ECEG – 4201: Introduction to Instrumentation

Chapter 3: Alternating Current Indicating Instruments

Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

An electrodynamometer wattmeter consists of two fixed coils, FA and FB and a moving coil M as
shown in figure 3.3. The fixed coils are connected in series with the load and hence carry the load
current. These fixed coils form the current coil of the wattmeter. The moving coil is connected across
the load and hence carries a current proportional to the voltage across the load. A highly non-inductive
resistance R is put in series with the moving coil to limit the current to a small value. The moving coil
forms the potential coil of the wattmeter.

The fixed coils are wound with heavy wire of minimum number of turns. The fixed coils embrace the
moving coil. Spring control is used for movement and damping is by air. The deflecting torque is
proportional to the product of the currents in the two coils. Theses watt meters can be used for both
DC and AC measurements. Since the deflection is proportional to the average power and the spring
control torque is proportional to the deflection, the scale is uniform. The meter is free from waveform
errors. However, they are more expensive.

Expression for the deflection torque:

Let iC, iP : Current in the fixed and moving coils respectively,

M : Mutual inductance between the two coils,

θ : Steady final deflection of the instrument,

K: Spring constant,

V, I : RMS values of voltage and current in the measuring circuit and RP : Pressure coil resistance.
Instantaneous voltage across pressure coil, v = √2 V sin wt

Instantaneous current in the pressure coil,

iP = √2 V/RP sin wt = √2 IP sin wt Instantaneous current in the current coil,

iC = √2 I sin (wt-ϕ) Instantaneous torque is given by:

Ti = iC iP ( d M / d θ ) = [ √2 I sin (wt-ϕ) ] [ √2 IP sin wt ] ( d M / d θ )

T
Average deflecting torque, Td = (1/T) ∫ Ti d wt
0
T
= (1/T) ∫ IP I [ cos ϕ - cos (2wt - ϕ ) ] ( d M / d θ ) d wt
0
= ( V I / RP ) cos ϕ ( d M / d θ ) (3.4)

Since the controlling torque, Tc=Kθ, we have at balance of the moving pointer, Td=Tc,

so that, θ = [ V I cos ϕ / ( K RP ) ] ( d M / d θ ) = ( K’ d M / d θ ) P (3.5)

Where K’ = K RP and P is the power consumption.

Thus the deflection of the wattmeter is found to be the direct indication of the power being consumed
in the load circuit.

Moving Iron Instruments

Construction and Basic principle operation of Moving-iron Instruments:

We have mentioned earlier that the instruments are classified according to the principles of
operation. Furthermore, each class may be subdivided according to the nature of the movable system
and method by which the operating torque is produced. Specifically, the electromagnetic instruments
are sub-classes as (i) moving-iron instruments (ii) electro dynamic or dynamometer instruments, (iii)
induction instruments. In this section, we will discuss briefly the basic principle of moving-iron
instruments that are generally used to measure alternating voltages and currents. In moving –iron
instruments the movable system consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are
so pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil. There are two
general types of moving-iron instruments namely (i) Repulsion (or double iron) type (ii) Attraction (or
single-iron) type. The brief description of different components of a moving-iron instrument is given
below.

• Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod

• Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also to magnetize the iron
pieces.

• In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with the same polarity. • Control
torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity)

• Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting of an air chamber and a
moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.

• Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a graduated scale.

Construction of Moving-iron Instruments

The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small piece of
magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current. In repulsion (Fig.)
type moving–iron instrument consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed
current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free to rotate, carrying
with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the coil that consists of only
few turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if the instrument is a voltmeter. Current in
the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and repulsion between the similarly magnetized
vanes produces a proportional rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the
current in the coil, making the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a
hairspring that produces the restoring torque. Only the fixed coil carries load current, and it is
constructed so as to withstand high transient current. Moving iron instruments having scales that are
nonlinear and somewhat crowded in the lower range of calibration.
CLASSIFICATION OF MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

Moving iron instruments are of two types

1. Attraction type.
2. Repulsion type

Attraction type.

 The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like opening.

 The moving iron is a flat disc or a sector eccentrically mounted.
 When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced and the moving iron
moves
from the weaker field outside the coil to the stronger field inside it or in other words the
moving iron is attracted in.
 The controlling torque is providing by springs hut gravity control can be used for panel type of
instruments which are vertically mounted.
 Damping is provided by air friction with the help of a light aluminum piston (attached to the
moving system) which move in a fixed chamber closed at one end as shown in Fig. or with the
help of a vane (attached to the moving system) which moves in a fixed sector shaped chamber
a shown
Repulsion Type
In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil one fixed and other movable. These
are similarly magnetized when the current flows through the coil and there is a force of
repulsion between the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane. Two different
designs are in common use

(I) Radial Vane Type

In this type, the vanes are radial strips of iron. The strips are placed within the coil as shown in
Fig. The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one to the spindle of the instrument.
(ii) Co-axial Vane Type
In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of co axial cylinders as
shown in Fig. The controlling torque is provided by springs. Gravity control can also he used
in vertically mounted instruments. The damping torque is produced by air friction as in
attraction type instruments. The operating magnetic field in moving iron instruments is very
weak and therefore eddy current damping is not used in them as introduction of a permanent
magnet required for eddy current damping would destroy the operating magnetic field. It is
clear that whatever may be the direction of the current in the coil of the instrument, the iron
vanes are so magnetized that there is always a force of attraction in the attraction type and
repulsion in the repulsion type of instruments. Thus moving iron instruments are unpolarised
 instruments i.e., they are independent of the direction in which the current passes. Therefore,
these instruments can be used on both ac. and D.C.
Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion Types of Instruments
• In general it may be said that attraction-type instruments possess the same advantages, and
are subject to the limitations, described for the repulsion type.
• An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance than the corresponding
repulsion type instrument, and voltmeters will therefore be accurate over a wider range of
frequency and there is a greater possibility of using shunts with ammeters.
• On the other hand, repulsion instruments are more suitable for economical production in
manufacture, and a nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained; they are, therefore, much
more common than the attraction type.
Errors in Moving Iron Instruments
There are two types of errors, which occur in moving iron instruments — errors which occur
with both a.c and D.C. and the other which occur only with ac. only. Errors with both D.C. and
A.C
i) Hysteresis Error
ii) Temperature error
iii) Stray magnetic field

Errors with only A.C

Frequency errors
Advantages & Disadvantages

1. Universal use
2. Less Friction Errors
3. Cheapness
4. Robustness
5. Accuracy
6. Scale
7. Errors
8. Waveform errors.
Rectifier type instrument

Rectifier type instrument measures the alternating voltage and current with the help of rectifying
elements and permanent magnet moving coil type of instruments. However the primary function of
rectifier type of instruments work as voltmeter. Now one question must arises in our mind why we use
rectifier type of instruments widely in the industrial world though we have various other ac voltmeter
like electrodynamometer type instruments, thermocouple type instruments etc? The answer to this
question is very simple and is written as follows.

(a) Cost of electrodynamometer type of instruments is quite high than rectifier type of instruments.
However rectifier type of instruments as much accurate as electrodynamometer type of instruments.
So rectifier type of instruments are preferred over electrodynamometer type instruments.
(b) The thermocouple instruments are more delicate than the rectifier type of instruments. However
thermocouple type of instruments is more widely used at very high frequencies.
construction principle and working of rectifier type instruments
there is need to discuss in detail about the voltage current characteristics of ideal and practical rectifier
element called diode. Let us first discuss the ideal characteristics of rectifying element. Now what is
an ideal rectifying element? A rectifying element is one which offers zero resistance if it is forward
biased and offers infinite resistance if it is reversed biased. This property is used to rectify the voltages
(rectification means to convert an alternating quantity into direct quantity i.e. ac to dc). Consider the
circuit diagram given below.

In the given circuit diagram the ideal diode is connected in series with the voltage source and load
resistance. Now when we make the diode forward biased it conducts perfectly offering zero electrical
resistance path. Thus behaves as short circuited. We can make the diode forward biased by connecting
the positive terminal of the battery with anode and negative terminal with cathode. The forward
characteristic of rectifying element or diode is shown in the voltage current characteristic. Now when
we apply negative voltage i.e. connecting the negative terminal of the battery with the anode terminal
of the diode and positive terminal of the battery to the cathode terminal of the diode. Due to reverse
biased it offers infinite electrical resistance and thus it behaves as open circuit. The complete voltage
current characteristics are shown below.

Let us again consider the same circuit but the difference is here we are using the practical rectifying
element instead of ideal one. Practical rectifying element is having some finite forward blocking
voltage and high reverse blocking voltage. We will apply the same procedure in order to obtain the
voltage current characteristics of practical rectifying element. Now when we make the practical
rectifying element forward biased it does not conduct till the applied voltage is not greater the forward
breakdown voltage or we can say knee voltage. When the applied voltage becomes greater than the
knee voltage then diode or rectifying element will come under conduction mode. Thus behaves as
short circuited but due to some electrical resistance there is voltage drop across this practical diode.
We can make the rectifying element forward biased by connecting the positive terminal of the battery
with anode and negative terminal with cathode. The forward characteristic of practical rectifying
element or diode is shown in the voltage current characteristic. Now when we apply negative voltage
i.e. connecting the negative terminal of the battery with the anode terminal of the diode and positive
terminal of the battery to the cathode terminal of the rectifying element. Due to reverse biased it offers
finite resistance and the negative voltage till the applied voltage becomes equal to reverse break down
voltage and thus it behaves as open circuit. The complete characteristics are shown below

Now rectifier type of instruments uses two types of rectifier circuits:

Half Wave Rectifier Circuits of Rectifier Type Instruments

Let us consider a circuit given below in which the rectifying element is connected in series with
sinusoidal voltage source, permanent magnet moving coil instrument and the multiplier resistor.

The function of this multiplier electrical resistance is to limit the current drawn by the permanent
magnet moving coil type of instrument. It is very essential to limit the current drawn by the permanent
magnet moving coil instrument because if the current exceeds the current rating of PMMC then it
destructs the instrument. Now here we divide our operation in two parts. In first part we apply constant
dc voltage to the above circuit. In the circuit diagram we are assuming the rectifying element as ideal
one. Let us mark the resistance of multiplier be R, and that of permanent magnet moving coil
instrument be R1.The dc voltage produces a full scale deflection of magnitude I=V/(R+R1) where V is
root mean square value of voltage. Now let us consider second case, in this case we will apply ac
sinusoidal ac voltage to the circuit v=Vm*sin(wt) and we will get the output waveform as shown. In
the positive half cycle the rectifying element will conduct and in the negative half cycle it does not
conduct. So we will get a pulse of voltage at moving coil instrument which produces pulsating current
thus pulsating current will produce pulsating torque. The deflection produced will corresponds to the
average value of voltage. So let us calculate the average value of electric current, in order to calculate
the average value of voltage we have integrate the instantaneous expression of the voltage from 0 to 2
pi. So the calculated average value of voltage comes out to be 0.45V.Again we have V is root mean
square value of current. Thus we conclude that the sensitivity of the ac input is 0.45 times the
sensitivity of dc input in case of half wave rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier Circuits of Rectifier Type Instruments

Let us consider a circuit given below. We have used here a bridge rectifier circuit as shown. Again we
divide our operation into two parts. In the first we analyze the output by applying the dc voltage and in
another we will apply ac voltage to the circuit. A series multiplier resistance is connected in series
with the voltage source which has the same function as described above. Let us consider first case here
we applying dc voltage source to the circuit. Now the value of full scale deflection current in this case
is again V/(R+R1), where V is the root mean square value of the applied voltage, R is the resistance of
the resistance multiplier and R1 which is the electrical resistance of the instrument. The R and R1 are
marked in the circuit diagram. Now let us consider second case, in this case we will apply ac
sinusoidal voltage to the circuit which is given v=Vmsin(wt) where Vm is the peak value of the
applied voltage again if we calculate the value of full scale deflection current in this case by applying
the similar procedure then we will get an expression of full scale current as .9V/(R+R1).Remember in
order to obtain the average value of voltage we should integrate the instantaneous expression of
voltage from zero to pi . Thus comparing it dc output we conclude that the sensitivity with ac input
voltage source is 0.9 times the as in the case of dc input voltage source .

The output wave is shown below. Now we are going to discuss the factors which affect the
performance of Rectifier type instruments:
(a) Effect of input waveforms: Rectifier type of instruments is calibrated in terms of root mean square
values of sinusoidal wave of voltages and current. The problem is that the input waveform may or may
not have same form factor on which the scale of these meter is calibrated.
(b) There may be some error due to the rectifier circuit as we not included the resistance of the rectifier
bridge circuits in both the case. The non linear characteristics of bridge may distort the current and
voltage waveform.
(c) There may variation in the temperature due to which the electrical resistance of the bridge changes
hence in order to compensate this kind of errors we should apply multiplier resistor with high
temperature coefficient .
(d) Effect of capacitance of the bridge rectifier: Bridge rectifier has imperfect capacitance thus due to
this it byp asses the high frequency currents. Hence there is decrement in the reading.
(e) The sensitivity of Rectifier type instruments is low in case of ac input voltage.

Advantages of Rectifier Type Instruments

Following are the advantages of the rectifier type of instruments:

(a) The accuracy of rectifier type instrument is about 5 percent under normal operating condition.
(b) The frequency range of operation can be extended to high value.
(c) They have uniform scale on the meter.
(d) They have low operating value of current and voltages.
The loading effect of an ac rectifier voltmeter in both the cases (i.e. half wave diode rectifier and full
wave diode rectifier) is high as compared to the loading effects of dc voltmeters as the sensitivity of
the voltmeter either using in half wave or full wave rectification is less than the sensitivity of dc
voltmeters.
Thermocouple Type Instrument

Basically thermocouple consists of two different metals which are placed in contact with each
other as shown in the diagram. First part is called the heater element because when the current will
flow through this, a heat is produced and thus the temperature will increased at the junction. At this
junction an emf is produced which is approximately proportional to the temperature difference of hot
and cold junctions. The emf produced is a dc voltage which is directly proportional to root mean
square value of electric current. A permanent magnet moving coil instrument is connected with the
second part to read the current passing through the heater. One question must be arise in our mind that
why we have used only a permanent magnet coil instrument? Answer to this question is very easy it is
because PMMC instrument has greater accuracy and sensitivity towards the measurement of dc value.
The thermocouple type instruments employ thermocouple in their construction. Thermocouple type
instruments can be used for both ac and dc applications. Also thermocouple type of instruments has
greater accuracy in measuring the current and voltages at very high frequency accurately.

Now we look how the temperature difference is mathematically related to generated emf at the
junction in thermo couple type of instruments. Let us consider temperature of the hater element be Tg
and the temperature of cold metal be Tb. now it is found that the generated emf at the junction is
related to temperature difference as

Where a and b are constant whose values completely depends upon the type of metal we are using.
The above equation represents parabolic function. The approximated value of a is from 40 to micro
volts or more per degree Celsius rise in temperature and value of constant b is very small and can be
neglected if the air gap field of permanent magnet moving coil is uniform. Thus we can approximate
the above temperature emf relation as e=a(Ta-Tb), here we have assume b=0. The current flowing
through the heater coil produces heat as I2R where I is the root mean square value of current, if we
assume the temperature of cold junction is maintained at room temperature then the rise in the
temperature of the hot junction will be equal to temperature rise at the junction. Hence we can write
(Ta-Tb) is directly proportional to I2R or we say (Ta-Tb)=kI2R. now the deflection angle x in moving
coil instrument is equal to x=ke or x=K[a(Ta-Tb)] hence we can write k.K.aI2R=k1I2, where k1 is
some constant. From the above equation we see that the instrument shows the square law response

Construction of thermo couple type instrument

Broadly speaking the thermo couple type of instruments consists of two major parts which are written
below:

a. Thermo electric elements: the thermo couple type of instruments consists of thermo electric
elements which can be of four type
1. Contact type: it has a separate hater which is shown in the diagram
The action of thermo couple type instruments can be explained briefly as

a. at the junction the electrical energy is being converted to thermal energy in the heater
element. A portion of the heat is transferred to the hot junction while most of the heat
energy is dissipated away.
b. The heat energy which is transferred to hot junction is again converted to electrical due
to feedback effect. Only a portion if electrical energy is converted into mechanical
energy which is used to produce a deflecting torque. The overall efficiency of the
system is low thus the instrument consumes high power. So there is a requirement of
highly accurate and sensitive dc instrument
2. Non contact type : in noncontact type there is insulation between the heating element and the
thermo couple i.e there no direct contact between two. Due this these instruments are not much
sensitive as compared contact type
3. Vacuum thermo elements : these types of instruments are mostly employed for the
measurement of electric current at very frequency of the order of 100 mega Hertz or more as
these instruments retain their accuracy even at such high frequency
 4. Bridge type : these bridges are manufactured on the ac ratings usually from 100mA to 1A. in
this two thermo couple are connected to form a bridge which is shown in the figure given
below

There is no requirement of heating element the electric current which directly passing through
the thermo couple raises the temperature which is directly proportional to the I2R losses. The
bridge works on balanced condition at which there will be no current in the arm ab. The
connected meter will show the potential difference between the junction a and b
Advantage of thermo couple type instruments

1. The thermo couple type of instruments accurately indicates the root mean square value of
current and voltages irrespective of the waveform. There is a wide varieties of range of
thermo couple instruments are available in the market
2. Thermo couple type instruments give very accurate reading even at high frequency thus
these types of instruments are completely free frequency errors
3. The measurement of quantity under these instruments is not affected by stray magnetic
fields
4. These instruments are known for their high sensitivity
5. Usually for measuring the low value of current bridge type of arrangement is used i.e
ranging from 0.5 A to 20 A while for measuring the higher value of current heater element
is required to retain accuracy

Disadvantages of thermo couple type instruments

1. Instead of many advantages these type of instruments posses one advantages, the over load
capacity of thermo couple type of instrument is small, even fuse is not able to the heater wire
because heater wire may burn out before the fuse blows out
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Explanation

Many voltage measurements cannot be made using conventional contacting voltmeters because they
require charge transfer to the voltmeter, thus causing loading and modification of the source voltage.
For example, when measuring voltage distribution on a dielectric surface, any measurement technique
that requires charge transfer, no matter how small, will modify or destroy the actual data.
Principle of operation

In practice, an electrostatic charge monitoring probe is placed close (1 mm to 5 mm) to the surface to
be measured and the probe body is driven to the same potential as the measured unknown by
an electronic circuit. This achieves a high accuracy measurement that is virtually insensitive to
variations in probe-to-surface distances. The technique also prevents arc-over between the probe and
measured surface when measuring high voltages.
Voltmeter

Electrostatic voltmeter operation

 Electrostatic voltmeter

Electrostatic voltmeter mechanism

The operating principle of an electrostatic voltmeter is similar to that of an electrometer, it is, however,
designed to measure high potential differences; typically from a few hundred to many thousands volts.
Principle of operation

Electrostatic voltmeter utilizes the attraction force between two charged surfaces to create a deflection
of a pointer directly calibrated in volts. Since the attraction force is the same regardless of the polarity
of the charged surfaces (as long as the charge is opposite), the electrostatic voltmeter can measure
both direct current and alternating current.
Typical construction is shown in the engraving. The pivoted sector NN is attracted to the fixed sector
QQ. The moving sector indicating the voltage by the pointer P and is counterbalanced by the small
weight w. In newer instruments the weight is replaced by a spring, thus allowing the meter to be used
both in horizontal and vertical positions. This form of design is shown in the photograph of the
mechanism. The fixed sector is insulated from the rest of the meter. The butterfly shaped moving
sector, made out of a thin aluminum foil, is pivoted below. Both the fixed and the moving sectors are
highly polished and without any sharp corners to minimize high electrical stress areas. The movement
of the sector is damped by the air vane attached by a curved piece of wire.
Categories:

 Voltmeters
 Electrical meters
 Measuring instruments
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
Before we study the internal construction of electrodynamometer wattmeter, it very essential
to know the principle of working of electrodynamometer type wattmeter. Dynamometer type
wattmeter works on very simple principle and this principle can be stated as "when any current
carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force and due this
mechanical force deflection of conductor takes place".

Construction and Working Principle of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter

Now let us look at constructional details of electrodynamometer. It consists of following parts

There are two types of coils present in the electrodynamometer. They are :

(a) Moving coil: Moving coil moves the pointer with the help of spring control instrument. A limited
amount of current flows through the moving coil so as to avoid heating. So in order to limit the current
we have connect the high value resistor in series with the moving coil. The moving is air cored and is
mounted on a pivoted spindle and can moves freely. In electrodynamometer type wattmeter,
moving coil works as pressure coil. Hence moving coil is connected across the voltage and thus the
current flowing through this coil is always proportional to the voltage. (b) Fixed coil: The fixed coil is
divided into two equal parts and these are connected in series with the load, therefore the load current
will flow through these coils. Now the reason is very obvious of using two fixed coils instead of one,
so that it can be constructed to carry considerable amount of electric current. These coils are called the
current coils of electrodynamometer type wattmeter. Earlier these fixed coils are designed to carry the
current of about 100 amperes but now the modern wattmeter are designed to carry current of about 20
amperes in order to save power. (c) Control system: Out of two controlling systems i.e. (1) Gravity
control (2) Spring control, only spring controlled systems are used in these types of wattmeter. Gravity
controlled system cannot be employed because they will appreciable amount of errors. (d) Damping
system: Air friction damping is used, as eddy current damping will distort the weak operating
magnetic field and thus it may leads to error. (e) Scale: There is uniform scale is used in these types of
instrument as moving coil moves linearly over a range of 40 degrees to 50 degrees on either sides.
Now let us derive the expressions for the controlling torque and deflecting torques. In order to derive
these expressions let us consider the circuit diagram given below:
We know that instantaneous torque in electro dynamic type instruments is directly proportional to
product of instantaneous values of currents flowing through both the coils and the rate of change of
flux linked with the circuit. Let I1 and I2 be the instantaneous values of currents in pressure and current
coils respectively. So the expression for the torque can be written as:

where x is the angle. Now let the applied value of voltage across the pressure coil be

Assuming the electrical resistance of the pressure coil be very high hence we can neglect reactance
with respect to its resistance. In this the impedance is equal to its electrical resistance therefore it is
purely resistive. The expression for instantaneous current can be written as I2 = v / Rp where Rp is the
resistance of pressure coil.

If there is phase difference between voltage and electric current, then expression for instantaneous
current through current coil can be written as

As current through the pressure coil in very very small compare to current through current coil hence
current through the current coil can be considered as equal to total load current. Hence the
instantaneous value of torque can be written as
Average value of deflecting torque can be obtained by integrating the instantaneous torque from limit
0 to T, where T is the time period of the cycle.

Controlling torque is given by Tc = Kx where K is spring constant and x is final steady state value of
deflection.

Advantages of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter

Following are the advantages of electrodynamometer type wattmeter and they are written as follows:
(a) Scale is uniform up to certain limit.
(b) They can be used for both to measure ac as well dc quantities as scale is calibrated for both.
Errors in Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
Following are the errors in the electrodynamometer type watt meters:
(a) Errors in the pressure coil inductance.
(b) Errors may be due to pressure coil capacitance.
(c) Errors may be due to mutual inductance effects.
(d) Errors may be due connections.(i.e. pressure coil is connected after current coil)
(e) Error due to Eddy currents.
(f) Errors caused by vibration of moving system.
(g) Temperature error.
(h) Errors due to stray magnetic field.

Watt-Hour Meters

Watt-hour meters are essentially motors so designed that the speed is proportional to the power
taken through them by the load. The motor is geared to a gear-train register, and hence the register
reading is a product of power and time and indicates directly the work done in kilowatt-hours.
 Fig. 16-14. Watt-Hour Meter Register

The dials of the register are read from left to right. The figure read on each dial is the one which the
pointer points to or pointed to last. In Fig. 16-14 the reading is 1602 kw-hr.

Fig. 16-15. Single-Phase Watt-Hour Meter

Direct-current watt-hour meters are of the commutator-motor type or of the mercury type. The single-
phase watt-hour meter, an example of which is shown in Fig. 16-15, operates on the induction-motor
principle.
 Fig. 16-16. Single-Phase Watt-Hour Meter Connections

The speed of the disc armature is proportional to the power of the load. In Fig. 16-16 (a) is shown the
proper method of connecting a two-wire single-phase meter, and in (b) is shown the proper method of
connecting a three-wire meter for measuring power in a single-phase, three-wire circuit as supplied by
the transformer ofFig. 17-7. The two-element polyphase watt-hour meter contains two motor elements
driving the same register, and is connected in the same manner as a polyphase indicating wattmeter, as
indicated in Fig. 16-17. However, the third wire is also connected to the meter in order that potential-
coil connections may be made permanently when the meter is assembled.

Fig. 16-17. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Watt-Hour Meter Connections

Watt-hour meters for use on four-wire, three-phase circuits contain three motor elements and are
connected essentially in the manner shown for the three meters in Fig. 9-12. A diagram of connections
is usually furnished with each meter.
When the load being metered by a two-element polyphase watt-hour meter is reasonably steady, it is
sometimes convenient to be able to determine the power, the current, and the power factor of the load
without the use of additional meters if the watt-hour meter is not sealed. It must first be assumed that
the voltage of the line is at its rated value. The potential coils of the meter are provided with small
links or other means for disconnecting the coils for calibration purposes. To carry out the calibration,
disconnect one element and count the revolutions of the disc for a minute; call this number S1.
Reconnect the element, and repeat the counting procedure with the other element disconnected; call
this number S2. If it is assumed that S1 is larger

than S2, the power factor is and

where Kh = disc constant = number of watt-hours per revolution. Also,

Power Factor Meters

Before we introduce various types of power factor meters it is very essential to understand what are
the needs of power factor meter? Why we do not directly calculate power factor in an a.c. circuit just
by dividing the power with product of current and voltage as these readings can be easily obtained
from wattmeter, ammeter and voltmeter. Obviously there various limitations of using this method as it
may not provide high accuracy, also chances of increment of error is very high. Therefore this method
is not adopted in industrial world. Measurement of power factor accurately is very essential
everywhere.

In power transmission system and distribution system we measure power factor at every station and
electrical substation using these power factor meters. Power factor measurement provides us the
knowledge of type of loads that we are using, helps in calculation of losses happening during the
power transmission system and distribution. Hence we need a separate device for calculating the
power factor accurately and more precisely. General construction of any power factor meter circuit
include two coils pressure coil and current coil. Pressure coil is connected across the circuit while
current coil is connected such it can carry circuit current or a definite fraction of current, by measuring
the phase difference between the voltage and current the electrical power factor can be calculated on
suitable calibrated scale. Usually the pressure coil is splits into two parts namely inductive and non-
inductive part or pure resistive part. There is no requirement of controlling system because at
equilibrium there exist two opposite forces which balance the movement of pointer without any
requirement of controlling force. Now there are two types of power factor meters- (1)
Electrodynamometer type and (2) Moving iron type . Let us study electrodynamometer type first.

Electrodynamometer Type Power Factor Meter

In electrodynamometer type power factor meter there are further two types on the basis of supply
voltage

(1) Single phase

(2) Three phase.

The general circuit diagram of single phase electrodynamometer power factor meter is given below.

Now the pressure coil is spitted into two parts one is purely inductive another is purely resistive as
shown in the diagram by resistor and inductor. At present the reference plane is making an angle A
with coil 1. And the angle between both the coils 1 and 2 is 90°. Thus the coil 2 is making an angle
(90°+A) with the reference plane. Scale of the meter is properly calibrated shown the value values of
cosine of angle A. Let us mark the electrical resistance connected to coil 1 be R and inductor
connected to coil 2 be L. Now during measurement of power factor the values of R and L are adjusted
such that R=wL so that both coils carry equal magnitude of current. Therefore the current passing
through the coil 2 is lags by 90° with reference to current in coil 1 as coil 2 path is highly inductively
in nature.

Let us derive an expression for deflecting torque for this power factor meter. Now there are two
deflecting torques one is acting on the coil 1 and another is acting on the coil 2. The coil winding are
arranged such that the two torques produced, are opposite to each other and therefore pointer will take
a position where the two torques are equal. Let us write a mathematical expression for the deflecting
torque for coil 1- Where M is the maximum value of mutual inductance
between the two coils, B is the angular deflection of the plane of reference. Now the mathematical
expression for the deflecting torque for coil 2 is-

At equilibrium we have both the torque are equal thus on equating T1=T2 we have A=B. From here we
can see that the deflection angle is the measure of phase angle of the given circuit. The phasor diagram
is also shown for the circuit such that the current in the coil 1 is approximately at an angle of 90° to
current in the coil 2.

Given below are some of the advantages and disadvantages of use electro dynamic type power factor
meters.

Advantages of Electro dynamic Type Power Factor Meters

(1) Losses are less because of minimum use of iron parts and also give less error over a small range of
frequency as compared to moving iron type instruments.
(2) They high torque is to weight ratio.

Disadvantages of Electro dynamic Type Power Factor Meters

(1) Working forces are small as compared to moving iron type instruments.
(2) Scale is not extended over 360°.
(3) Calibration of electrodynamometer type instruments are highly affected by the changing the supply
voltage frequency.
(4) They are quite costly as compared to other instruments.

Digital Frequency Meter

Digital frequency meter is a general purpose instrument that displays the frequency of a
periodic electrical signal to an accuracy of three decimal places. It counts the number events occurring
within the oscillations during a given interval of time. As the preset period gets completed, the value in
the counter display on the screen and the counter reset to zero. Various types of instruments are
available which operates at a fixed or variable frequency. But if any frequency meter operates at a
different frequency than specified range, it could carry out abnormally. For measuring low
frequencies, the deflection type meters are widely used. The deflection of the pointer on the scale
shows the change in frequency. The deflection type instruments are of two types: one is electrically
resonant circuits and other is ratio meter.

Operating Principle of Digital Frequency Meter

A frequency meter has a small device which converts the sinusoidal voltage of the frequency
into a train of unidirectional pulses. The frequency of input signal is the displayed count, averaged
over a suitable counting interval out of 0.1, 1.0, or 10 seconds. These three intervals repeat themselves
sequentially. As the ring counting units resets, these pulses pass through the time-base-gate and then
entered into the main gate, which opens for a certain period of time interval. The time base gate
prevents a divider pulse from opening the main gate during the display time interval. The main gate
acts as a switch when the gate is open, pulses are allowed to pass. When the gate is closed, pulses are
not allowed to pass that means the flow of pulses get obstructed. The functioning of the gate is
operated by the main-gate flip-flop. An electronic counter at the gate output that counts the number of
pulses passed through the gate while it was open. As the next divider pulse is received at main gate
flip-flop, the counting interval ends and divider pulses are locked out. The resultant value displayed on
a display screen which has the ring counting units of scale-of-ten circuits and each unit is coupled to a
numeric indicator, which provides the digital display. As the reset pulse generator is triggered, ring
counters get reset automatically and the same procedure starts again.
 The range of modern digital frequency meter is between the range from104 to 109 hertz. The
possibility of relative measurement error ranges between from 10-9 to 10-11 hertz and a sensitivity of
10-2 volt.

Use of Digital Frequency Meter

 For testing radio equipment

 Measuring the temperature, pressure, and other physical values.
 Measuring vibration, strain
 Measuring transducers