damping in the mechanical
structure.
2.4 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
Vibration motions can range from a simple Harmonic Motion to very complex Non-
Harmonic Transient signals. Hence both their wave form and their corresponding
frequency components are important in Condition Monitoring. This conversion from a
time domain to a frequency domain is mathematically carried out by Fourier transform.
The same is carried out through the use of frequency analyzers. Fig.2.4.1 to Fig 2.4.4
shows some of these signals both in their time domain and frequency domain form. All of
them are discrete frequency components.
When random vibrations or shock or impulsive motions are involved, their frequency
spectrum is rather continuous as can be seen in Figs2.4.5 to 2.4.8. As Already mentioned,
random vibrations are caused by random forces, and at every instant the signals recorded
look different but most of the practical random vibration problems are of stationary type,
and they can be described by certain parameters through statistical analysis of a number
of records. Important parameters involved in this type of motion are:
Ø Mean or average values

Ø Mean square values (also known as Variance)
Ø Root mean square values (also known as standard Deviation)
Ø Power spectral density
Ø Probability density and distribution functions
______________________________________________________________________ 22
Ø Auto and cross correlations
Ø Coherence and transfer functions
Going in detail into all these parameters is beyond the scope of this lesson, and it would
be enough, if we can recognize the random frequency spectrum, classified under:
Ø Wide Band Spectrum (Fig.2.4.5)

Ø White Noise Spectrum (Fig. 2.4.6)
Ø Narrow Band Spectrum (Sine random) (Fig. 2.4.7)
The non-periodic motions like shocks and impulses, which act only for a short duration
have their frequency spectra almost similar to characteristics of random vibrations. This
is shown in Fig. 8. Shocks are produced not only due to impulsive forces generated
during the operation of machinery, but also due to pits, crevices and other irregularities
on the surface of balls or races in anti-frication bearings. Usually such shock motions
result in very high frequencies, which can be picked up by modern instruments like shock
pulse Meter (SPM), Kurtosis Meter, Acoustic Emission (AE) very effectively and the
defect identified long before major breakdowns occur.
Frequency analysis is the next important step for signal identification, and for this
purpose we have different types of equipment, which can operate with desired accuracy.
These are:
1. Octave band filters

Ø Fractional octave filters
Ø Constant percentage band width filters
2. Narrow band width analysers
3. Time compression analysers
Ø High resolution real time anlysers
Ø Cepstrum analysers
Ø Level recorders
The simplest analyzer is an octave filter, the word octave coming from music. In this the
upper to lower frequency ratio is always two. It reads as Follows (all in Hertz or
Cycles/Sec) : 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000 (1K), 2K, 4K, 8K, 16K, etc.
f upper
------- = 2
f lower

______________________________________________________________________ 23
For representing the energy contained within that band, a central frequency f c is
defined as :
If we observe the higher bands in this octave analysis the range is quite high and any
important frequencies relating to a particular malfunction are not dominantly shown as it
will be an average doubt over the whole band. To illustrate, if we are doing the frequency
analysis between 2000 Hz – 4000 Hz and if we are looking for an important frequency
say, 560 Hz relating to a particular defect, this cannot be identified. Hence, in practice,
one has to use FRACTIONAL FREQUENCY
ANALYSERS, Such as :
(a) Half Octave (The ratio of f u / f l = 2 ½)
(b) Third Octave (The ratio is 2 1/3 ) etc.
By using these fractional analysers, the band width is reduced. For example:
In octave (1/1) analysis : 2000Hz , 4000 Hz

In half octave (1/2) analysis : 2000Hz , 2800Hz , 4000 Hz
In Third octave (1/3) analysis : 2000Hz,2500Hz,3150Hz ,4000Hz
We will have a better resolution by going in for Narrow Band analysis. Fig. 2.4.9(a &
b) shows the frequency spectra taken in the three types of analysers discussed above.
The above method of frequency analysis is of sequential type, in the sense that the
analysis is carried out one band after the other assuming that the signal is steady and
not changing with time, particularly if it is near about resonance, for a parallel type
filtering, in which the signal passes through the various bands simultaneously to give
a frequency spectrum in REAL TIME. Such type of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
Cepstrum Analysis is needed while identifying very complex signals like gearboxes,
steam turbine casings etc. This is in principle, a kind of frequency analysis. To
distinguish this form the conventional “Spectrum”, “Frequency”, used in normal
frequency analysis, here the words “Cepstrum”, “Quefrency” etc., are used. A
detailed discussion of this is beyond the scope of this lesson.
The discussion is on frequency and how the machinery vibration can be related to
frequency. The “Indication-and-cause” table given below will provide initial frame of
mind for use as a guide, for FREQUENCY analysis.

______________________________________________________________________ 24
FIG – 2.4.1
FIG – 2.4.2
FIG – 2.4.3

______________________________________________________________________ 25
FIG – 2.4.4
FIG 2.4.5 & 2.4.6

______________________________________________________________________ 26
FIG – 2.4.7
FIG – 2.4.8
FIG – 2.4.9

______________________________________________________________________ 27
The basic purpose of a vibration frequency analysis is to diagnose machinery

problems. The following chart indicates the probable causes of vibrations based on
the vibration frequency :
INDICATION: Probable main

S.No Frequency in speed cause Possible other causes
(RPM)
Unbalance (a) Misalignment or bent
1. 1 x RPM shaft
(b) Bad belts of (belt RPM)
(c) Eccentric Journals, gears or
pulleys
(d) Electrical faults
(e) Resonance
(f) Reciprocating forces
Component (g) Bad Belts (If 2 belts are
2. 2 x RPM Mechanical looseness there)
(h) Misalignment (In case of
high axial amplitude)
(i) Resonance
(j) Reciprocating influences
3. 3 x RPM Misalignment (a) Higher axial clearance
4. 5 x RPM to15 x Damaged Rolling (a) Flow turbulence in

(RPM High Element Brgs sleeve Brgs-random
Frequency ranges) high frequency
vibration
(b) Friction in sleeve
bearings
(c) Rubbing
5. Many Times RPM (a) Bad gears (a) Mechanical looseness

(Gear teeth) (2,3,4 and higher
(b) Fan (Blades harmonics)
times RPM) (b) Pump impeller no. of vanes
x RPM
(c) Reciprocating Forces

______________________________________________________________________ 28
INDICATION: Probable main

S.No Frequency in speed cause Possible other causes
(RPM)
6.
Less than 1 x RPM Gil whirl 42% to 48% (a) Cross Talk or Back
RPM Ground vibration
(b) Beat Vibration
Electrical supply Electrical Problem (a) Broken Rotor Bars

7. Frequency (b) Unequal air gap
(c) Unbalance Phases

______________________________________________________________________ 29
Notes:

______________________________________________________________________ 30
Notes:

______________________________________________________________________ 31
3.0 PHASE ANALYSIS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Vibration Phase analysis is a very useful diagnostic method to distinguish one defect
from the other. Once the Phase Analysis is properly understood the same can be used
very effectively even to pinpoint various problems.
DIFFERENT USES OF PHASE ANALYSIS
Ø By using stroboscope in conjunction with Vibration Analyser.

Ø Phase measurement with a Phase Meter
Ø Phase measurements by using reference pickups.
Ø Measurement of phase by using Oscilloscope
Basically Phase measurements are used to distinguish:
Ø Misalignment from a bent shaft

Ø Detecting reacting forces versus unbalance
Ø Resonance conditions
Ø Pinpointing mechanical looseness
Ø Mode shape analysis etc.
Another very useful analysis technique which can aid in the detection and identification
of machinery problems is “phase” measurement and analysis. Phase measurements are
normally expressed in degrees, where one complete cycle of the vibration equals 360 0.
Phase can be defined as ” that part of a cycle ( 0 0 – 360 0) through which one part has
traveled relative to another part or a fixed reference”. Phase measurements simply
provide a means of determining the relative motion of various parts of the machine.
Weights vibrating in phase

0
Refer figure given below Weights “C” and “D” are vibrating in-phase or 90 out-of-
phase.

______________________________________________________________________ 32
Weights Vibrating 90 0 out-of phase
Weights vibrating 1800 out-of- phase
3.2 PHASE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
There are many techniques which can be used to obtain comparative phase measurements
for analysis and balancing including the stroboscopic light, phase meter and oscilloscope.
3.2.1 STROBOSCOPE LIGHT PHASE MEASUREMENT
Most portable Vibration Analyzers are furnished with high intensity stroboscopic
(strobe) light which when triggered by he measured vibration, provides a quick and
convenient means of obtaining phase readings for analysis and balancing. To obtain
phase readings, a reference mark is placed on the rotor at the end of a shaft or some other
location which can be readily observed. For accurate phase measurements an angular
reference scaled in degrees can be super imposed around the shaft, making it possible to
obtain phase readings with minimum error. With the analyzer strobe light being
triggered by the machine vibration, the reference mark on the rotor will appear stationary

______________________________________________________________________ 33
at some angular position. The phase measurement is then obtained by noting and
recording the indicated angle from the angular reference. Comparative phase readings
are obtained by simply moving the vibration pickup to other measurement locations but
using the same reference mark and angular reference used for the initial measurement.
Although the strobe light is very easy and convenient to use for obtaining phase readings
where the vibration frequency of interest is equal to 1 x RPM of the machine. If for
example the vibration of interest is occurring at 2 x RPM then the strobe light will flash
twice for each revolution of the shaft and a reference mark will appear in two positions
when observed with the light. Obviously, it would be impossible to obtain comparative
phase readings with two or more identical reference marks visible under the light. Where
it is desired to obtain comparative phase measurements for multiple, sub-multiple or non
harmonically related vibration frequencies, some other technique for phase measurement
must be used such as a phase meter or oscilloscope.
STROBOSCOPE
3.2.2 PHASE MEASUREMENT WITH A PHASE METER
Where it is impractical or unsafe to obtain phase readings with a strobe light, an

instrument is the IRD Model 360 Vibration Analyzer. The overlapping 0 0 - 18 0 0 and
18 0 0 - 36 0 0 scales used scales used on the Model 360 phase meter. The monitor
phase module provides a direct readout of the measured phase on a digital meter with
accuracy within +_1 0 .
To obtain a remote readout of phase on an instrument like the Model 360 requires a
voltage reference pulse at the desired vibration frequency. Where it is desired to observe
the phase of the vibration occurring at 1 x RPM, a reference pickup such as a photocell,
electro magnetic pickup or non-contact.
Pickup is mounted close to the shaft which has been properly prepared to “trigger” the
reference pickup. Since the photocell responds to changes in reflectivity of the target, a
common method of preparing the shaft is to wrap black non-reflective tape around the
shaft and then paint a white line across the tape, or attach a small piece of reflective
material such as metal foil to the black tape. Some prefer to paint the target area with
______________________________________________________________________ 34
flat black paint in lieu of using non-reflective tape. If the shaft is clean and shiny, the
proper trigger for the photocell can be provided by simply attaching a small strip of non-
reflective tape to the shaft or by painting a small strip with flat black paint. In any case,
the objective is to produce an abrupt change in the reflectivity of the target area of the
photocell for each revolution of the shaft.
In the event that it is not possible to mount a reference pickup on the machine, it is still
possible to obtain phase measurements with a remote phase instrument such as the Model
360. This can be accomplished by using the analyzer or oscilloscope output of another
vibration measuring instrument as the reference source. Simply mount a “reference”
vibration pickup at any convenient location on the machine or structure where a strong
signal can be obtained. This “reference” vibration pickup is then connected to the
vibration meter. The analyzer output of the vibration meter is then connected to the
reference input of the phase measuring instrument in place of the reference pulse from a
photocell or electromagnetic pickup. Adjust the amplitude range selector of the vibration
meter until a suitable reference signal is obtained, as indicated by a steady phase reading.
It is necessary to overdrive the vibration meter by one or two amplitude meter “chops”
the output reference signal resulting in a simulated square-wave similar to the normal
reference pulse. In any event, overdriving the vibration meter will not damage the
instrument and does give the desired results. The “reference” vibration pickup must not
be moved if comparative phase readings are to be made at several measurement locations.
This technique for measuring phase is only useable for phase analysis and cannot be used
for balancing. Applying a trial weight to the rotor would change the phase of both the
phase reference signal and vibration signal. If the vibration is complex or if the vibration
frequency of interest is not the predominate vibration, it may be necessary to substitute a
vibration analyzer with tunable filter in place of the vibration meter. In this way,
comparative phase measurements can be obtained for virtually any frequency of interest
synchronous, multiples, sub-multiples and even non-harmonic frequencies. This offers a
strong advantage over the strobe light for phase measurement since the strobe technique
is limited to vibrations at 1 x RPM.
The 1 x RPM voltage pulse from the reference pickup applied to the IRD Model 360
actually serves tow purposes. First, the reference pulse serves to automatically tune the
filter of the analyzer to the rotating speed frequency. In this way, should machine RPM
change, the filter will automatically adjust to the change to provide consistently accurate
amplitude and phase data. Secondly, the reference pulse is electronically compared to
the filtered vibration signal to provide a measure of relative phase. In simple terms, the
instrument measures that portion of a cycle by which the reference pulse leads the
neutral-to-positive ( 0 to + ) crossover of the vibration signal. This is then converted to
a proportional D.C. voltage needed to drive the phase meter. (Refer figure 71 page 56
vec/sbv/7c)

______________________________________________________________________ 35
PHOTOCELL KIT
Figure illustrates various relationships between the reference pulse and vibration signal
and the resulting phase indications.
Examples of phase measurements using a reference pulse superimposed on the

vibration waveform
¯= 00
¯= 900
¯= 1800
______________________________________________________________________ 36
Unlike the stroboscopic light, the phase meter can be used to obtain comparative phase
data for vibration frequencies other than 1 x RPM. All that is needed is a reference
signal at the desired frequency. For example if it were desired to analyze the phase of
vibration for a frequency of 2 x RPM it would only be necessary to put two triggers on
the rotating shaft 180 0 apart instead of the usual one trigger. In this way. Two reference
pulses will be generated for each shaft revolution, the analyzer filter will automatically be
tuned to 2 x RPM, and the phase readings noted on the meter will be those for the 2 x
RPM vibration. Where it is necessary to obtain comparative phase data for sub-multiple
or non-harmonically related vibration frequencies, a “reference” vibration pickup and a
“reference” vibration analyzer with tunable filter can be used to provide a reference
signal at any desired frequency of machine vibration.
3.2.3 OSCILLOSCOPE PHASE MEASUREMENT
The oscilloscope is another useful device for obtaining comparative phase measurements
and can be used where readings with a strobe light are not possible or an instrument such
as the IRD Model 360 with remote phase readout is not available. Any standard single-
trace or dual - trace oscilloscope can be used with standard IRD vibration analysis
equipment.
3.2.4 MEASURING PHASE WITH A SINGLE – TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE
To obtain comparative phase measurements with a single – trace oscilloscope requires a

voltage reference pulse similar to that required for the IRD Model 360. The reference
pulse can be applied to the oscilloscope in a couple of different ways to measure phase.
One way is to switch the oscilloscope to the EXTERNAL SYNC mode of operation and
connect the reference signal to the scope EXTERNAL SYNC (horizontal) input. The
vibration signal at reference pulse frequency is connected to the oscilloscope VERTICAL
input from the analyzer oscilloscope output. The resulting display on the CRT will be
one complete cycle of the vibration, and the horizontal position and gain controls of the
scope should be carefully adjusted to display the vibration waveform over the full width
of the scope graticule. The vertical position of the trace should have been adjusted
initially to the center line. The configuration of the vibration waveform on the scope
display will depend on the phase relationship between the reference signal and the
vibration signal. By scaling the horizontal axis of the scope from 0 0 to 360 0 0 .
The neutral-to-positive crossover point is a common choice and is used here, although
some other point such as the neutral –to-minus ( 0 to - ) crossover or peak amplitude
could be used just as easily, as long as consistency is maintained. Another way to
obtain phase measurements with a single-trace oscilloscope is to superimpose the
reference pulse on the vibration waveform.
With the reference pulse superimposed on the vibration waveform, phase measurements
can now be obtained again by noting that portion of the vibration cycle which separates
the reference pulse from a common point of the reference on the waveform such as the
neutral-to-positive crossover. The addition, the convention of phase determination must
______________________________________________________________________ 37
also be established . Specifically, it must be decided whether the phase angle recorded is
the angle by which the reference pulse leads or lags the neutral-to-positive crossover.
For comparative phase readings, the same convention must be used for all measurements.
A single-trace oscilloscope can be used to obtain comparative phase measurements for

practically any vibration frequency of interest as long as a suitable reference pulse is
available at the selected frequency. In addition, it is also possible to obtain phase
measurements for vibrations occurring at frequencies which are multiples of rotating
speed where only a 1 x RPM reference pulse is available. The phase of the 2 x RPM
vibration can still be obtained by simply noting the angle by which the reference pulse
leads the neutral-to-positive crossover of the vibration waveform.
3.2.5 MEASURING PHASE WITH A DUAL TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE
In cases where it is not possible to obtain a reference pulse for the vibration frequency of
interest for phase measurement with a phase meter or single-trace oscilloscope, it is
possible to obtain comparative phase data for tow or more measurement locations by
using a dual-trace oscilloscope. The relative phase between the two signals is determined
by simply measuring that part of the vibration cycle which separates common oinks of
reference such as neutral-to-positive cross-over points. Where comparative phase
readings will be taken at more than two measurement locations, one of the first two
signals should be retained for comparison with all other signals. In addition, the “lead”
or “lag” convention for phase determination must also be selected to insure that al
readings are directly comparable.
3.2.6 SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION FOR PHASE MEASUREMENT
There are several factors which can affect the accuracy of phase readings taken for
analysis or balancing: They are
1. The direction of the vibration pickup axis, together with the selected phase
reference system, established the “fixed reference” need to take
comparative readings. The direction of the pickup axis should not be
changed from one measurement point to the next. If pickup direction is
changed this change must be noted so that the phase readings can be
corrected accordingly for comparison. This is due for all phase
measurement technique – strobe light, remote phase meter or oscilloscope.
2. When using a standard analyzer with manually tunable filter, it is essential

that, when used the filter be precisely tuned for each reading taken. For
example, if the machine speed change slightly between readings, then the
analyzer filter is to be “detuned”,

______________________________________________________________________ 38
3. When taking comparative phase readings, it is important that all measurements

be taken using the same parameter of amplitude readout. Switching from
0
displacement to velocity readout will result in a 90 change in the measured
phase. Switching from displacement to acceleration will reveal a 180 0
phase difference.
3.3 PHASE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
3.3.1 PHASE MONITORING
Many companies are currently including continuous phase monitoring systems on

critical high-speed machines such as turbo-generators and centrifugal compressors for
added protection against mechanical failure. The phase of the vibration being monitored
at any point on the machine can be selected for readout on the digital phase meter.
The concept of monitoring phase in addition to vibration amplitude is based on the fact
that some machine problems may occur which could result initially in little or no
significant change or increase in vibration amplitude. The vibration amplitude and phase
readings were taken on a machine and indicated an amplitude of 2.0 mils and a phase
reading of 90 0.. Then, a new reading was taken at the same location today indicating an
amplitude of 2 mils but a phase reading of 270 0. The comparative amplitude readings
show no increase and would suggest that there has been no change in machinery
condition. However the phase readings show that there has been a substantial shift in
phase which represents a 4.0 mil effective change in vibration amplitude. The phase
change detected a significant change in machine condition possibly due to a thrown rotor
blade, cracked rotor shaft or some other potentially serious problem.
3.4 APPLICATION OF PHASE MEASUREMENTS IN ROTOR DYNAMICS :
Rotor and different modes of machinery vibrations are analysed and identified by
introducing the influence of all static and dynamic forces. Whenever the vibratory mode
changes; it is associated with a major phase change. Normally there will be a phase shift
of 1800, when the vibration changes from one mode to the other.
Phase changes during different conditions :
Ø Force (or Static) unbalance is evidenced by nearly identical phase in the radial
direction on each bearing of a machine rotor.
Ø Couple unbalance shows approximately a 1800 out-of-phase relationship when

comparing the outboard and inboard horizontal, or the outboard and inboard
vertical direction phase on the same machine.
Ø Dynamic unbalance is indicated when the phase difference is well removed from
either 00 or 1800, but importantly is nearly the same in the horizontal and vertical

______________________________________________________________________ 39
directions. If the horizontal phase difference varies greatly from the vertical phase
difference, this strongly suggests the dominant problem is not unbalance.
Ø Angular Misalignment is indicated by approximately a 1800 phase difference

across the coupling, with measurements in the axial direction.
Ø Parallel misalignment causes radial direction phase across the coupling to be

approximately 1800 out of phase with respect to one another.
Ø Bent shaft causes axial phase on the same shaft of the machine to approach a 1800
difference when comparing measurements on the outboard and inboard bearings
of the same machine rotor.
Ø Resonance is shown by a 900 phase change at the point when the forcing
frequency coincides with a natural frequency, and approaches a full 1800 phase
change when the machine passes through the natural frequency (depending on the
amount of damping present)
Ø Rotor rub causes significant, instantaneous changes in phase.
Ø Mechanical looseness/weakness due to base/frame problems or loose hold – down

bolts is indicated by nearly a 1800 phase change when one moves his transducer
from the machine foot down to its baseplate and then down to its support base.
Ø Mechanical looseness due to a cracked frame, loose bearing or loose rotor causes
phase to be unsteady with probable widely differing phase measurements from
one measurement to the next. The phase measurement may noticeably differ
every time you start up the machine, particularly if the rotor itself is loose and
rotates on the shaft a few degrees with each startup.
Often, even though phase measurement capability is now offered by most data collectors,
users do not use this powerful tool. If not used, this will severely limit the diagnostic
capabilities of any program. However, currently it would be impractical to make phase
measurements on all machinery during regular PMP surveys. Its greatest use comes into
play when performing diagnostics on machines which have developed high vibration at
1X,2X or 3X RPM, requiring investigation to detect the predominate cause(s) prior to
taking corrective actions.
3.4.1 APPLICATION OF PHASE MEASUREMENT FOR BALANCING
Phase measurement will help in distinguishing different types of unbalances. The

effective time for balancing can be minimized once the exact type of unbalance existing
in a rotor, is clearly established, before starting the balancing.

______________________________________________________________________ 40
Identification of unbalance location in rotors is one of the very major functions for phase
measurement.
Distinguishing one defect from the other; especially the other characteristics will not be
helpful others in generalizing the type of inaccuracies.
Once the frequency analysis and the amplitude analysis are clear, the phase observations
and measurements will provide very powerful to precisely distinguishing and
pinpointing machinery problems.

______________________________________________________________________ 41
Notes:

______________________________________________________________________ 42
Notes:

______________________________________________________________________ 43
4.0 MACHINERY PROBLEM DIAGNOSTICS

THROUGH VIBRATION ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In today’s competitive Industrial environment, it is very essential to achieve maximum
availability of plant and machines. The Industrial equipments are subjected to regress
operating conditions and therefore the possibilities of break down from various
inaccuracies and problems are quite significant. Therefore, a dynamic predictive
maintenance based on machinery problem diagnostics is a must in ensuring trouble free
operation.
Though there are many methods of machinery fault diagnostics (Condition Monitoring),
one of the most effective method is Vibration Analysis. The various defects that can
occur in a machines can be categorised as follows:-
4.2 VARIOUS DEFECTS IN MACHINES
The most common defects which are associated with plants are listed below:
• Unbalance
• Misalignment
• Bent Shaft
• Mechanical Looseness
• Eccentricity
• Rubbing
• Distortion
• Coupling Defects
• Loose Foundation Bolts
• Cracks in Foundation
• Cracks in Structure
• Piping Forces
• Aero Dynamic Forces
• Resonance Condition
Defects in Bearing
• Clearance induced vibration

• Unequal Bearing Stiffness
• Damage to Thrust Bearings
• Defective Journal Bearings
• Oil Whirl
• Oil Whip
Defects in Gears and Gear Boxes

______________________________________________________________________ 44
• Tooth Meshing Faults

• Worn out Tooth
• Misaligned Gears
• Cracked Teeth
• Eccentric Gears
Defects in Belt Driven System
• Mismatched Belts
• Misalignment of Pulleys
• Damaged Pulleys
• Belt Wear
• Cracks & Lumps
• Eccentric Pulleys
Electrical Defects
• Non Uniform Air Gap

• Magnetic Centre Shift
• Winding Defects
• Unbalanced supply in 3 phase
It could be seen that all these defects in different machines can be grouped into 5
categories.
Ø Unbalance of One or more parts

Ø Misalignment of system
Ø Out of tolerances – Eccentricity and other dimensional deviations
Ø Reaction to some external forces
Ø Unbalanced Magnetic forces in the Drive Motors/Generators.
MACHINERY PROBLEM DIAGNOSTIC CHART

Cause Vibration Level Frequency Remarks
Unbalance Proportional to 1 x rpm Most common cause of
unbalance. Largest in vibrations.
radial direction
Bent shaft Large in Axial 1 x rpm -
Direction

______________________________________________________________________ 45

Misalignment Large in Axial 1X rpm 2X rpm Base found by appearance of
(Coupling or direction(50% or more most common. 3n large axial vibrations. Positive
bearings) or radial vibrations) sometimes. diagnosis can be obtained using
dial indicators. If sleeve bearing
machine and no coupling
mialignment problem is probably
unbalanced of the rotor.
Eccentric Journals Usually not large 1 x rpm If on gears, largest vibrations in
line with gear centres.
Rubs No particular Mainly 1 x rpm Can excite high natural
characteristic if plus 2 x rpm frequencies of machine.
continuous Amplitude at same speed may
vary between different runs.
Mechanical Variable 2n Usually accompanied by
Looseness misalignment and/or unbalance.
Not a loose bearing assembly.
Loose Bearing Variable 0.5 rpm Sometimes manifest at rotor
Assembly critical speed. Quite a common
problem.
Oil Whirl Severe, radial motion 0.43 – 0.47 rpm Only in high speed or vertical
rotor machines with pressure
lubricated
sleeve bearings.
Friction Induced Can be severe radial Usually less than Rare. Can be caused by loose
Whirl vibrations 0.4 x rpm and rotor components.
equal to first critical
speed of rotor
Rolling Element Depends upon amount 1 x rpm Large component in either
Bearing Distortion of distortion horizontal or vertical planes.
Taper roller bearings will also
have axial components of
vibration.

______________________________________________________________________ 46

Rolling Element Unsteady High frequencies See later discussion.
Bearing Damage
Bad Gears or Gear Low Very high T x rpm See later discussion.
Noise (T number of teeth)
Faults in Belt Erratic or Pulsing 1,2,3 and 4 times Stroboscope can be used to
Drives rotational frequency diagnose belt defects.
of belt
Electrical Low, Disappears when 1 x rpm or 1 or 2 See later notes on electrical
power is turned off times synchronous machines.
frequency
Aerodynamic or Variable 1 x rpm or b,n Rare as a cause of trouble,
Hydraulic (where b is number except in cases of resonances.
of blades or lobes) See later notes on bladed
machinery.
Reciprocating - 1 x rpm , 2 x rpm Inherent in reciprocating
Forces and higher orders machinery.
Faulty High 0.5 x rpm Faults with injectors, fuel
Combustion in pumps, calibration or timing
Diesels show unbalance. Resiliently
mounted unit rocks at 0.5n
which is close to natural
frequency of mounted unit, and
causes large amplitudes.
Foundation Faults Random and can be Low and erratic Check foundation bolts.
high

______________________________________________________________________ 47
ANALYSIS OF NATURE & CAUSES OF VIBRATION
IN
INDUCTION MOTORS
FREQUENCY METHODS OF
TYPES OF CAUSE OF NATURE OF
OF ESTABLISHIN REMARKS
VIBRATION VIBRATION VIBRATION
VIBRATION G CAUSE
2X Line Magnetic -Poor rotor Beats would Vibrations Some possibility of
frequency alignment show up reduce vibration
particular if considerably frequencies of 2 X
there is when power RPM also there.
associated supply is
mechanical disconnected
problem
1 X RPM PLUS Mechanical -Shorted stator
2X slip X pole turns
pairs and
2 X slip X pole Mechanical -Worn out
pairs bearings
1 X RPM and 1 X Mechanical -Local stator or Strong beat Vibrations Some possibility of
RPM + other phenome-non reduce vibration
imperfections which can be considerably frequency - 2
resulting in easily felt or when power X RPM and 2 X
changing axis seen on the supply is supply frequency
of rotation vibration disconnected also there.
meter. from stator.
2 x slip x pole Mecha -Broken rotor
pairs and 2 x slip nical bars
x pole
Mechanical -Rotor run-out

______________________________________________________________________ 48
METHODS
FREQUENCY
TYPES OF CAUSE OF NATURE OF OF
OF REMARKS
VIBRATION VIBRATION VIBRATION ESTABLISHI
VIBRATION
NG CAUSE
Mechanical Bad electrical
connection
between rotor
bars & end
rings
Mechanical -Local rotor
heating caused
by shorted
laminations,
broken rotor
bars on loose
rotor
Several times Mecha -Bad ball Continuous type Frequency More often
RPM or supply nical bearings closely linked misalignment of
Frequency with: Number the bearings.
of balls X
RPM
Aerodyna-mic -Fan blades Continuous type Number of
blades X RPM
Magnetic Rotor & Stator Continuous type Number of Sometimes beat
slot harmonics stator/ rotor frequencies signal
slots their can appear due to
sums and interaction of
difference X different
supply frequencies
frequency.

______________________________________________________________________ 49
METHODS
FREQUENCY
TYPES OF CAUSE OF NATURE OF OF
OF REMARKS
VIBRATION VIBRATION VIBRATION ESTABLISHI
VIBRATION
NG CAUSE
Others Mismatching Continuous type Number of Mismatching of
of radial radial ducts X the ventilating
ventilation RPM ducts in the stator
ducts in rotor and the rotor
and stator
4.3 VIBRATION DIAGNOSTICS CHART
Causes Vibration Level Frequency Remarks

Unbalance Proportional to 1 x RPM Most common cause of vibrations.
unbalance. Largest
in radial direction
Misalignment Large in Axial 1xRPM, 2x RPM Base found by appearance of large axial
direction (50% or most common. 3x vibrations. Positive diagnosis can be
more of radial RPM sometimes. obtained using dial indicators. If sleeve
vibrations) bearing machine and no coupling
misalignment; problem is probably
unbalance of the rotor.
Mechanical Variable 2 x RPM Usually accompanied by misalignment
Looseness and/or unbalance. Not a loose bearing
assembly.
Bent shaft Large in Axial 1 x RPM -
Direction
Eccentricity High in Radial and 1 x RPM and less Some times symptoms will be like
axial direction than 1 x RPM unbalance. If that is the case, can be
solved by balancing
Coupling High in radial and Non-synchronous Check for worn-out bolt holes
Inaccuracies axial direction high frequency
and Number of
bolts in the
coupling x RPM
Rolling Depends upon 1 x RPM Large component in either horizontal or
Element amount of vertical planes. Taper roller bearings will
Bearing distortion also have axial components of vibration.
Distortion

______________________________________________________________________ 50
Rolling Unsteady High frequencies Harmonics of defective part of the bearing

Element and multiples of will be excited than other frequencies.
Bearing inner race, outer
Damage race, ball spin and
cage excited
frequency
Loose Bearing Variable 0.5 RPM Sometimes manifest at rotor critical speed.
Assembly Quite a common problem.
Bad Gears or High axial Very high T x Meshing problems can be significant due
Gear Noise vibration RPM (T =number to increased clearances of gear shaft
of teeth) bearings.
Eccentric Usually not large 1 x RPM If on gears, largest vibrations in line with
Journals gear centres.
Faults in Belt Erratic or Pulsing 1,2,3 and 4 times Stroboscope can be used to diagnose belt
Drives rotational defects.
frequency of belt.
Inadequate High in radial and 1x, 2x, & Vibration will be high in which direction
Rigidity axial direction Unsteady Low the rigidity is less.
Frequency.
Rubs No particular Mainly 1 x RPM Can excite high natural frequencies of
characteristic if plus 2 x RPM machine. Amplitude at same speed may
continuous vary between different runs.
Casing Depend on the 1 x RPM & High vibration will be felt in the fan or
Distortion amount of Number of vanes pump casing
distortion in the impeller x
RPM
Foundation Depend on the 1 x RPM & Check the foundation.
Distortion amount of Unsteady Low
distortion Frequencies.
Piping Force High axial 1 x, 2 x RPM High vibration will be felt on the
vibration connecting pipe lines.
Friction Severe in radial Usually less than Rare. Can be caused by loose rotor
Induced Whirl vibrations 0.4 x RPM and components.
equal to first
critical speed of
rotor
Reciprocating - 1 x RPM, 2 x Inherent in reciprocating machinery.
Forces RPM and higher
orders

______________________________________________________________________ 51
Faulty High 0.5 x RPM Faults with injectors, fuel pumps,

Combustion in calibration or timing show unbalance.
Diesel Engines Resiliently mounted unit rocks at 0.5n
which is close to natural frequency of
mounted unit, and causes large amplitudes.
Aerodynamic Variable 1 x RPM or b x Rare as a cause of trouble, except in cases

or Hydraulic RPM (where b is of resonance.
number of blades
or lobes)
Resonance High radial & axial 1 x RPM Scientific method to be applied to solve the
vibration. problem.
Electrical Low, Disappears 1 x RPM or 1 or 2 Check for uniform gap between Stator &
when power is times power rotor and windings.
turned off. supply frequency

______________________________________________________________________ 52
Notes:

______________________________________________________________________ 53
Notes:

______________________________________________________________________ 54
5. ACCEPTABLE VIBRATION STANDARDS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
International standard organization (USA) and various other institutes, world over
have standardized vibration standards for various types of equipment/machine/systems.
They are called acceptable levels of vibration for the specified system. Each piece of
equipment has to undergo acceptance vibration test based upon those standards.
The standard shown at ISO-10816-1 deals with over all acceptable level of vibration. In
the case vibrations transmitted though foundations, structure or floor are also sensed
on the machine.
These standards are required to be adopted very intelligently as installation

configuration at specific site induces and subtract vibration due its own impedance.
To a beginner these standards provide the guide lines, but ultimately one has to
generate his own standard for this specific equipment based upon data collected during
operation. Experience shows that till vibration levels are kept within the limit of 2
times on high side nothing happens to equipment
(Data based not standard based), care has to be taken when rising trend is seen and cut
off point can be assumed when it touches 2 times level.
5.2 MACHINERY CLASSIFICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH ISO 10816-1
Class 1 : Individual parts of engines and machines, integrally connected with

the complete machine in its normal operating condition. (Production
electrical motors of up to 15 Kw are typical examples of machines in
this category)
Class 2 : Medium-sized machines, (Typically electrical motors with 15 to 75 Kw

output) without special foundations, rigidly mounted engines or machines
(up to 300 Kw) on special foundations.
Class 3 : Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating masses
mounted on rigid and heavy foundations which are relatively stiff in the
direction of vibration measurement.
Class 4 : Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating masses
mounted on foundations which are relatively soft in the direction of
vibration measurement (for example turbo-generator sets, especially those
with light -weight substructures).
Class 5 : Machines and mechanical drives system with unbalanceable inertia effects
(due to reciprocating parts), mounted on foundations which are relatively
stiff in the direction of vibration measurement.
______________________________________________________________________ 55
Class 6 : Machines and mechanical drive systems with unbalanceable inertia effects
(due to reciprocating parts), mounted on foundations which are
relatively soft in the direction of vibration measurements ; machines with
rotating slack-coupled masses such as beater shafts in grinding mills; like
centrifugal machines with varying unbalances capable of operating as
self-contained units without connecting components; vibrating screens,
dynamic atigue-testing machines and vibration on exciters used in
processing plants
ISO STANDARD 10816 - 1

______________________________________________________________________ 56
Stands for Acceleration Enveloping
5.3 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CODE AND STANDARDS
ISO - 2372 Mechanical Vibration of Machines
ISO - 2373 Mechanical Vibration of Certain Rotating Electrical Machinery.
NEMA-MGI-20 Motor and generator Balance Tolerances
IEC - 222 Methods of Specifying Auxiliary Equipment for Vibration

measurements.
API-RP-541 Recommended Practice for Form-Wound Squirrel-cage

Induction Motors, 200 hp and Larger
API - 610 Centrifugal Pumps
API - 611 General Purpose Steam Turbines
API - 613 High Speed, Special Purpose Gear Units.

______________________________________________________________________ 57
API - 616 Combustion Gas turbines
API - 617 Centrifugal Compressors
API - 618 Reciprocating Compressors
API - 670 Non contacting vibration and Axial Position Monitoring

System.
API - 678 Accelerometer - Based Vibration Monitoring System.

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Reliability Maintenance Institute

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION ANALYSIS

Machinery Vibration or Vibrations are manifestation of the health condition of

1. Presence of minor inaccuracies, if any

Machinery vibration is an indication of operating Machine’s Health. If the vibration

Practical Vibration Analysis

Fig no: 1.2 SPRING MASS SYSTEM

IMPORTANCE OF MACHINERY VIBRATION

Machinery vibration is very important to understand the health condition of a

Ø All machines (which are in operation) will vibrate.

Ø Machines vibrate because of imperfections. We, as human beings have not

Practical Vibration Analysis

Ø The measure of vibration is an indication of machinery health

The basic purpose of vibration measurement and analysis is to identify machinery

Vibration Analysis is the measurement and interpretation of machinery vibrations. The

Ø To identify Health Condition

Ø How much vibration is present on the machine ?

These questions can be answered by measuring and interpreting the vibration

IMPORTANT VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS

The vibration characteristics can be learned by considering a vibrating “Spring-

Practical Vibration Analysis

The important vibration characteristics are

Practical Vibration Analysis

Fig no:1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

Each of the characteristics are explained below:

1 Micron = 1/1000 mm or 1 Micron = One Millionth of a Meter

1.5.1.1 Use of Vibration Displacement

The use of vibration displacement, velocity and acceleration can be defined by

Fig no: 1.5.1 VIBRATION DISPLACEMENT IN SPRING MASS SYSTEM

1.5.2 Vibration Velocity

1.5.2.1 Root Mean Square Value

1.5.2.2Use of Vibration Velocity

In terms of vibrations N can also be considered as frequency. Therefore, the vibration

Fig no: 1.5.2 VIBRATION VELOCITY IN SPRING MASS SYSTEM

Practical Vibration Analysis

1.5.3 Vibration Acceleration

Vibration acceleration is normally expressed in “g” peak, where 1g is acceleration

Fig no: 1.5.3 Vibration Acceleration In Spring Mass System

1.5.3.1 Use of Acceleration

Fig no: 1.5.4

Practical Vibration Analysis

Vibration Phase is another very important characteristic. Vibration Phase can be

The measurement of vibration phase with reference to a stationary part is illustrated in

1.5.5 : Vibration Phase With Reference To A Stationery Part

1.5.6 Significance of Vibration Characteristics

Displacement, velocity indicates Health of the Machine

1.6 Acceleration Enveloping

Acceleration Enveloping is a method for intensifying the repetitive components of a

Practical Vibration Analysis

Envelope analysis techniques permit an earlier prognosis of an eventual bearing failure

1.7 SEE (Spectral Emitted Energy)

An acoustic emissions transducer is sensitive to metal-to-metal contact that occurs when

Practical Vibration Analysis

A higher-than-normal SEE reading, based on a statistical mean and standard deviation,

1.7.1 Taking SEE Measurements

0 to 3 SEE No identifiable problem.

3 to 20 SEE Lubrication problem, contamination, bearing defect with light load, or a

20 to 100 SEE Bearing defect or contamination.

100 SEE Severe bearing problem. and above

1.8 HOW MUCH VIBRATION IS TOO MUCH ?

As explained above, the amplitudes of vibration the displacement, velocity and

objective is to get an advance warning of the impending problems and defects in a

The permissible vibration limits (vibration tolerances) cannot be specified in absolute