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1.

INTRODUCTION

2.HISTORY

3. PASCAL’S TRIANGLE APPLICATION

3.1 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

3.2 Combinations

4.PROPERTIES OF PASCAL TRIANGLE

P1: Hidden Sequences

P2: Powers of Two

P3: Powers of Eleven

P4: Perfect Squares

P5: The Fibonacci Sequence

P6: The Sierpinski Triangle

P7: Combinatorics

P8: Expanding Binomials

P9: Binomial Theorem

P10: Binomial Distribution

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1. INTRODUCTION

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In mathematics, Pascal's triangle is a geometric arrangement of the binomial coefficients in


a triangle. It is named after Blaise Pascal in much of the western world, although other
mathematicians studied it centuries before him in India, Persia, China, and Italy. The rows of Pascal's
triangle are conventionally enumerated starting with row zero, and the numbers in odd rows are
usually staggered relative to the numbers in even rows. A simple construction of the triangle
proceeds in the following manner. On the zeroth row, write only the number 1. Then, to construct
the elements of following rows, add the number directly above and to the left with the number
directly above and to the right to find the new value. If either the number to the right or left is not
present, substitute a zero in its place. For example, the first number in the first row is 0 + 1 = 1,
whereas the numbers 1 and 3 in the third row are added to produce the number 4 in the fourth row.

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2. HISTORY
The pattern of numbers that forms Pascal's triangle was known well before
Pascal's time. Pascal innovated many previously unattested uses of the
triangle's numbers, uses he described comprehensively in what is perhaps the
earliest known mathematical treatise to be specially devoted to the triangle,
his Traité du triangle arithmétique (1654; published 1665). Centuries before,
discussion of the numbers had arisen in the context of Indian studies
of combinatorics and of binomial numbers and Greeks' study of figurate
numbers.
From later commentary, it appears that the binomial coefficients and the
additive formula for generating them, were known to Pingala in or before the
2nd century BC. While Pingala's work only survives in fragments, the
commentator Varāhamihira, around 505, gave a clear description of the additive
formula, and a more detailed explanation of the same rule was given
by Halayudha, around 975.
Halayudha also explained obscure references to Meru- prastaara, the Staircase
of Mount Meru, giving the first surviving description of the arrangement of these
numbers into a triangle. In approximately 850,
the Jain mathematician Mahāvīra gave a different formula for the binomial
coefficients, using multiplication, equivalent to the modern formula . In 1068,
four columns of the first sixteen rows were given by the
mathematician Bhattotpala, who was the first recorded mathematician to equate
the additive and multiplicative formulas for these numbers.
At around the same time, the Persian mathematician Al-Karaji (953–1029)
wrote a now lost book which contained the first description of Pascal's triangle.It
was later repeated by the Persian poet-astronomer-mathematician Omar
Khayyám (1048–1131); thus the triangle is also referred to as the Khayyam
triangle in Iran. Several theorems related to the triangle were known, including
the binomial theorem. Khayyam used a method of finding
nth roots based on the binomial expansion, and therefore on the binomial
coefficients.
Pascal's triangle was known in China in the early 11th century through the work
of the Chinese mathematician Jia Xian (1010–1070). In the 13th century, Yang
Hui (1238–1298) presented the triangle and hence it is still called Yang Hui's
triangle in China.

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In the west, the binomial coefficients were calculated by Gersonides in the early
14th century, using the multiplicative formula for them. Petrus Apianus (1495–
1552) published the full triangle on the frontispiece of his book on business
calculations in 1527.
This is the first record of the triangle in Europe. Michael Stifel published a
portion of the triangle (from the second to the middle column in each row) in
1544, describing it as a table of figurate numbers. In Italy, Pascal's triangle is
referred to as Tartaglia's triangle, named for the Italian algebraist Niccolò
Fontana Tartaglia (1500–1577), who published six rows of the triangle in
1556. Gerolamo Cardano, also, published the triangle as well as the additive
and multiplicative rules for constructing it in 1570.
Pascal's Traité du triangle arithmétique (Treatise on Arithmetical Triangle) was
published in 1655. In this, Pascal collected several results then known about
the triangle, and employed them to solve problems in probability theory. The
triangle was later named after Pascal by Pierre Raymond de Montmort (1708)
who called it "Table de M. Pascal pour les combinaisons" (French: Table of Mr.
Pascal for combinations) and Abraham de Moivre (1730) who called it
"Triangulum Arithmeticum PASCALIANUM" (Latin: Pascal's Arithmetic
Triangle), which became the modern Western name.

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3. PASCAL’S TRIANGLE APPLICATION

3.1 BINOMIAL EXPANSION


Pascal's triangle determines the coefficients which arise in binomial
expansions. For an example, consider the expansion

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 = 1x2y0 + 2x1y1 + 1x0y2.

The coefficients are the numbers in row two of Pascal's triangle:


1, 2, 1.
In general, when a binomial like x + y is raised to a positive integer
power we have:

(x + y)n = a0xn + a1xn−1y + a2xn−2y2 + ... + an−1xyn−1 + anyn,

where the coefficients ai in this expansion are precisely the numbers


on row n of Pascal's triangle This is the binomial theorem.The entire
right diagonal of Pascal's triangle corresponds to the coefficient
of yn in these binomial expansions, while the next diagonal
corresponds to the coefficient of xyn−1 and so on.

This construction is related to the binomial coefficients by Pascal's rule,


which states that if

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is the kth binomial coefficient in the binomial expansion of (x + y)n, where n!
is the factorial of n, then

for any nonnegative integer n and any integer k between 0 and n.[1]

Pascal's triangle has higher dimensional generalizations. The three-


dimensional version is called Pascal's pyramid or Pascal's tetrahedron,
while the general versions are called Pascal's simplices

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3.2 Combinations
A second useful application of Pascal's triangle is in the calculation
of combinations. For example, the number of combinations of n things
taken k at a time (called n choose k) can be found by the equation

But this is also the formula for a cell of Pascal's triangle. Rather
than performing the calculation, one can simply look up the
appropriate entry in the triangle. Provided we have the first row
and the first entry in a row numbered 0, the answer will be
located at entry k in row n. For example, suppose a basketball
team has 10 players and wants to know how many ways there
are of selecting 8. The answer is entry 8 in row 10, which is 45;
that is, 10 choose 8 is 45.

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4. PROPERTIES OF PASCAL TRIANGLE

P1: Hidden Sequences

Left-justified Pascal’s Triangle

The first two columns aren’t too interesting, they’re just the ones and
the natural numbers.

The next column is the triangular numbers. You can think of the
triangular numbers as the number of dots it takes to make various
sized triangles.

Similarly the fourth column is the tetrahedral numbers, or


triangular pyramidal numbers. As their name suggests they represent
the number of dots needed to make pyramids with triangle bases.

The columns continue in this way, describing the “simplices” which


are just extrapolations of this triangle/tetrahedron idea to arbitrary
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dimensions. The next column is the 5-simplex numbers, followed by
the 6-simplex numbers and so on.

P2: Powers of Two


If we sum each row, we obtain powers of base 2, beginning with 2⁰=1.

Summing the rows reveals powers of base 2

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P3: POWERS OF ELEVEN

The triangle also reveals powers of base 11. All you have to do is squish
the numbers in each row together. Which is easy enough for the first 5
rows, but what about when we get to double-digit entries?

Turns out all you have to do is carry the tens place over to the number
on its left.

Demonstrating how to carry the ten’s place in row six to yield 11⁵

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P4: PERFECT SQUARES

4² is 6 + 10 = 16

We can locate the perfect squares of the natural numbers in column


2 by summing the number to the right with the number below the
number to the right.

For example,

 2² → 1+3=4

 3² → 3+6

 4² → 6+10=16 and so on…

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P5: THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
To uncover the hidden Fibonacci Sequence sum the diagonals of
the left-justified Pascal Triangle.

The first 7 numbers in Fibonacci’s Sequence:


1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, … found in Pascal’s Triangle

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P6: THE SIERPINSKI TRIANGLE
Using the original orientation of Pascal’s Triangle, shade in all the odd
numbers and you’ll get a picture that looks similar to the
famousfractal Sierpinski.. Triangle.

A level-5 approximation to a Sierpinski triangle obtained by shading


the first 25 (32) levels of a Pascal's triangle white if the binomial
coefficient is even and black otherwise

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P7: COMBINATORICS
Perhaps the most interesting relationship found in Pascal’s Triangle is
how we can use it to find the combinatorial numbers.

We find that in each row of Pascal’s Triangle n is the row number


and k is the entry in that row, when counting from zero.

First 6 rows of Pascal’s Triangle written with Combinatorial Notation

So if you want to calculate 4 choose 2 look at the 5th row, 3rd entry
(since we’re counting from zero) and you’ll find the answer is 6.

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P8: EXPANDING BINOMIALS
Suppose you have the binomial (x + y) and you want to raise it to a
power such as 2 or 3. Normally you’d need to go through the long
process of multiplying, but with Pascal’s Triangle you can avoid the
hassle and skip to the answer!

Standard method of multiplying binomials

For example, let’s expand (x+y)³. Since we’re raising (x+y) to


the 3rd power, use the values in the fourth row of Pascal’s as the
coefficients of your expansion. Then fill in the x and y terms as
outlined below.

Note: Each term’s degree totals to the power that (x+y) is being raised to.

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P9: BINOMIAL THEOREM
Multiplying powers of (x+y) is cool, but how often do we come across
the need to solve that exact problem? Probably, not too often.
Wouldn’t it be handy if we could generalize the idea from the last
section into a more usable form?

Well, turns out that’s the Binomial Theorem:

The Binomial Theorem

Don’t let the notation scare you. It’s similar to what we did in the last
section. The best way to understand any formula is to work an
example.Let’s try (2x–3)³.

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Let x from our formula be the first term and y be the second.
Then x=2x, y=–3, n=3 and k is the integers from 0 to n=3, in this
case k={0, 1, 2, 3}.

First I’ll fill in the formula using all the above values except k:

It still looks a little strange, but we’re getting closer.

Next fill in the values for k. Recall that k has 4 values, so we need to
fill out 4 different versions and add them together.

Simplify terms with exponents of zero and one:

Compute the rest of the exponent terms:

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We already know that the combinatorial numbers come from Pascal’s
Triangle, so we can simply look up the 4th row and substitute in the
values 1, 3, 3, 1 respectively:

using the corresponding Pascal numbers 1, 3, 3, 1

Finish multiplying and simplifying:

With the Binomial Theorem you can raise any binomial to any
power without the hassle of actually multiplying out the terms —
making this a seriously handy tool

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P10: BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
The Binomial Distribution describes a probability distribution
based on experiments that have two possible outcomes. The most
classic example of this is tossing a coin.

Say we’re interested in tossing heads, we’ll call this a “success” with
probability p. Then tossing tails is the “failure” case and has the
complement probability 1–p.

If we design an experiment with 3 trials (aka coin tosses) and want to


know the likelihood of tossing heads, we can use the probability
mass function (pmf) for the binomial distribution, where n is the
number of trials and k is the number of successes, to find the
distribution of probabilities.

Probability Mass Function (pmf) for the Binomial Distribution

Hey, that looks familiar! It’s almost the same formula as we used
above in the Binomial Theorem except there’s no summation and
instead of x’s and y’s we have p’s and 1–p’s.

Assuming a success probability of 0.5 (p=0.5), let’s calculate the


chance of flipping heads zero, one, two, or three times.

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Fill in the equation for n=3 and k=0, 1, 2, 3 and complete the
computations:

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