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Planning Material
Principles and design of water supply systems

1. first modern water supply and sanitary schemes were started in 1800.(UK,US)
2. First water supply system, in India was for Calcutta in 1870.
3. Water supply layout- collection from sources.
- Treatment plants
- Sedimentation- suspended solids are removed.
- Filtration- colloidal mater, bacteria are removed.
- Disinfection- removing bacteria, adding chlorine
- Distributions.
4. The quality of water required depends on- rate of demand
- Design period.
- Population to be served.

5. Percapita demand= Q/P*365, lit [Q=quality; P=population]

6. Water supply schemes are for 30yrs period.
7. Factors effecting rate of demand.
- Climate
- Cost of water
- Habits of people
- Efficiency of water system
- Metering of services
- Presence or absence of industries
- Quality of water
- Presence of absence of sewage system rg
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- System
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8. Water requirements
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- (200li)- Domestic needs- drinking, washing, cooking, bathing, flushing of toilets, gardening, air
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conditioning.
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- Commercial, institution- Shops, hotel, cinema houses, schools, offices, hostels.

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- Industrial- small, large scale.

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- Public use- washing streets, flushing of sewers, parks(25li)

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- Fire demand- 10li/day

- Loss-20-30%
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9. Quality of water for a town

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Domestic- 135 LPCD

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Industrial- 40
Public use- 25
Fire demand- 15
Losses- 55
TOTAL 270
10. Sources of water- surface, ground water.
11. choice of the source depends on, location of source, quality of water available, quality of water, cost of
entire scheme.(surface water)
12. Determination of yield depends on
13. Intensity of rainfall
14. Run off from the given catchments.
15. Actual giving of flow in streams.

13. Q=CM pow(3/4)- dickens’s formula

Q=CM pow (2/3) - ryve’s formula
Q=124M/ (M sq (2) +10.4) pow (1/2)
Q=max,flood discharge
M=catchment area
C=coefficient of nature of catchment
14. Yield from well depends on

i. Quality of water available in the qualifier.

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 ii. Depth of the well.
iii. Porosity of a qualifier.
iv. Location of near by wells.
v. Rate of pumping water.
vi. Slope of water table.

15. Formula- flow into a gravity well Q= Pi[k] (H sq-h sq)/Log base N (R/r)
- flow into pressure well Q=2Pi[k] (H sq-h sq)/Log base N (R/r)
- Q=rate of flow into well in m cube/day
- K=permeability constant in m/day
- m=depth of the confined a qualifier in m
- H=depth of water in well before pumping
- H=depth of water in well after pumping
- R=radius of influence in m
- R=radius of well in m
16. Methods of distribution from reservoir
- Gravity system- economical
- Pumping system
- Dual system
17. System of supply
- Continuous system- advantageous
- Intermittent system- disadvantageous
18. Water network system
i. Dead end or tree system
a) Advantages- discharge can be easily calculated
- Diameter of the pipes is smaller rg
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- Fewer value are requires.
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a) Disadvantages- repairs make inconvenient to people

- Adequate water for fire fighting may not be available
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- Contamination may occur

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ii. Grid- Iron system

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a) Advantages- during repairs, water can be supplied from other pipelines

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-In case of fire, water is available

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- As there are no dead ends, water circulates freely

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- Loss is minimum
b) Disadvantages-Exact calculation is difficult
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- longer peoples are required

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- More values are required

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iii. Circular or ring system

a) Advantage- every point receives from 2 directions
- during break down water can be supplied from other pipes
- for fire fighting water is available
- Design of pipes is regarded.
- Larger number of pipes regard is disadvantage
iv. Radial system
a) Calculation of pipe sizes easy
b) Quick service are advantages
19. Pressure required depends on- height of the highest building
- Distance of the point from reservoir
- The pressure required for fire hydrants
20. The residual pressure at ferrule points
a) Single storey-7m of water
b) Double-12m
c) Three-17m
d) Six-22m
21. The maintain good pressure in distribution
- Service reservoir should be located in a central place
- Should be balanced
- Booster pumps which may be provided for distant localities.
22. The value in flow pipe which prevents water from returning into pipe is air value.

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 23. The value that regulates water in an out flow pipe of an overhead reservoir is gate value.
24. the value that relieves high pressure in pipelines and plumbing fixtures in a building safety value
25. The value that provided at every depression and dead ends of water distributions of system is called
score valve.
26. Valve which allows a pipe to flow in one direction is reflux valve.
27. Divided used in this case of fire is hydrant.
28. Divided used for measuring amount of water through pipe is water mater.

Sewerage systems

1. Sewage- combination of domestic sewage, industrial waste, storm water

2. Sullage- water from kitchens, baths, sinks from buildings, except human or animal excreta
3. Refuse- dry rubbish from street and house sweeping.
4. Garbage-All types of semi-solid and solid waste food and products such as vegetables, waste meats.
5. Sewer-Pipe carrying sewage
6. Sewerage-System of pipes laid for carrying sewage.
7. Methods of disposal of sewage- conservancy system
- Carried out by buckets.
- Sullages led into near by stream
- Organic waste is burn or buried
- Water carriage- by conveyed underground designed sewers
8. System of sewerage- Separate system-Sewage, storm water is separate.
- Sewage to treatment plant
- Storn water to near by water course
- Combined system-both for treatment
- Partially separate-both from buildings are combined rg
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- Storm water from roads is separate.
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9. Quality of storm water depends on

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- Catchment area
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- Impermeability factor(run of coefficient)

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- Intensity of rainfall
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10. run off Q in m[cube]/s is Q=CAR/360, Rational method

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C=runoff coefficient
A=catchment area in hac
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R=intensity of rainfall in mm/hr

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11. Emprical formula-Q=CiA/14.158[(S/A)pow(1/4)]

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cnstant depends on ground surface(0.5-0.9)=C

max.rainfall in mm/hr=i
area in hac=A
S= slope in m/1000m,length of sewer
12. memath’s formula – Q=CiA/14.835[(S/A)pow(1/5)]
13. fanning’s – Q=3125 M pow(5/8), M=area in km sq
14. Talbot’s – Q=87000 M pow (1/4)
15. dickets Q=14=14 cm pow(3/4)
16. ryves Q=15 cm pow(2/3)
17. Self cleaning velocities
Diameter of sewer Self cleaning velocity
150 – 250 mm 1.00 m/sc
300 – 600 0.75
Above 600 0.6
18. design of sewers – Q=A*V, Q=discharge, Vvelocity, A=area of cross section
19. quality oe sewage depends on – area to be served

- arrangement of sewage
- type of system

20. population peak factor

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 Up to 20000 3.5
20,000 – 50,000 2.5
50000 – 7, 50,000 2.25
Above 7, 50,000 2.0
21. velocity of flow- chezy’s formula, V=C mi[pow(1/2)], m=hydraulic mean depth in m
22. Bazin’s formula C=157.6/[1.81+k/m pow(1/2)], k=constant
23. crimps and burge’s formula V=83.45 m pow(2/3) I pow(1/2)
24. manning’s formula V=1/n m pow(2/3) i pow(1/2), m=A/P
25. hazan and Williams formula V=0.85 cm pow(0.63) i pow (10.54)
26. the quality of liquid waste that flows through a combined sewer in dry weather including storm water in
the sewer is dry weather flow.
27. the minimum velocity is required to be maintained to avoid silling is called self cleaning velocity.
28. the weather that enters sewer through poor joints, crackes is called infilteration
29. in separate system, storm water and sullage are conveyed in surface drain.
30. the time required for developing maximum ratio of run off is called time of concertration
31. a and b are constants depending on frequency, t the duration of storm in minits the intensity of rainfall in
mm hour is 25.4a/t+b
32. shapes of sewers
- rectangular
- circular – most economical, only for separate system
- semi elliptical
- horse shoe – for large discharge
- egg shaped – for combined system, more self cleaning velocity

33. Meterials for sewers

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- Stone wear – Y.T junction forms
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- - for common use, house drain and laterals

- cement concrete – for storm water
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- R.C.C – for storm water

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- Precast – for water tight joints

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- Cast in situ – for making semi – elliptical, horse – shoe sewers

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- AC pipes – domestic sanitary drainage

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- Castiron pipe – long life

Stul pipe –
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34. Sewer suitable for carrying over pipes across bridge are cast iron
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35. Suitable material for a sewer to carry sewage under pressure – steel
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36. Joint used for joining stone ware pipe is spigot – and – socket.
37. Sewer appurtenances

- Manholes – spacing – pipedia meter (mm) spacing(m)

Up to 300 45
301 – 500 75
501 – 900 90
Beyond 900 as approved by authority

38. When a sewer connects with another sewer which is at a materially different level, drop manhole is
adopted
39. An opening through which storm water from a street is allowed to enter a strom sewer or a combined
sewer is called a street inlet.
40. small chambers constructed to prevent the entry of grit, sand, debris into the sewer lines are catch
basin or pits
41. Where it is not practicable to obtain a gradient in the sewer to give a self cleaning velocity of 0.75 m/s,
flushing tanks will be provided
42. Portion of sewer constructed lower than the adjacent stretch, to pass beneath a valley, water course or
other obstruction is inverted siphon
43. High storm water from heavy rain fall is disposed of from the sewers by means of regulators.
44. Proper location of flushing tank is lead of sewer line.

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45. An opening through which storm water is admitted and conveyed to the storm sewer called intercepting
chamber.
46. Change in direction of sewers is generally made at manholes.
47. Automatic flushing tanks works on the principles o siphon.
48. The sloping concrete on the sides of the channel in a man hole is called bunching.
49. The space in the lower position of manhole provided for inspection is working chamber.
50. Flushing tank is divided to flush water into a sewer once in a day.
51. Device used in a pumping station to measure the quality of flow of sewer is called flow recorder.
52. Sewage which is under going treatment is called septic sewage.
53. The functions of grit chamber isto remove inorganic substances.
54. Fine grit in the sewage is removed in detritus tank.
55. The function of skinning tank is to remove oil and fatty sub stances
56. Settled practicals of sewage in the sedimentation tank are sludge.
57. chemicals used for decomposing organic waste in the presence of air is flocculation
58. Process of decomposing organic waste in the presence of air is oxidation.
59. Biological treatment of sewage takes place in tricking fitter.
60. Function of sedimentation tank in sewage work is to remove suspended solids.
61. % of sludge mixed with sewage in primary settings is 20 – 40%
62. Large sized floating objects can be removed from sewage by screening.
63. Liquid sewage coming out of sedimentation tank is effluent.
64. The conversation of waste water from an industry can be done by recycling.
65. When sewage is disposed of into water bodies is called dilution.
66. Broad irrigation is an example of treating sewage by land treatment.
67. The burning of sludge is incineration.

Solid waste management rg

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1) Refuse – All the putrescrible and putrescible soild waste except body waste.
2) Rubbish – non putrescible waste includes paper, pins, glass, wood.
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3)Garbage – rejecting food constituents.

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4) In land filling waste is deposited in 0.9 – 4.5 m thick layers.

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5) Biological composition of aganic substances is composing.

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6) Burning of refuse under controlled manner is incineration.

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7) Incineration is generally for refuse.

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8) The process of stacking refuse in piles, frequently turning and derating.

9) Suitably gives a product known as composting.
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Sanitary fittings and fixtures

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1. Drain – Any pipe which conveys discharges from sanitary appliances

2. building drain – part of the lowest horizontal piping of draining system which receives the discharge
from soil, waste and other pipes inside the building and conveys it to the building sewer which begins I
m out side the building wall.
3. Building sewer – part of horizontal pipe of a drainage system which extends from the end of the building
drain receives discharge from it and conveys it to public sewer.
4. Soil waste – dischare water closets, urinals, slop sinks, and similar appliances.
5. Soil pipe – pipe that conveys the discharge of water closets of fiatures having similar functions.
6. Waste water – discharge from washbasins sinks.
7. Waste pipe – receives the discharge of any fixtures except water closets
8. stack – main vertical discharge or ventilating pipe
9. Trap – fitting device provide a liquid seal to prevent the back passage of air without affecting the flow of
sewage or waste water through it.
10. Gully trap – to collect waste water from kitchen, sink, washbasins, baths, and rainwater pipes.
11. Floor trap – waste water from floors of baths and kitchens into draing.
12. Intercepting trap – placed where the house drain joins the main sewer
13. Inspection chamber – receives the wastes from gully traps and disposes it off to man hide.
14. Pipe systems

- Two pipe system – one conveys soil directly to the drain other convey waste water to the drain
from diff. floor.

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 - One pipe system – waste connections from sinks, baths, wash basins and soil pipe branches
are collected into main pipe.
- Single stack system – one pipe system without ventilation pipe work.

15. sanitary fitting used to receive the human excreta directly from user is called water closet
16. Appliances used to flush water closets, urinals are flushing cisterns.
17. The pipe that conveys the discharge of water closets or fistures is called soil pipe.
18. The water seals in the trap are prevented from braking by means of the ventilating pipe.
19. All drainage pipe should be covered with a G.I wire dome.
20. Minimum self cleaning velocity for house drains 0.75 m/sec.

Principles of city planning

1. Urban area is primarily the seat of political, religious, commercial and cultural leaders of the society.
2. Village- Human settlement not exceeding 5000 population.
Principle occupation is agriculture
3. Towns- principles occupation is other than agriculture
5000<population> 20000
Medium town-20000-50000
Large town-50000-100000
4. Central village- More than 2000 population
Supplies, trade, institution.
5. New town- newly established for the purpose of specific economic activities, for
deconcentrating the population of large urban settlement and reconcentrating in a
separate location.
6. City- population>100000
New towns rg
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1. Town planning is a science consists in collecting, correlating and analyzing the facts about a town.
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2. The art lies in arranging the components of a town in such away that the final result is in the form of a
beautiful, convenient, economical and efficient unit.
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3. The town planning express the life of an area and the architecture reveals its spirit.
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4. Mohanjo – daro was discovered by british archaeologist sir john marshall in 1922.
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5. population of mohanjo – daro (2600 BC) was estimated as 40000 – 60000

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6. Objects of town planning

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- Beauty
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- Convenience
- Environment
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- Health
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7. Principles of town planning

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- Green belt
- Housing
- Public buildings
- Recreation centers
- Road system
- Transport facilities
- Zoning
8. topological features contributing to the origin of towns are
- Conditions favorable for industrial units.
- Hilly areas to achieve the object of security.
- Plain areas useful for business activities.
- River banks
- Sea or ocean fronts.
9. functional aspects responsible for the origin and towns are
- education
- health resorts
- political
- religious
10. growth of towns
1. natural – with out any future planning
• concentric spread
• Ribbon development – along main roads

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 • Satellite growth – individual
• scattered growth – irregular
2. Planned growth – controlled
- rules and regulation
- distribution

Site planning

 Principles
1. Keeping in view the purpose of building
2. Fast developing, social and friendly neighborhood
3. Where community services, utilities, amenities, means of transport are available
4. With in the limits of area, building byelaws
5. With possibilities of future extension
6. Situation on elevated place, with uniform slopes
7. Good soil surface for foundation
8. Naturally beautiful and man made environment
9. Good landscape and away from quarries, kilns, factories
10. Consider legal, financial aspects. (ownership rights)

 Site plan should include the information of

1. The boundary of the plot, shape of the site and exterior house dimensions
2. Set back line at the front, back and sites
3. Any permanent boundaries or marks
4. Names and widths of existing streets, grade elevation at centre line
5. Size and location of garages rg
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6. Number of plot, block
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7. Directions of prevailing winds and north line

8. Foot paths, widths and kinds
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9. Zoning and building restrictions

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10. Size and location details of gas line, underground drainage, water mines, man holes, ventilating
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pipes
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11. Location of fire hydrant

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Planning regulations and building byelaws

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1. Lines of building frontages

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Building line – line up to which the plinth of a building adjoining a street or an extension of street.
Control line – extra margin from building line which attracts vehicle
parking.

Type of road Actual limits in urban areas

Building line Control line
National and state highways 30 m 45 m
Major district roads 15 m 24 m
Other district roads 9m 25 m
Village roads 9m 15 m

2. Built up area of buildings

Built-up or covered area = plot area – open spaces

Floor area ratio, FAR = covered area of all floors x100

Plot area
In a business area, the covered area shall not exceed 75% of plot area
In an industrial, the covered area shall not exceed 60%
In a residential area,

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 Area of plot
Less than 200 SQm 60%
200 – 500 50%
500 – 1000 40%
More than 1000 33.33%

Arch. Developments

1. Architecture is an art of organizing space not only functionally but also beautifully.
2. The constituents of beauty are structure, utility and aesthetics.
3. Egyptian architecture reflects the absolute power of the pharaohs and slavery of the people.
4. Greek architecture was the product of the democratic belief of Greek civilization.
5. Roman architecture-roman imperical power.
6. basilican churches reflect religious enthusiasm.
7. Gothic reflects the condition of passionate enthusiasm.
8. French renaissance shows the pompous life of monarchs.
9. Indian architecture shows its spiritual content and represents.
10. principles of architecture-goodness or convenient arrangement.
- beauty
- truth
11. qualities of architecture- strength, vitality, restraint, response, grace, breadth, scale, good pictoral
setting, expression of purpose.
12. factor in architecture- mass,form,proportion,balance,symmetry,contrast.
13. all the prehistoric remains have religious relationship.
14. rg
the devt of historic architecture is a record of continuation of evolution, beginning with the Egyptian
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architecture.
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Influence of modern art on architecture

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Seven wonders of the ancient world

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1. The pyramid of Egypt.

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2. Hanging gardens of Babylon.

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3. The temple of artemis at Ephesus.

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4. The tomb of mansolus at halicarnassus.

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5. The Colossus of Rhodes.

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6. The statue of zeus at Olympia.

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7. The pharos at Alexandria.

Basic principles of arch. Acoustics

1. Def: The science of sound.
2. Sound is produced when part of atmosphere is compressed suddenly.
3. Sound can’t travel in vacuum; it requires a medium for transmission.
4. The speed at which the sound waves travel or pass through any medium is termed as sound velocity.
5. sound waves stroked on the walls of an enclosed room will be
a. Some is reflected back.
b. Some is absorbed by the surface and listeners.
c. Some are transmitted outside the room through vibration.
6. Concave surface leads to concentration of reflected sound waves and are provided to work as the
reflectors.
7. Convex surface tends to spread the reflected waves.
8. Defects developed due to the reflection of sound are
a. echoes - the repetition of sound by reflection of sound waves
b. Reverberation - the gradual process of transformation operates over a certain interval of time.
9. Absorbent materials are soft and porous

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 a. Working principle is the sound waves penetrate into the pores and in this process; the sound
waves are converted into other form of energy by friction.
b. The absorbing capacity depends on thickness, density and frequency of the sound.
c. The suspended absorbers in the form of inverted cones make the hall acoustically good.
d. Low frequency absorbent material should be used to achieve optimum reverberation time over a
wide range of frequency of sound.

10. type of absorbent materials

a. hairfelt - 0.60 (25mm)
b. acoustic plaster 0.15-0.30 (20mm)
c. acoustical tiles
d. strawboard - 0.30-500 (13mm)
e. pulp boards - 0.17
f. compressed fiberboard 0.30-0.52
g. compressed wood particle board 0.40 (13mm)
h. perforated plywood - 0.95-0.20
i. wood wool board - 0.20 (25mm)
j. quilts and mats

Air pollution, control

1. Air pollution is mainly contributed by industry, fast moving vehicles, and automobiles.
2. factors responsible for air pollution dust fertilizer producer industries
Cement dust
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Thermal power stations
Nuclei condensation
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Industries
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Aeroplanes
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Gases
Hydrogen sulphide
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Nitrogen
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Fluoride
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Nitric acid
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Ammonia hydrocarbons
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Radio active sources

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Carbon monoxide.
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3. Air pollutants enter human food and aggravate respiratory ailments such as bronchitis, asthama, lung
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cancer.
4. Air pollution effects stones, metals, mortar, wood etc.
Ammonia – eyes
Bestos – lung cancer
Barium – heart muscles
Iron – son into lungs
5. 40% of air pollution is caused by auto mobiles (CO, hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen).
6. control techniques
a. Gas absorption - effluent gasses are passed through the absorbers containing liquid
absorbents which treat the offending constituents.
b. Gas adsorption - passing effluent gas through solid absorbers contained in an
adsorption collecting device.
c. Combustion -
d. Gas cleaning
e. Source relocation
f. Fuel substitution
g. Process changes
h. Good operating practice
i. Source shut down and dispension.

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Noise pollution, control
1. The paths of transmission are air or solid parts of building construction and aquipment.
2. The greatest quality will flow through the path of least resistance.
3. Noises originating with in a room will be air borne.
4. Noises originating without a room will be air and solid borne.
5. If two partitions terminate at the ceiling sound will easily pass
6. Degree of noise reduction is achieved by the diff. in sound level produced at the source and the level
desired at the listener’s position.
7. Instrument for measuring the sound is sound level meter.
8. It consists of microscopic phone which feeds on electrical signal into an amplifier.
9. Air outlets and unit heaters usually have sound levels specified for the air conditions of operation.
10. We should obtain the noise reduction of diff. between probable or existing level and desirable level.
11. Abnormally high-level are associated with industries where as speech interference is influenced by
duration and distance of communication.

12. According to inverse square law, a doubling the distance between source and listner will cause a sound
pressure level reduction of 6 db.
13. Wind direction and velocity, temperature and gradients affects sound attenuation in air.
14. Sound travel outdoors will be influenced by reflective surfaces of the ground and buildings.
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15. Poor of adequate weight must close tightly against rubber gaskets on stops and be sealed at the
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threshold.
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16. Double doors may be used for additional insulation.

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17. The transmission loss of the material with which the door is made and of the installed door are not same.
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18. We gain insulation by assuming tight fit of sash and by using heavier glass in double or even triple plans.
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19. Main intersuptions in building construction which cause insulation are pipe sleeves, electrical race ways,
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back to back electrical outler boxes in walles, duct openings and recessed panel boards.
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20. Maximum possible reduction of sound with additional treatment is 6 db.

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21. Reflective surfaces will sustain the noise.

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22. Noise reduction = estimated or observed level – desired level.

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23. Compared to air borne sound, solid borne sound is apt to contain more energy.
24. The energy may be related by the vibrating structure at some distance from the source.
25. Air borne becomes solid borne if it sets construction in motion.
26. The path of sound traveling from the room, above to the room, below through side walls is called flanking
transmission.
27. Resident floor finisher provides varying degree of impact insulation.
28. Thin composition tiles on concrete floors reduce transmitted sound to 2 – 5 db
29. Cork tile, 5/16 inches thick provides 10 db.
30. Thick carpet – 20 db
31. A floor on batlens 6 – 7 db.
32. Resilient strips of one inch mineral wood or fiberglass under the battens will about double in insulation
value.
33. Semi discontinuous constructions are also good air borne sound insulations.
34. An excellent solution is the use of a foundation for equipment which rests on the ground and is
independent of the building structure.
35. Isolator elements like springs, rubber, may also be used.
36. High velocity and turbulent flow contribute to high noise levels.

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Principles of lighting and illumination
1. artificial lighting in independent of location, climate or even of the building fabric
2. which it bright sunshine the illumination is around 100klux
3. the intensity of thermal radiation is likely to be about 1kw/m sq
4. What we perceive as light, is a narrow wave length band of electromagnetic radiation from about 380 to
780.
5. It consists of energy particles – photons.
6. The wave length determines its color.
7. Light containing all visible waves is perceived as white.
8. the human eye’s sensitivity varies with the wavelength, it is greatest around 550 nm.(yellow)
9. Velocity of light 3*10 pow8 (air,vaccum)
2.25*10 pow8 (water)
1.98*10 POW 8(glass)
10. light incident on an object can be distributed as
Reflectance r
Absorbance a
Transmittance t
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r+a+t=1
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11. in case of opaque objects, t=0, r+a=1

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12. surfaces with neutral reflection properties will be seen in white light
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White, if r is above 0.75

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Grey if r is between 0.05 and 0.75

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Black if r below 0.05

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13. in mixing colored pigments, the absorptions are additive and reflections will be subtractive
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Yellow paint absorb blue reflects red, yellow, green

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Blue paint absorb red, yellow reflects blue, green

Mixture of two absorb blue, red, yellow reflects only green
14. A mixture of all kids of pigment will be black, as it absorbs all wave lengths.
15. Colors which add up from white light are termed contemporary colors.
E.g. – red and green, yellow and blue
16. Hue – the concept of color, using the common color terms: red, yellow, green, blue and purpose, but
further sub dividing each into 5 categories.
17. Value – the subjective measures of reflectance, light or dark appearance according to scale from
0(absolute black)to 10(absolute white) convertible into reflectance r=v(v-1)
18. Chroma– the degree of color full ness or intensity of color, distinguishing 14 classes. A low chroma would
be almost grey; the brightest colors have a chorma of 12 to 14.
19. The intensity of a light source is measured in units of candela (I).
20. The flux (flow) of light is measured in lumens (F).
21. On lumen is the flow of light emitted by a unit intensity point source, with in a unit solid angle.
22. Illumination is measured as the amount of flux falling on unit area, (E) Im/m sq which is the lux, the unit of
illumination in the system international.

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 23. Luminance is the measure of brightness of a surface.(L)
24. Illumination from a point source reduces with the square of the distance. E=1/d sq
25. Illumination of a surface from several sources will be the simple sum of component illumination
E=E1+E2+……………..
26. Solar illumination is the average illumination received on the surface of a small sphere from all directions.
27. The purpose of lighting – practical – to facilitate the performance of a visual task and ensure visual
comfort
- Artistic – to create certain emotional effects
28. Visual acnity = 1/visual angle (P)
Contrast sensitivity = least perceptible luminance dye. * 100%/lower of the two
(L2-L1)*100/L1
29. visual performance is the tome required for seeing
30. the eye responds to a range of illumination levels extending over a million orders of magnitude from 0.1
lux (full moonlight) to 100000 lux(bright sun line)
31. When delta E (max)/E(s)=4, we have a completely meno directional light.
32. E beta = E(n)*cos(beta)
E beta = illumination on a plane fitled by beta degree
E (n) = illumination on a normal plane
rg
.o
ub

Beta = angle of incidence

sh
ct

Role of micro climate in design

te

1. Microclimate – imply local deviation from the climate of a large area.

hi
rc

2. topography – Slope, orientation, exposure, elevation, hills or valleys

.a

3. A differential of 7 to 8 m in height can cause a different of 5 to 6 deg C in air temperature.

w

4. Stone, concrete, asphalt surface can reach a temperature up to 44 deg C than the surrounding air
w
w

temperature
5. By covering the ground with vegetation, the surface of contact is transferred to a higher layer and is
increased 4 to 12 times.
6. the factors causing deviations of the urban climate from the regional macro climate are
 changed surface qualities – increased absorbance of solar radiation reduced evaporation.
 Buildings
 Energy seepage
 Atmospheric pollution

Thermal comfort
1. The process involved in converting food at sunlight into living matter and useful form of energy are known
as metabolism.
2. The metabolic heat production can be divided into
 Basal metabolism – production of vegetative, automatic process
 Muscular metabolism – production of muscles.

- 12 -
3. Of all the energy produced in the body, only about 20% is utilized.
4. 80% is surplus heat and must be dissipated to the environment
5. The deep body temperature must remain balanced and constant around 37 deg C
6. Body can release heart to its environment by convection, radiation and Evaporation, and to a lesser
extent by conduction.
7. Convection is due to heat transmission from the body to the air in contact with the skin or clothing
8. Radiation heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the temperature of opposing
surfaces.
9. Evaporation depends on the humidity of air (the dryer the air, the faster the evaporation)
10. Conduction depends on the temperature difference between the body surface and the object, the body is
in direct contact with
11. Met – Evap + or – cond + or – conv + or – rad = 0
12. The rate of sweating may vary from about 20 g/h to 3 kg/n
13. In a temperature climate, indoors when the air temperature is around 18C when the air is clam i.e., air
velocity does not exceed 0.25 m/sec. when the humidity is bdt 40 and 60%, a person engaged in
sedentary work will dissipate the surplus heat with out any difficulty as by

rg
.o
Radiation 45%
ub

 Convection 30%
sh

 Evaporation 25%
ct
te

14. Normal skin temperature is between 31 deg C and 34 deg C.

hi
rc

15. Thermal preferences are influenced by clothing, acclimatization, age and sen, body shape, subcutaneous
.a

fat, state of heath, food and drink, skin colour.

w
w

16. N deg C = N+273.15 kelvin

w

17. The greater the temperature different; the faster the rate of heatflow
18. Thermal conductivity – the rate at which molecular movement spreads varies with different materials. (k =
w/m.deg C)
19. Its value varies between 0.03 w/m degC for insulating materials, and up to 400 w/m degC for metals
20. The lower the conductivity, the better insulator a material is
21. resistivity 1/k
22. Better insulators will have higher resistivity values.
23. Resistance of a body is R=b/k (b=thickness in m)
24. Low thermal capacity structures warnwp quickly but also cool rapidly
25. Construction with a low U – value (air – to – air transmittance) will reduce all forms of conduction heat
transfer.
Egyptian Architecture (3000BC-100AD)

1. Columnar and trabeated style (trab=beam)

2. Mainly tombs and temples.
3. contrast to west Asiatic architecture(palaces)
4. Egyptian-Massive walls, made of sun dried mud bricks

- 13 -
5. Housing- One or two storey high, living hall in centre.
6. Temples- rectangular plan, fronted by monolithic pillars, oriented to word nile.
7. Columns- vegetable origin like the lotus stalk, tied intervals by bands.
8. Advanced in use of colors, blue, red, yellow
9. Tomb was an eternal home to Egyptians.
10. 3 types of tombs-mastabas, royal pyramids & rock cut caves.
11. Mastaba- central space-sarcophagus
12. Pyramids-only for pharaohs-massive & impregnable tombs.
13. Material used for core-Lime stone.
14. Granite for king’s chamber, passages.
15. Entrance from north.
16. Great pyramid of cheops at Giza(230.5m*230.5m), 146m height.
17. Built in solid stones with a casing of finally dressed Tura lime stones & the apex stone was once coated
with gold.
18. Rock cut tombs- eg:Trit-Aukh-Amon at Thebes.
19. temples 2 types- Mortuary, Ministration to pharaohs(cult)
20. Mortuary-Series of rooms, pillared court, phypo style hall- the dark mysterious chamber, chapel.
21. Only the royal & privileged persons were admitted for stately
22. Religious functions.
23. In cult temples, the processions were unique features.
24. Sphinxes & obelisks were set up in pairs to dignify the temple entrances
25. eg of cult temple, temple of khons at konark.
26. Obelisks are large sizes monoliths square in plan(sun worship)
27. Height of obelisk is 9 or 1- times its lower diameter.
28. 4 sides of base are cut with fingers of hieroglyph.
rg
.o
Greek architecture (650BC-30BC)
ub

1. Greek temples were surrounded by open colonnades in full view of common people
sh

2. Oriented to words east(sun)

ct

3. Civilization spread mainly during bronze ages.

te

4. Hellenic(650-323BC)
hi

5. Columnar & trabeated style evolved from wooden hut of up right posts & supporting beam & sloping
rc

rafters.
.a

6. two periods-Hellenic period, Hellenistic period.

7. Arches, domes, vaults were not used by the Greeks.
w

8. Greek used timber & after built.

w

9. In 600BC - Masonry from coursed rubble to fine ashlars.

w

- no mortar was used.

- Minimized the joints by using large sized stones.

10. 3 orders of architecture-Doric, Ionic, Corinthian.

11. Hellenistic period(323-30BC)
12. Influenced by Middle Eastern culture.
th
13. Religious character but after 4 century BC, public buildings began
14. Arches started appearing on wall openings.
rd
15. 3 century BC roof trusses came to cover larger spaces.
16. Ornate Corinthian order was more popularly used.

Roman architecture (300BC-365AC)

1. Followed columnar style and also Etruscan’s arch &vault.

2. Columns were superimposes in case of colosseum of rome.
3. Use of lime concrete was started(cement)
4. Character of rome arch is the capacity to span over large spaces.
5. Roman buildings were of several storied, ornamented by half attached columns superimposed one
above the other.
6. arch. of romes was essentially an art of shaping space around rituals.
7. Many structures were utilization type such as acqueducts & bridges.

- 14 -
 Medieval period

1. Early Christian architecture (313-800 AD)

i. Fallowed roman style.

ii. Columns were either closely spaced to carry entablature or widely spaced to carry semi-circular
arches.
iii. The basilican churches were rendered spacious, graceful, impressive and dignified by arranging
the columns & rows.
iv. Main entrance was provided in one shorter side.
v. Biblican scenes become usual features of decoration.
vi. Architecture represents their fantacism, passion search for mystery of the real presence.

2. Byzantic architecture ()330-1453AD)

i. Characterized by the novel devt of dome cover square or polygon plans of churches and
tombs.
ii. Various type of domes used were, simple, compound, melon shaped, onion shaped.
iii. Domes were constructed with out centering with thin radiating bricks or light weight fumic
stones.
iv. Used the columns decorately as well as structurally to support galleries and semi circular
arches.
v. Walls were fully covered with marble mosaics and fresco-decoration

th
3. Muslim architecture 7 century rg
.o
i. Major constructions- mosque, tombs, palaces.
ub

ii. Constructions- Jama masjid

- madrassah
sh

- rauza
ct

- dargah
te

- khans
hi

- the pointed architecture

rc

- the dome
.a

- arabesque
w

th
4. Romanesque architecture (9 to 15 century)
w
w

i. Is direct modification of roman architecture which grew in Italy, France, Germany, central
Europe, Spain, and Britan.
ii. Used lighter materials.
iii. Stained glass was little used.
th
5. Gothic architecture (12 century)

i. Introduction of pointed architecture, buttress and high pinnacle.

ii. Invented flying buttress in place of vaults to support walls.
iii. Gothic style is a synthesis of aesthetic and technical qualities.
iv. Invented stained colored glass.
v. Designed town halls, royal places, court houses, hospitals.
vi. Churches were convenient rather than symmetry.

renaissance periods
th th
6. Renaissance architecture (15 19 century)

- 15 -
 i. Is the revival of classic Greek and roman architecture.
ii. Large sized stone blacks were used to dignity
iii. Buildings were arranged with special regard to symmetry.
iv. 5 order of architecture were standardized and used both constructively and decoratively.
v. Ornamentation was based on classical methodology and pagan subject.
vi. Status was neither proportion to human scale nor an integral part of the buildings.
vii. In place of stained glass, fresco paintings were used.

Buddhist architecture (300BC-820BC)

1. Major features- stupas or topes, stambhas or lats, chaityas, viharas or monasteries.

2. stupa- monument propagates the ‘Doctrine’.
3. stupa- circular, section and the total form of which were all derived from circle.
th rd
4. eg:stupas,sanch(250BC), Saronath(7 century), Amaravath(3 c,AD), bar hut(2rd c,AD),budh
gaya(75BC)
5. Column-2types-persepolitan type, graeco-roman type.
6. First-octagonal, bell shaped capital.
7. graeco- roman type is rectangular with shallow flucts.
8. Eg: ashoka pillars (274-237 BC)
9. chaityas-temple as well as assembly halls created out of particular demands of Buddhist region.
nd
10. Eg: Bhaja,kondane,karle,ajanta(2 C,BC), tllora.
11. Vihara- residential places of Buddhist priests.
Indus valley civilization (Harappan)(3000)
Indian architecture (500 BC to present)

1. rg
5000 yrs ago, people from Sumerian origin came and settled nearest river Indus.
.o
2. Is a contemporary of ancient Mesopotamia.
ub

3. cities were systematic and divided into 12 blocks (365*244m each)

4. English bonds in walls.
sh

5. Streets-9m wide.
ct

6. Under ground drainage lines with inspection chambers at regular intervals.

te

7. houses consisted of rooms around a courtyard and staircase.(kiln burnt bricks)

hi

8. Ox- driven carts of large solid whets for transportation.

rc

9. Tools of stone and copper were in use.

.a

10. Pots were made of clay, wood.

w

Vedic (1500-1000BC)
w

1. Dravidians-The builders of the city civilization of Indus valley.

w

Indo-Aryan (1500BC)

1. Aryan village was made of timber and thatch huts.

2. Protected by timber fence consisting of rectangular wooden posts.
3. Gate way at entrance.
4. All Indian art is derived from the Aryan village.
Dravidian architecture (600AD-1000AD)
1. Temple consists of garbha-gritha (womb-house) with a mandope or the open porch.
2. Mainly adopted trabeated system of construction.
3. No arches, avoid mortar.
4. Temples were expanded with courtyards called prakaras enclosing gopurams.
5. Temples on hill tops, situated amidst beautiful surroundings.
6. 5 types-pallava, chola, pandya, vijayanagar, late pandya/madhura
7. pallava- rock cut temple, structural temples(shore temple)
8. chola: temple consists of usual compartment such as a pillared halls attached to the vimana or the
tower over the sanctum.(brihadeshwar temple of tanjavur)
9. Pandya- practice of constructing the vimala over the cella; importance to the temple entrance gopuram.
10. Vijayanagar style-temple of modulate sizes, rich in beauty, form, proportion,
In addition to main temple in centre, there were separate shrines, pillared halls,
and pavilions.
11. Another important is kalian-mantapa.
12. Late pandyan/madhura style

- 16 -
 - Temples with vast size and impressive appearance.
- Pillared halls, parkares outside.
- Eg: Ranganath, Madhura, Rameswaram, Tirupathi.

Concept of shelter
1. Agglomeration – An urban region whose boundaries may exceed those of one, usually large city.
2. Primary city – One or more of the largest cities in a country that holds a relatively high percentage of
the total urban population.
3. Urban population growth – refers to the increase in the absolute number of people residing in cities.
4. Urbanization – refers to the proportion of the overall population that resides in urban areas.
5. Decentralization – the process where by growth in urban population and employment takes place in
secondary cities that may be 150 km away from the metropolitan area and beyond
6. Deconcentration – the expansion of employment and population in peripheral areas around a city.
7. Housing is a medium for self expression as well as a sanctuary for old age.

Concrete
1. Cement concrete – is a mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate, course aggregate.
2. the proportion of cement, sand and aggregates is 1:2 or 3:4 or 6
3. Lime concrete – mixture of slaked lime, fine aggregate, course aggregate. (1:2:4), water.
4. R.C.C – the concrete and reinforcing metal.

Role of government agencies

1. Cooperative housing societies are helped by the govt. in
a. Acquiring land at cheap rates
b. Providing financial help at reasonable rates
rg
.o
ub

2. First 1915 Saraswat Coop. Housing Society, Bombay.

sh

3. HUDCO (1970) Housing and Urban development cooperation : aims to help backward classes,
ct

SC,ST
te
hi
rc

Category Cost ceiling Rate of int. Repayment period % of loans from

.a

HUDCO
w
w

EWS 8000 5% 20 yrs 30

w

LIG 18000 7 15 25
MIG (I) 25000 9.5 12
25
MIG (II) 42000 10.5 12
HIG 100000 11.5 10 20

4. CIDCO (City and Industrial Development cooperation), Bombay.

a. MRT (mass rapid transit ) through cancroids of residential and industrial nodes
b. Each node having 1 lakh population

Housing policies and design

1. constraints of housing commodity
a. immobility
b. initial investments
c. finance, transport, land policy
2. housing policies in India – two approaches are

- 17 -
 a. demand-led housing approach - rural development
Bring down the migrations
Encouraging small and medium towns
b. supply-led approach - maximize the no of dwelling units
Improve the quality of environment
Promote low cost alternatives
Use of vacant land
Taxation policies
Suitable amendments for rent control
3. housing activity depends on
a. availability of labor
b. availability of cheap finance
c. available transport facilities
d. methods of construction
e. rate of interest or investment
f. predictions of future demands
g. development of population
h. taxation policy on real estates
rg
.o
ub

i. Tour planning and environmental conditions.

sh

4. General requirements of resi. Buildings

ct

a. Height – wrt road, street.

te

b. Location – near schools, amenities, away from noise, smoke.

hi
rc

c. Privacy
.a

d. Orientation – wrt sun, winds.

w

e. Security – safe construction.

w
w

f. Space – 4.56 M2 per person.

g. Utilities – electricity, water, drainage, at reasonable rates.
h. Ventilation.
5. classification of residential buildings
a. detached houses - where land value is low
House and little land surrounding it
Margins on all sides
Highest form of housing
b. Semi-detached houses - plot divided into 2 by a wall
Advantages like sharing of costs
c. Row houses - min requirements with regards to space
Single or double strayed
Yield more net resi.density
Preferred for LIG
d. Apartments - sharing the cost of land and amenities

- 18 -
 e. Sky scrappers - similar as apts.
6. Design of resi. areas
a. Aesthetics
b. Basic materials
c. Housing unit - 300-1000 people
d. Lay out - showing parks, schools, comm. centers
e. Size and shape 3000-12000 pop. Of a resi. Unit
f. Street system

7. National housing policy

Govt has passed the Urban land act, 1976 for securing excess land from private land holders
for development of housing schemes for the weaker sections.
Objectives
1. for increasing housing supply to weaker sections
2. to check the growth of population
3. proper land use policy to prevent haphazard development
4. removal of slums
5. encourage housing cooperatives
rg
.o
ub

6. adequate financial provisions for housing

sh

7. Propagation and use of new, cheap locally available buil. Material.

ct

1. Principles of landscape design and site planning

te
hi
rc

2. Landscape is a reflection of dynamic natural and social systems.

.a

3. Landscape theory - natural process, social processes, methodology, and technology of values.
w

4. Goals of art of landscape - Surprise, variety, concealment, the development of idyllic prospects,
w
w

line of beauty, manipulation of nature undulating contours, elimination of visual break between garden
and landscape.
5. Landscape design deals with - surfaces, edges and joints, steps and ramps, connecting specific
differences in elevation, paving and drainage.
6. Trees act as ‘scale transition’ from the multiple building to the individual.
7. BEAUTY – the evident harmonious relationship of all sensed components.
8. VIEW – A scene observed from a fine vantage point,
Is a theme that may suggest and give added meaning to will
related functions.
9. VISTA – An unframed segment of view,
Is a function of axis.
10. AXIS – a linear plan element connecting two or more points.
11. HEIGHT – connects attainment, potential, expansion, exhilaration, inspiration, the sublime and release.
12. DEPTH – connects regression, concentration, confinement, shelter, the profane and weight of pressure.
13. SEQUENCE – a succession of perception having counting.

- 19 -
14. The best source of design criteria is field observation.
15. The best test of design is performance.

16. stages of landscape planning -

Survey and analysis: classification of landscape types
Evaluation
Policy or design solution
Implementation

17. Trees – entrapment, scale induction, backdrop, ornamentation, noise abatement, and shade ground
space.
18. trees are the basis
19. Group trees to stimulate natural stand
20. Use canopy trees to unify the site
21. Install intermediate trees for understudy screening, wind break, and visual interest.
22. Shrubs for supplementary low level baffles and screens.
rg
.o
ub

23. Treat vines as nets and draperies.

sh

24. Install ground covers on the base plane to retain soils.

ct

25. Soil moisture, define paths, and use areas and provide turf where required.
te

26. Choose as a dominant theme tree a type that indigenous, moderately fast growing and able to thrive
hi
rc

with little care.

.a

27. Exotic species to be limited to areas of high reinforcement.

w

28. Use trees to sheathe traffic ways.

w
w

29. Give emphasis to traffic ways node.

30. Keep the sightless clear at road way intersections.
31. Arrange the tree groupings to provide views and expansive open species.
32. Use plantings to reinforce the alignment of paths and road ways.
33. Concealing unwanted areas, unpleasant views, eliminate glare and reduce noise levels.
34. Provide evolving sequences of space to enclose and link the various site use areas.
35. Strengthen the protruding points of mass planting with dominant plants.
36. Establish vegetation along the malls and water ways.
37. Complement the topographical form.
38. Use plants as space defines.
39. Create a harbor like entrance portal to each neighborhood.
40. Site planning procedure
o Definition of intent
o Procurement of topographical survey
o Program development

- 20 -
 o Data gathering and analysis
o Site reconnaissance
o Organization of reference plan set and file
o Preparation of exploratory studies
o Comparative analysis a revision of studies – leading to an approved conceptual plan
o Development of preliminary development plans and estimate of costs
o Preparation of construction plans, specifications and bidding documents.
41. Methods of planting
Transplanting from Nurseries
Propagation by cutting
Grafting
Layering
42. road side trees
suited to climate and soil
hardly and robust
shading but not sending out large branches
evergreen/be in leaf during summer
deep rooted
rg
.o
ub

Species having large and thick laves to be avoided are they require move moisture.
sh

In heavy clay soils keep fast growing trees at least 15 m away from the road.
ct

Should be planted 1.8 to 3m away from the outer edge of the side width.
te

Suitable spacing – 9 to 15 m
hi
rc

43. criteria for plantation on the roadside

.a

habitual
w

root system
w
w

start of canopy
density of foliage
form
period of leaf fall
nuisance from fruit
lifespan
rate of growth
resistance to wind
spread height ratio
soil type
depth of ground water
44. Coinage of term ‘landscape architect’ by Frederick Law Olmsted.
45. Carless of Versailles by Andre Le North (ordered landscape)
46. Philadelphia was landscaped by William Penn
47. Birkinhead Park near Liverpool Joseph Paxton.

- 21 -
48. The process by which an individual maintains its internal environment in an approximately permanent
state is called homeostasis.
49. Comfort Zone concept by Victor Olgag.
50. Site planning book – Kevin Lunch.
51. Turfing is artificially planting grass on outside slopes of embankments and erodible soils.
52. street poles should be kept 0.6 m back from the curb side walks min. width=1m
53. landscape architecture – J.O. Simonds
54. Some garden cities of America – Reston, Columbia.
55. Dry soil tends to higher temp, low humidity.
56. Gradient – rate of slope between two points expressed as a percentage, or as ratio of horizontal
distance to vertical change in elevation, or as an angle
rd
57. The vulnerable area around a tree is equal to its spread + 1/3 the area around it.
58. Quantity of water arriving at any point in a watershed is derived from
Q=Aci
A= area of watershed in acres
C=coefficient of runoff
I=is a quantity derived from the amount of rain that can be expected for a selected storm
frequency combined with the farthest distance.
rg
.o
ub

59. CLIMATE – is the sensation produced by the combination of radiation, ambient temp., relative humidity,
sh

and air movement.

ct

60. ALBEDO – Fraction of the total radiant energy of a given wavelength incident on a surface that is
te

reflected back instead of being absorbed for mirror 1.0, for matte black surface 0, water surface usually
hi
rc

has low albedo but its angle of incidence is decreased after.

.a

61. For infrared radiation the albedo of most natural material is low.
w

62. Conductivity of the material decreases as they are drier and less dense convection.
w
w

63. INVERSION – is a situation when air is coldest at the ground and warmer higher up.
64. EDDY - is the zone of low pressure when the air is relatively quiet but moving erratically.
65. MICROCLIMATOLOGY – ‘science of small scale weather’.
Eliminate the extremes of heat, cold, humidity, air environment and exposure.
Provide direct structural protection against the discomfort of solar radiation, precipitation,
wind, storm and cold.
Respond to the seasons.
Adjust to the movement of the sun.
Consider the wind also as a time tested source of energy.
Utilize the evaporation of moisture as a primary method of cooling.
Maximize the beneficial effects of adjacent water bodies.
Preserve the existing vegetative cover.
Consider the effect of attitude and latitude.
Reduce the humidity.
Avoid undrained catchment areas and frost pockets.

- 22 -
 Avoid winter winds, floods and paths of crippling storms.

Behavioral characteristics of building materials

Timber
1. Timber is derived from Timbrian means ‘built’.
2. Timber is obtained from trees not less than 600 mm in circumference.
3. Three types of timber
a. Converted – is sawn and cut into suitable sizes
b. Rough – after felling of trees
c. Standing – living tree
4. Properties of good timber
Low heat conductivity
Amenability
Small bulk density
Relatively high strength
5. Drawbacks of timber
Susceptibility to decay
Inflammability
Fluctuations due to moisture content rg
.o
Variations in strength, length
ub

6. Wood waste – saw dust, shavings are used with admixture of organic glues to make fiber-slabs, fiber
sh

boards.
ct

7. Other uses of wood – organic acids, rosin, paper, cardboard, cellulose.

te

8. Age of the wood capable of producing quality timber with adequate girth is 50 yrs.
hi
rc

9. Babul, Eucalyptus, poplar, sissioo (20 yrs).

.a

10. A single tree can cool the summer heat for an entire day and night and is found better than 20 ACs
w

running for 20 Hrs.

w

11. A hectare of trees produce about 10 times of O2 (for 45 persons for 1 year)
w

Item Soft wood Hard wood

Annual rings Distinct Opposite
Color Light ”
Fire resistance Poor ”
Modular rays Indistinct ”
Strength Strong for direct pull and weak for resisting
”
thrust or shear
Structure Resinous and split easily ”
Weight Light ”

12. Defects in timber

a. Conversion
b. Fungi
c. Insects
d. Natural forces
e. Seasoning

- 23 -
 13. Qualities of good timber
a. Hard and shining appearance
b. Color is dark
c. Free from knots, flaws, shakes
d. Should be durable
e. Should be elastic
f. Should have straight fibers
g. Fire resistance
h. Hardness
i. Should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear
j. Capable of retaining its shape while burning
k. Sweet smell
l. Clear ringing sound when struck
m. Sound in wood is 2 to 17 times greater than in air.
n. Strong for working as structural member such as joint, beam, rafters.
o. Toughness – capable of resisting shocks
p. Low water permeability
q. Stand for weathering effect
r. Heavy weight
Bamboo rg
.o
1. Flexible, very strong and durable.
ub

2. Used for scaffolding, thatched roofs, rafters, temporary bridges, fancy goods.
sh
ct

Bricks
te

1. Prepared by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size.

hi

2. Bricks are durable and having strength, reliability, low cost, easy availability.
rc

3. Great Wall of China (210 BC) by burnt and sun dried bricks.
.a
w

4. India has production capacity to manufacture over 10000 crores.

w

5. Compositions of good brick earth

w

Use
20-30% alumina (plasticity for moulding)
50-60% silica (prevents cracks, shrinks, wrapping)
5% lime (prevents shrinkage)
5-6% oxide of iron (as lime to fuse sand and provides red color
Magnesia (yellow tint, decrease shrinkage)

6. Harmful ingredients
Effect
Excess of lime (lumps)
Iron pyrites (crystallized and disintegrated)
Alkalies (cause bricks fuse, twists, wrap)
Pebbles (unregulations)
Vegetation & (porous)
Organic matter

7. Classification of brick earth

- 24 -
Ingredient Loamy, mild or Marls, chalky or Plastic, strong or
sandy clay calcareous clay pure clay
Alumina 27% 10 34
Silica 66 35 50
Lime & magnesia 1 48 6
Oxide of iron 1 3 8
Organic matter 5 4 2

8. Qualities of good bricks

a. Table moulded, well burnt, copper colored, free from cracks with sharp and square edges.
b. Uniform in shape and standard size.
c. Should give clear metallic ringing sound
d. When broke should show a bright homogeneous and uniform compact structure free from voids.
e. Should not absorb water > 20% by weight when soaked in cold water for 24 Hrs.
f. Sufficiently hard, no impression should be left when scratched.
g. Should not break into pieces when drop from 1 Mt height.
h. Low thermal conductivity and sound proof.
i. Should not show deposits of white salts when allowed to dry in shade after soaked in water.
j. Should not have crushing strength < 5.5 N/mm2.
rg
.o
Concrete
ub

1. The tensile and shear strengths are about 8 to 12 % and 8 to 10 % of their compressive strengths
sh

respectively.
ct

2. The comprehensive strength of concrete is influenced by

te

 Quality of materials
hi


rc

Water
.a

 Water – cement ratio

w

 Age of concrete
w

 Cement content
w

 Methods of mixing placing, curing

3. generally the strength decrease with increase in degree of workability
4. With the age, the concrete goes on hardening, there by increase in strength
5. not truly elasticity modulus is influenced by strength, age, moisture content
6. Concrete under goes extra strain on application of load is called creep of concrete which , not
recovered on removal of load
7. Concrete is a good insulator
8. When used with steel in R.C.C,it can with stand both compressive and tensile stresses
9. Free from corrosion
10. Concrete is proved to economical than steel
11. Other types
 Vibrated concrete – for high compressive strength
 Light weight concrete – for fire resistance, partitions
 Vaccum concrete – for more strength
 Lime, surkhi concrete – for economy
12.

- 25 -
Proportion Max. size of aggregate Nature of construction
1:1:2 12 to 20 mm Loaded R.C.C columns and R.C.C
arches
1:2:2 12 – 20 Small precast member like, fencing
poles, water tight constructions
1:2:3/3:5:10 20 Water tanks, bridges, sewers
2:5:7 25 Foot path, concrete roads
1:2:4 40 R.C.C work, stairs, beams, columns,
sunshades, slabs, lintels
1:3:5 50 Mass concrete works in culverts,
retaining walls.
1:4:8/1:5:10/1:6:12 60 Heavy walls, foundation footings

Glass
1. Is a mixture of number of metallic silicates, one of which is usually that of an alkali metals
2. it is basically a hard, brittle, trans par cut material
3. Not effected by ordinary chemical reagents, air or water.
4. Possible to weld pieces of glass by fusion
5. Affected by alkalis but can take up high polish
rg
6. Provides excellent electric insulation due to uncertain crystalline structure
.o
7. Absorbs, refracts or transmits light
ub

8. Available in colors, no sharp melting points

sh
ct

Design of structural elements in wood, steel, RCC

te
hi

Wood
rc
.a

1. Art of cutting, framing and placing of raw timber in a position is called carpentry and joinery
w
w

2. timber which is thus dressed and finally placed in position is called wrought and put up
w

3. The art of cutting of wood by means of saws is called sawing

4. Process of planning off the flat edges off timber piece to form an angle 45 deg is called chamfering
5. The process of chamfering, if the angle formed is other than 45 deg is known as bevel
6. Taking the shaving of wood is called planning
7. Process of shaping the various units of construction by hand or machine to produce molded sections is
called moulding.
8. The process of joining two boards or pieces of timber at an angle I called mitring.
9. This is the process of cutting away a rectangular portion from the edge of timber piece for sufficient
depth is called rebating
10. Dressing the edges of the boards so as to male them straight and square with the face is called
shooting
11. The sinking of the edge of one piece of timber in to another is called housing
12. The semi circular object formed on edges or surfaces of wood is called bead
13. Covering the entire or part of surface with veneers is called veneering
14. Method of joining two boards at right angle is called Dovetailing

- 26 -
Steel
1. Plats may be of any size or thickness butt generally they are not rolled to thickness <5 mm and> 28
mm
2. Maximum area of rolled plates is limited to 30 sq.m
3. plates < 4mm in thickness are sheets
4. Flats are rolled as in the case of plate but are much longer in lengths and have shorter widths
5. Widths vary from 18mm to 50 mm, thickness – 3 mm to 8 mm
6. Angles

 Equal legs – 2 cm * 2 cm to 20 cm to 20 cm, 3 mm to 5 mm

 Unequal legs – 2 cm*3 cm to 22 cm *10 cm, 4 mm – 20 mm

7. T section – 4 cm*4 cm to 15*15 cm, 6 mm to 8 mm

8. Channels – 5*7 pow(1/2)*3 kg to 42*10*30 kg
9. Joists – 7*4 to 60*17 cm]
rg
.o
10. Uses
ub
sh

 Plats – as webs and flanges of deep beams, column flanges, column bases
ct

 Flats – considerable use

te

 Angle – used in diff. components

hi
rc

 T section – for roof trusses and for certain built up columns

.a

 Channels – beams, columns

w
w

 Joists/I – section – beams columns

w

11. Riveting – the common practice to connect the members by rivets.

12. Rivets used in building construction are made of soft steel with a tensile strength of 3500 to 4000 kg/cm
sq
13. Lap joint connections – connecting plates are lapped one over the other and riveted
14. Butt joint connection – connected with the aid of additional plants
15. Welded connected – the diameter of the holes is kept 1 mm larger than external diameter of the bolt
thread.

Structural members
1. Steel beams – include girders, lintels etc
2. Simplest beam consists of a single rolled steel joint section or an angle section
3. To take greater loads, compound sections are used
4. plate girders are used when very large loads have to be carried

- 27 -
5. Beams carrying light loads and where the shearing forces are not excessive, open web beams are
used.
6. If the beam is accommodated below the top flange of the girder the connection is called under girder
flange.
7. If the top flange of the beam and portion of the web is cut off so as to accommodate the top flange of
the order that is called top flush.
8. When a beam at a lower level is to be connected to a girder at a higher level that is called blocked
connection.
9. Beams meeting at higher levels with the girder are called blocked and elevated connection.
10. If beams and girders are connected at different levels, is called hanger connections.
Comprehensive planning

1. The process of comprehensive plg involves conceptualizing a city from the broad to the particular.
2. The decision maker must see the city in its main physical out lines and elements as much as we can
retain in one coherent, unified image.
3. To this core picturization is tied as much dynamic economic, social, political, quantitative abstract
information of all types as much detail as the mind can handle and recall.
rg
4. Although time and continuous application permit enlargement and intensification of the complete mental
.o
ub

image, there is limit to the total breadth and depth which is available or recall.
sh

5. When this conscious capacity is reached, further development should take place in the quality of mental
ct

approach, attitudes, analytical synthesis and conclusions.

te

6. Comprehensive plan is an official public document adopted by a local govt as a policy guide to
hi
rc

decisions about the physical development of the community.

.a

7. Nature- comprehensive-encompasses all geographical parts of the community & all functional elements
w

which have a bearing on physical development.

w
w

- General-summarizes policies and proposals doesn’t indicate specific location or detailed

regulations.
- Long range-20-30yr
- Focus on physical devt.
- First a policy instrument and only second a technical document

8. Functions-Policy determination
- “ effectuation
- Communication and education
9. Elements- land use
- community facilities
- circulation
- utilities
- urban design

- 28 -
Multilevel planning

1. Multilevel planning procedure is determined largely by the countries situation, its socio-political climate
and its development salting.
2. Multilevel plg implies that plg would be under taken at each level independently.
3. M.L.P is two way approaches, requiring a lot of preparatory efforts from both ends.
4. Process-
i. Determination of approach levels of decision making with reference to various activities.
ii. Organizing interaction between different levels in terms of exchange of information and
interactive consultation stages of plan formulation and plan appraisal.
iii. The nesting of plans at different levels and integrating them into an unified frame.(sectoral,
spatial, operational)

Preparation of urban and reg. structure plans

10. Structure- Social economic and physical systems of an area, so far as they are subject to planning
control or influence.
rg
.o
ub

11. Structure plan will heed to account regional and national policies.
sh

12. Structure have to relate to the wider strategic frame work at national and regional level.
ct

13. Subjects of structure plan

te

Population – education
hi
rc

Employment and income sources –other social and community services

.a

Industry and commerce- conversation, town scope landscape

w

Transportation – utilities
w
w

Shopping - other subjects

14. process- Is a written document illustrated diagramanatically the local plg authorities policies and main
proposals for change on a large scale.(not site specific)
involves preparation of a draft plan by the country authority and its approval after consideration and
modification by central govt.
15. Functions- To state and justify to public and govt.
1. To interpret national and regional policies.
2. To provide framework and statutory basis for local plan
16. Implementation
1. Through local plans & action plans.
Planning surveys

1. Guide on “primary surveys for small and medium size towns”, TCP organization, GOVT of India, 1972.
2. Guide on “land use classification for planning purposes”, TCP organization, GOVT of India, 1973.
3. the process of collection of data
a. physical

- 29 -
 b. socio – economic
i. housing,
ii. transport,
iii. industries, employment
iv. social services
Is called planning survey.
4. census report contains
a. house list
b. household schedule
c. individual ship * demography
5. preliminary planning survey
a. preparation of base map
i. all physical features
b. existing land use survey
i. grouping of land uses
ii. classification
iii. identification
iv. partly built plots
v. categorization of industry
vi. varying uses in the same buildings rg
.o
vii. permanent land use survey record
ub

c. utilities and services survey

sh

i. water supply, electricity, drainage, gas

ct

d. community facilities like schools, clinics, hospitals, parks etc

te

i. location of various facilities

hi

ii. interrelationships
rc

e. problem identification and reconnaissance survey

.a
w

i. problems of congestion
w

ii. slum areas

w

iii. unplanned growth

f. household and transport survey
i. housing
ii. transport
iii. education
iv. recreation
v. shopping

6. land uses – colors

Vacant white
Residential yellow
Commercial blue
Industrial violet
Transport, communication grey
Public utilities brown
Public and semi public red
Open spaces green

- 30 -
 Agriculture bluish green
7. Collection of data
1. Primary
2. Secondary
8. Primary data- First hand information, gathered from original sources, interviews, direct observations.
9. Secondary data- Second hand data, census, and library.
10. Bias- Is what we always trying to minimize and avoid.
11. Self surveys- Questionnaires through mails, survey forms to motorists, shoppers, inserter in the news
papers.
12. Interviews- Face to face, telephone.
13. Direct inspection- Traffic counts, recreation area use surveys, housing quality studies.
14. Participant observation- Surveyer becomes a resident of the community to learn.
15. Questions of a survey are also called the variables.
16. Nominal scale- (yes/no) – sets of names
Eg: Sex, profession, industry.
17. Ordinal scale- Ranking order. Eg: Priorities, social class, housing condition climate.
18. Interval scale- Intervals between ordered responses. Eg: Distence, age, weight, temperature.
19. Sample- Some fraction of the whole is usually adequate to estimate the information accurately for the
whole population.
20. A sample that is not respective is called biased sample. rg
.o
21. Simple random sampling- Every person must have an equal chance of being picked for the sample.
ub

22. Interview technique called snow balling.

sh

23. Systematic sampling- Picking systematically. (Every 5th).

ct

24. Stratified sampling- To ensure the representative ness of a sample.

te

25. Cluster sampling- Alternating means for keeping the size small, thus keeping the costs down while
hi

insuring representative ness in the sample.

rc

26. the pioneering with respective the civil survey was carried out by Patrick geddes(1854 – 1932)
.a
w

27. surveys carried out to collect data

w
w

 functional survey – means of communication

- conditions of industries
- implementation of plan
- financial aspects
• Social survey – community structures
- history
- architecture
- health condition
- housing
- services

• territorial survey – physical feature

- agricultural soil
- forest
- climate, soil

• vital survey – actual population

- 31 -
 - future population
- growth of town
- density
- occupation

28. types of surveys –

a. preliminary survey – land use, industries, railways, services, amenities, high ways
b. national survey – administration, agriculture, communication, economy, geography, urban
settlements, natural resources
c. regional surveys – economic, physical, social amenities of regions
d. civic surveys – at town level, amenities, contours, housing, industries
29. basic village – 400-500 pop, agriculture
30. rural town – 2000-3000 pop, cultural, commercial, administrative center
31. service town – 5000-7000 pop, small scale industries.

Application of remote sensing techniques

1. Remote sensed data forms- Aerial photo graphs, satellile imageries.

2. To study and monitor I and feature, natural resources and dynamic effects of human activities.
rg
3. Utility of R.S.Techniques are in agriculture, land use, soil resources, forestry, oil and mineral,
.o
exploration, gelory and hydrogeology, water management, map making.
ub

4. Existing base map may be updated indicating physical and cultural features including road network with
sh

the help of latest small scale aerial photography.

ct

5. Survey of India is making type of areail photographs for updating topo sheets.
te

6. Drainage maps will be prepared by topo sheets and satellite imagenary.

hi

7. NRSA prepares surface water body map of geological, geomorphological map-IIRS water potential
rc

areas ground water potential areas soil maps, landuse map, forest and vegifatial maps.
.a
w

8. With the advent of computer digital image analysis much more details from the imageries could be
w

extracted.
w

9. Socio-economic data could be combined and analysed using GIS.

10. Digital image analysis and computer facilities and trained interdisciplinary term of specialists are
available at NRSA-Hyd, ISRO-Bangalore.
11. Urban area mapping and human settlement analysis using visual and manual interpretation facilities are
there in state TCP depts.
12. Based on the scale of areal photograph and imaginary, the data base may be aggregated or
disaggregated at any level.
13. Data base for two different dates may be compared to detect changes using respective converge.
14. Aerial photographs- urban areas, imageries-regional level.
15. Areal photographs(23cm*23cm) are taken with the specially designed, sophisticated cameras with
distortion free lenses.
16. 1:50000-provide contours of 10m
1:25000-5cm
1:10000-2cm
17. Useful scales of maps employed for regional plg are 1:250000,1:50000.
18. Other uses- Inventory of vacant lands
House count and dwelling density

- 32 -
 Estimation of pop
Urban change detection
Parking studies
Study of slums
Urban renewal and identification of conservation are
Site analysis and planning
Traffic studies
Envt studies
Hierarchy of roads and levels of services

1. classification of urban roads

a. express ways
i. for motor traffic with full or partial control of access
ii. provided with grade separation at intersections
iii. to provide for movement of heavy volumes at high speeds
iv. free flow conditions
v. connect major points of traffic generation
vi. to serve trips of medium and long lengths between res, ind, comm., CBD areas
vii. Parking, loading, unloading pedestrians are prohibited.
b. arterial streets rg
.o
i. thorough traffic usually on continuous route
ub

ii. between CBD to resi, sub urbans

sh

iii. generally spaced at less than1.5 kms in CBDs 8 kms in developed urban fringes
ct

iv. parking, loading etc are regulated

te

v. pedestrians only at intersections

hi

c. sub-arterial streets
rc

i. access to adjoining areas

.a
w

ii. parking, loading etc are regulated

w

iii. generally spaced at less than05 kms in CBDs, 3-5 kms in developed urban fringes
w

d. collector streets
i. collection and distribution of traffic
ii. in resi, ind, neighborhoods
iii. few parking restrictions except during peak hours
e. local streets
i. access to resi, business, etc
ii. Allows loading, pedestrians, parking etc.

2. classification of rural roads

a. national highways
i. connects ports, foreign highways, capital of states
b. state highways
i. connects national headquarters and important cities
ii. same standard as national highways
c. district roads
i. serves areas of production and marketing

- 33 -
 ii. Capable of taking traffic into the heart of rural areas.
d. village roads
i. connects villages with nearest national , state or railways

Intersection and parking areas

1. intersection – the general area where 2 or more ways join or across

2. Half of the fatal and serious road accidents in built up areas occur at junctions.
3. principles in a good design
a. The number of intersections should be kept a minimum. If necessary some minor roads my be
connected with each other before joining the major road.
b. Hazardous movements by drivers are eliminated by various techniques such as channelizing
and staggering.
c. The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout or traffic signs
d. Layout should follow natural vehicle paths
e. Number of conflict points should be minimized.
f. Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided with
adequate space at the junctions.
4. At grade junction – where all roads join or cross at the same level.
5. Grade separated junctions – crossing manoeuvres at different levels rg
.o
6. It is desirable that the intersection roads meet at or nearly at right angles.
ub

7. Visibility at intersections – any obstructions should be clear of the minimum visibility triangle for a height
sh

of 1.2 Mts above the road way.

ct

8. for rural roads

te
hi

Design speed of major road min. visibility distance along a major road
rc

In K.P.H
.a
w

100 220
w

80 180
w

65 145
50 110
9. for urban roads

type of road visibility distance along a major road

all purpose primary distributor 120 – 150
district or local distributor 90
access road 60

Parking
Parking space requirement standards

S.NO. Land use

- 34 -
1. Residential
1. Detached,semi-datached row houses:
Plot area up to 100 sq.m
Plot area from 101 to 200 sq.m
Plot area from 201 to 300 sq.m
Plot area from 301 to 500 sq.m
Plot area from 501 to 1000 sq.m
Plot area 1001 sq.m and above
2. Flats
3. Special, costly developed area.
4. Multi-storeyed group housing schemes.

2. Offices

3. Industrial premises
4. Shops and markets
5. Restaurants
6. Theatres and cinemas
rg
.o
7. Hotels and motels
ub

1.Five and four-star hotels

sh

2. Three-star hotels
ct

3. Two-star hotels
te
hi

4. Motels
rc

8. Hospitals
.a
w

1. max parking area required for a car 3m x 6m (individual)

w
w

2.5m x 5m (community)
2. Space reqt. for commercial vehicle 3.75m x 7.5m
3. for bicycle 1.4m – 1.8m

On street parking methods

Parallel parking N=L/5.9

L
X

y
30 ºangle N=L-1.25/5

1.25

45 º angle N=L-1.25/3.54
N= number of parking spaces

- 35 -
 60 º angle N=L-2.16/2.89
Right angle N=L/2.5

4. off street parking

a. surface car parks
b. multi storey car parks
c. roof parks
d. mechanical car parks
e. under ground car parks

Traffic safety and traffic laws

1. Traffic regulations deals with control of vehicles, drivers and road users.
2. Control of vehicles deals with registration, weight, size, design, construction, and maintenance.
3. Driver regulations deal with licensing, operation of vehicles.
4. Road user regulations deal with rules of pedestrians, cyclists, motor cyclists.
5. Speed limits in urban areas – Indian conditions

Different categories of road and Speed limits in KPH

streets Group I rg Group II
.o
Light and med. Vehicles Heavy vehicles
ub

Major roads of arterial/sub arterial mostly 50 40

sh

in open and thinly built up areas

ct

Roads with moderate traffic suited in 40 30

te

semi built up areas

hi

Congested roads in built up areas 30 20

rc
.a
w

6. Uniform vehicle code U.K

w

Act I – uniform motor vehicle administration, registration certificate of title and anti – theft act.
w

Act II – uniform motor vehicle operators and chauffeurs license act.

Act III – uniform motor vehicle civil liability act.
Act IV – uniform motor vehicle safety responsibility act.
Act V – uniform act regulating traffic on high ways.

7. U.K the road traffic act 1972

Part I – principle road safety provisions
Part II – construction and use of vehicles and equipment
Part III – licensing of drivers of vehicles
Part IV – licensing of drivers of heavy goods vehicles
Part V – driving instructions
Part VI – third party liabilities
Part VII – miscellaneous and general.
8. India, motor vehicles act 1939.

Chapter I – preliminary
Chapter II – licensing of drivers of motor vehicles

- 36 -
Chapter III – licensing of conductors of stage carriages
Chapter IV – control of transport vehicles
Chapter V – construction, equipment and maintenance of motor vehicles.
Chapter VI – control of traffic
Chapter VII – motor vehicles temporary leaving or visiting India
Chapter VIII – insurance f motor vehicles against third party riska
Chapter IX – offences, penalties and procedures.
Chapter X – miscellaneous
Principles of traffic engineering and transportation planning
1. Traffic engineering
Deals with the planning and geometric design of streets, highways and abutting lands, and
with traffic operation thereon, as their use is related to the safe, convenient and economic transportation of
persons and goods.
2. functions of traffic engineering
a. collection, analysis, and interpretation of data pertaining to traffic
i. OD survey
ii. Volume counts
iii. Speed, delay and travel time measurements
iv. Accident statistics
v. Parking characteristics rg
.o
vi. Pedestrian behavior and use of streets
ub

vii. Capacity studies

sh

viii. Economic loss caused by inferior traffic facilities

ct

b. Traffic and transportation planning

te

i. To ensure a safe, orderly and fully integrated transport system.

hi

ii. Related to land use

rc

iii. Selection and implementation of alternative solutions

.a
w

c. Traffic design
w

i. Geometric design of high ways and streets

w

ii. Intersection design

iii. Schemes for grade separated interchanges
iv. Design of off street and on street parking
v. Design of terminals
d. Measures for operation of traffic
i. Legislation and enforcement measures – drivers , road users
ii. Management measures – one way streets, turnings at junctions, tidal flow,
iii. Measures for parking
iv. Traffic control devices
e. Administration
i. Programs intended to safe and efficient traffic
ii. Education, legislation and enforcement measures
3. transportation planning
To under stand the nature of the problems of traffic and formulate proposals for the safe and
efficient movement of goods and people from one place to another.
4. stages of transport planning
a. survey and analysis of existing conditions

- 37 -
 b. forecast, analysis of future conditions and plan synthesis
c. evaluation
d. program adaptation and implementation
e. continuing study
Methods of conducting surveys

Speed, journey time and delay surveys

Vehicle volume counts, classification and occupancy
Origin and destination survey
Parking surveys
Speed, journey time and delay surveys
Speed is the rate of movement of traffic.
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.
Running sped is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle is in the
motion.
Running speed = length of course = length of course
Running time journey time – delay

Journey speed is known as over all travel speed including all delays incurred en-route.
Journey speed = distance
Total journey time (including delays) rg
.o
ub

Methods of measuring spot speeds

sh

a) Those that require observation of the time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance.
ct

b) Radar speed meter which automatically records the instantaneous speed .

te
hi

c) Photographic method.
rc

The long base methods used are

.a

i. Direct timing procedure

w

ii. Enoscope
w
w

iii. Pressure contact tubes

Methods for measuring running speed and journey speed

a) Moving observer method
b) Registration number method
c) Elevated observer method

Vehicle volume counts, classification and occupancy

If traffic flow data are available over the past number of years, the rate at which traffic flow has
increased in the past can be easily determined. Extrapolating the past trend into the future, a reasonable
indication of the future rate of growth of traffic is made possible. Traffic fore casting is an important step in the
transportation planning process.
Types of counts
i. Average annual flow, expressed in vehicles per year.
ii. Annual average daily traffic (AADT), expressed I vehicles per day.
iii. Hourly flow, expressed in vehicles per hour.
Methods for traffic counts
a) Manual methods

- 38 -
 b) Combination of manual and mechanical methods
c) Automatic devices
d) Moving observer method
e) Photographic methods
Vehicle occupancy surveys
Vehicle occupancy surveys are easy to conduct for cars and motorized two-wheelers. The observers
can note the number of occupants of every one of such vehicles by standing by the road side.
For buses, the occupancy can be determined by examining the ticket sales.
Origin and destination survey
In a transportation study, it is often necessary to know the exact origin and destination of the trips.
Information yielded by the O-D survey includes land use of the zones of the origin and destination, household
characteristics of the trip making family, time, purpose of the trip and mode of travel.
Uses of the study
i. To determine the amount of by-passable traffic that enters a town, and thus establishes the need
for a bypass.
ii. To develop trip generation and trip distribution models in transport planning process.
iii. To determine the extent to which the present road system is adequate and to plan for new
facilities.
iv. To assess the adequacy of parking and to plan for future.
rg
.o
Survey methods
ub

a) Home interview survey

sh

i. Full interview technique

ct

ii. Home questionnaire technique

te

b) Road side interview survey

hi

c) Post card questionnaire survey

rc

d) Registration number plate survey

.a
w

e) Tags on vehicles.
w
w

Parking surveys
Parking is one of the serious problems that confront the urban planner and the traffic engineer. Before
any measure for the betterment of the conditions can be formulated, basic data pertaining to the availability of
parking space, extent of its usage and parking demand are essential.
Parking accumulation: the total number of vehicles parked in an area at specified moment.
Parking volume: the number of vehicles parked in a particular area over a given period of time.
Parking load: the area under the parking accumulation curve during a specified period.
Parking duration: the length of time spent in a parking space.
Parking index: percentage of the theoretically available number of parking bays actually occupied by parked
vehicles.
Parking index = no of bays occupied x 100
Theoretical number of bays available

Parking turnover: rate of the usage of the available parking space.

Types of parking surveys
i. Parking space inventory
ii. Parking usage survey by petrol

- 39 -
 iii. Questionnaire type parking usage survey
iv. Cordon survey
v. Photographic method
Modes of transportation
1. transport modes
a. railways
surface
underground
elevated
b. road transport
c. air transport
d. water transport
coastal shipping
international shipping
inland water transport
e. pipe lines
f. rope ways
2. speed

S no mode Normal speed India km/hr rg remarks

.o
1 railway 50-80 Depends on guage and
ub

number of tracks
sh

2 Road transport Depends on pavement

ct

Cara 50-80 width, terrain

te

Buses and trucks 30-60

hi

2 wheelers 25-50
rc

cycles 8-15
.a
w

auto rickshaw 15-30

w

bullock cart 3-5

w

4 Air transport
Boeing 747 1000
Boeing 707 950
Feeder aircraft 300-400
5 Water transport
Ocean liners 35-55
Coastal ships 15-35
Inland water barges 10-25
6 Pipe lines 5-10
7 Rope ways 5-10

3. safety
Rail transport If adequate measures are taken at signals, it s safe. If accidents take
place loss is heavy
Road transport Unsafe, when crossing, overtaking
Air transport Safety, because o high standards. Accidents because of fog, birds,
storms, etc

- 40 -
Water transport Safe, because of strict standards and construction and maintenance
Pipelines , rope ways safe

4. Adequacy
Rail transport Can meet seasonal fluctuations in traffic,
Road transport Unsafe, when crossing, overtaking
Air transport Safety, because o high standards. Accidents because of fog, birds,
storms, etc
Water transport Safe, because of strict standards and construction and maintenance
Pipelines , rope ways safe

Principles of visual composition

1. Important factor to be considered in Urban Design – Arrangement of spaces

Good composition
Orderly and pleasing
Pleasure follows order
2. principles of composition –
Unity – rg
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Oneness and brings harmony with the surroundings.

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Similar forms give coherence to the parts and integrity to the whole.
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An urban form so planned and created will create a single picture of unity.
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Dissimilar forms, texture, color lack unity.

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Segregation –
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Composition should form an independent unit by separating from others by enclosing masses.
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It can be made up neutral forms, average textures or subdued colors of building masses.
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Coherence –
Complicated compositions lack coherence.
Too many sorts of buildings, elements, and accessories result in lack of coherence.
Balance –
Symmetrical balance – Balance means equality and it can be easily obtained by symmetrical type of
plants or features on either side of the central axis of composition. Balance should be
dynamic, vital hence it should be rhythmic.
Asymmetrical or Occult balance – Too unequal masses on either side of the central axis form
asymmetrical balance. Meticulously arranged occult balance adds softness and freedom to
the composition.
Scale –
The building or group of buildings must be in scale with its surroundings.
The parts of the composition in relation to each other should exhibit their true size.
Rhythm and reputation –
It is a devise to give continuity to the design.

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 It develops rhythmic sequence producing a coherent effect.
Use distinctive elements for a rhythmic arrangement (columns, openings like windows), to hold together
and carry the eye from part to the other.
Color –
Select paints for long color effects.
A feeling of coherence in design is achieved by color as well or by simple repetition of the same color at
regular intervals.
Texture –
It is the surface quality which give a textile sensation when touched, such as soft cum hard, smooth,
rough etc.,
Sandstone – course.
Marble – translucent and soft
Light and Shade –
Occasional Shades cast by large openings produce a pictorial effect.
Columns and arcades throw shadows in the morning and evening producing a constant change of light
and shade.
Quality of color also changes according to the intensity of light.
rg
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3. Visual aspect of plan arrangement –

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View: is a scene observed from a given place.

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Vista: is a confined view to a dominant feature. Each vista has a viewing station. A well
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conceived vista has the balance and rhythm.

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Axis: is a linear element connecting two or more elements such as a drive, a street or a
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park way. It is directional, orderly, dominating.

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4. Color theory –
Primary hues - RED, YELLOW, BLUE, GREEN.
Harmonizing colors – hues adjacent on the color wheel.
Hue – (first dimension), by definition it is pure color, containing no white, black or grey.
Value – (2” dimension), it is the degree of colors luminosity
Yellow - the lightest color of spectrum wheel- higher value
Violet – the lowest value.
Intensity – (3” dimension), give some measure of quality of relative colorfulness or grey ness. Also known
as chroma, purity or saturation. As spectral hues become greyer they are called as tones. Red is the most
advancing color.
5. VIBGYOR
cold

6. Effects of hue
Effect hue contrast

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Exciting bright, red, orange high
Stimulating red, orange moderate
Cheering light orange yellow, light grey moderate
Neutralizing grey, white/off white low
Retraining cool grey, light green, light blue low
Relaxing blue, green low
Subduing purple moderate
Depressing black low
7. color time size weight volume
Warm overestimated things seem heavier decreases
Cool under estimated things seem lighter increases
8. Use cool colors shorter & for areas where smaller routine or monotonous tasks are performed.
9. Natural color system – Edward Herings theory
10. Sven Hassel prepared a color atlas.
11. We can’t see an object if beyond a distance of 3500times its size.
12. range of conventional distance – 30’
13. to make out facial expressions – 40’
14. to make recognize a face – 80’
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15. Max. Distance for discovering action – 450’ for seeing people – 4000.
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16. 450° (1:1) full enclosure

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17. 300° (1:2) threshold of enclosure

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18. 180° (1:3) minimum enclosure

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19. 140° (1:4) loss of enclosure

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20. shape is 2-dimensional

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21. form is 3-D

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22. color – hue or chroma

23. intensity – graying effect
24. value – tint (adding white) (high key)
25. shading (adding black) (low key)
26. tone – range of tints and shades
27. Various color systems – Munsell, Prang etc.

Sense of place and space, division of space

1. In urban design, there should be skilled deployment of architectural energy so that the influence of fine
buildings radiates outward, articulating the whole fabric of the city.

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 2. Architecture is the articulation of space so as to produce in the participator a definite space experience
in relation to previous and anticipated space experience.
Involvement
Meeting the sky
Meeting the ground
Points in space
Recession places (Patios, entrance gateways etc)
Design in depth (a sense of movement in depth)
Ascent and descent (use of varying levels as the elements)
Convexity and concavity in design
Relationship to man
Designer as participator
Apprehension, representation and realization.
3. The nature of design – simultaneous movement systems.
4. principles of design
unity – repetition of identical elements
Head of well proportioned human figure = 1/7 of total body height.
Proportion – golden mean is a ratio 1:1.618 standard.
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Certain proportions are more pleasing than others.

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Subliminal effect.
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CONTENTS:
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Key words
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INTRODUCTION
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Chapter-I
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I.EVOLUTION OF BONDS:

1. City financing approach and analysis

2. Economics of city financing

3. Measures to optimize revenue

4. Pooled financing for city infrastructure

5. City restructuring

6. Bond market in India

II.NEED OF MUNICIPAL BONDS:

1. Resource gap

2. Resource mobilization of effort

3. Evident of new economic policy

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 4. Municipal bonds

III.THE INNOVATIONS IN THE BOND MARKET

1. Municipal bonds

2. Infrastructure bonds

IV.TYPES OF MUNICIPAL BONDS

1. GO bonds(General obligatory)

2. RB bonds(revenue bonds)

V.CASE STUDY-AMC(Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation)

REFERENCES.

Key Words:

Property tax: Property tax is imposed by all local bodies. The basis is the gross value of the property in terms
rg
of rental value or the rent the property would normally fetch if let out.
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User charges: User charges are the charges on services like water supply, transportation, and electricity.
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Octrio:Octrio is the most important and elastic source of revenue. These are check post based taxes.
hi
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Bonds: Bonds are the loans that can make to the Government or state or central and also can make to the
municipality.
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Grants in aid: The local bodies receive grants in aid from the state government on the basis of some pre-
determined criteria. These vary from state to state.

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INTRODUCTION:

A bond is a loan that can make to an institution that can make the loan to the government, a state, and a local
municipality or to a company. Companies and government need this money to finance projects like new building and
roads. When you land money to an institution, the IOU (I owe you) they give you is called bond. This IOU is their promise
to repay both your principal (the amount you land) and a fixed amount of interest for allocating them to borrow your
money.
As a bond investor we have many choices. They are

PUBLIC SECTOR BONDS both state and central)Bharat petroleum, Hindustan petroleum,Andhra Pradesh power finance
corporation etc..

PRIVATE SECTOR BONDS: Reliance, City bank.

MUNICIPAL BONDS: AMC (Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation Bonds)

FINANCIAL INSTITUTION BONDS: HDFC, ICICI, IDBI etc..

RBI8% relief bonds unity at a leisure of 5years.

INCOME BONDS: They invest only in Gvt security is that has no security risk. They are suitable for 1-year time horizon.

GILT FUNDS:They invest only in government securities that have nop credit risk.they are suitable for one year horizon.

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SHORT TERM FUNDS:They invest with mix of Govt & corporate securities.short term maturities much as one to three

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years. They are suitable for period of 6 months. u b.
FIXED MATURITY FUNDS;
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LIQUID FUNDS: They invest in very short term bonds such as Govt treading, bills
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BONDS - ARE KEY TO SAFETY

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The Well accepted and acknowledged belief amongst Indian Investors was that " The route to prosperity is only through
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equity", but Bonds has slowly given way to the perception that
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One should grow his wealth with minimum risk and at a gradual pace which is possible only through secured investments
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in bonds and debentures".

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Bonds occupy the predominant share of the capital markets in developed economies like USA and European countries. In
these economies the major proportion of the financial flows are through the medium of bond markets. However, in India,
Bond markets were largely relegated to the back seat in the early 70’s when the equity cult was developing in India. It took
the center stage only during the 80’s.
The initiative was taken during the early 80’s by the public sector utilities like NHPC, PFC. MTNL etc by issuing the bonds
to meet their financial requirements. As a cheaper source of funding compared to equity, these bonds turned out to be an
excellent medium of financing during this period. However, from 1987 onwards there was a lull in the bond markets for
about 5 to 6 years.
Bond markets in India received a shot in its arm in 1992 when IDBI brought a new concept of Deep discount (DD) bonds.
The DD bond issue of IDBI was a great revolutionary step and got a thumping success. It had offered a return of RS. 1
lack on an investment of Rest. 3600/- after a period of 25 years. The resounding success of this bond worked as a
springboard for the Bond markets in India.
The other institutions, which were closely watching the success of this Bond Issue of IDBI, were IFCI, ICICI, and SCICI.
Boosted by the success of this IDBI, IFCI and ICICI also come out with similar Bond issues, which also got similar
responses from the investor community.
There was rally of Bond issues by these financial Institutions after Icecap’s December 95 public issue. Even the corporate
like L & T, TISCO, Arvin Mills and Shook Leyland joined the bandwagon and come out with their Bond offers, evincing
enthusiastic responses from the investing community.

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Equity with a few notable exceptions, has been shedding their value continuously for the last four years. Since April 1998,
equity markets have lost about one fifth of their capitalization, inflicting massive losses to the investors. In these turbulent
stock market times, it makes sense to park the funds in the safer heavens along with prospects of good returns.
With commercial banks offering measly interest on saving accounts, the profitable investment option available to investor
is the fixed income securities in the form of company fixed deposits, the debentures of the corporate entities and bonds of
financial Institutions.
The phenomenon of finding succor in bonds during the turbulent stock market is not unique to India. All over the globe the
crash of stock markets are forcing majority of the investors to find solace and protection in bond markets, especially the
bond markets of United States. Therefore, there has been a sudden upsurge in the demand for US Bonds. As a result, a
large proportion of Asian Funds are moving to US Bond Markets and pushing up the bond prices.
I.EVOLUTION MUNICIPAL BONDS

1. City financing approach and analysis

The urban population of India is projected to grow from 217 million in 991 to around 350 million in 2001, and
further to 658 million by the year 2025. The number of urban agglomerations and towns are also expected to grow from
3609 in 1991 to well over 4000 by the year 2001 and more beyond. The resources requirements for 70-odd cities for
which both local bodies and development authorities exist and for the 30 million plus cities by the year 2001 have been
worked out and presented in an earlier chapter. From the size of resources required one can imagine the magnitude of
the efforts needed for mobilizing, the resources. Unless the economic base of these cities is strengthened and the urban
infrastructures, municipal services and amenities are provided at levels that match their status, these cities will not be in a
position to efficiently function Lied play the role in contributing to the economic development and augmentation of the local

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financial resources. It is important to note that the contribution of urban sector to GDP is currently expected to be in the

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range of 50-60 percent. National economic growth and poverty reduction efforts will be increasingly determined by the
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productivity of these cities and towns. For Indian cities to become growth oriented and productive, it is essential to achieve
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a world-class urban system. This in turn depends on attaining efficiency and equity in the delivery and financing of urban
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infrastructure.
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2. Economics of City Financing System:

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The city financing system forms the basic structure on which the physical development of a city considerably depends. As
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such, the development of cities and other urban centers it involves investment of capital resources in the creation of'
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urban/municipal and other infrastructure. Today, there does not exist a process at-Jive national level, which can precisely
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or indicate the proportion of India's national output-to-be-utilized for urban development

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3.Measures to Optimize Revenue

The city governments and various local authorities resort to the application of several measures for optimizing revenue,
they have not fully developed the potential of the revenue sources so as to be self-sufficient. Consequently, they face
acute shortage of financial resources in both maintaining the existing levels and standards of urban economic and civic
services and to meet requirements of future additions to the population of the city. The resources are capable of being
used for alternative purposes.

4.Pooled Financing for Municipal Infrastructure

Traditionally, municipal corporations and urban local bodies have relied on subsidized funds for providing urban services
which constraints the constraints the introduction of user charges and efficient project operation and maintenance. In view
of the huge resource gap, direct access to capital market would now be an accepted viable option. However, access to
capital market requires financial discipline and enhanced credit rating. It has been the experience that only bigger
municipal corporations are in a position to take the advantage of the resources available in capital market. Medium and
smaller municipalities are unable to do so due to weak financial position and lack of capacity to prepare viable project
proposals. A State level pooled financing mechanism is being proposed for smaller and medium municipalities. The
objective of a State level pooled finance mechanism is to provide a cost effective and efficient approach for smaller and
medium sized ULBs to access the domestic capital markets for urban infrastructure and to introduce new institutional
arrangements for mobilizing Urban Infrastructure Finance.

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5.City Restructuring
Government of India is also encouraging citywide reforms and restructuring so as to ensure that cities are managed
efficiently and become creditworthy (to attract private finance ) which will enable them to prepare long term plans for
infrastructure investments and implement poverty alleviation programs. Citywide reforms and restructuring will, however,
result in significant transaction costs during the period of transition. Leaving cities to finance these costs by themselves
will delay and make it difficult to implement these reforms. It is to partly offset this disadvantage that the Ministry of Urban
Development is proposing to set up a performance based City Challenge Fund for catalyzing city level economic reform
programmers. The resources from the Fund would be given as grants but should ideally be matched by equal allocations
either from the cities themselves or from the respective State governments. Access to the fund would be on a competitive
basis.

6.Bond Market in India.

The bond markets in India have grown to a fairly big size during the last few years. A major thrust to the bond
markets has taken place during the last decade, more specifically during the last four years. While no money had been
raised through the public debt issues in 94-95, an amount of Rs2,940 crores was mobilized in 95-96 which grew the a
high of Rs. 6977 crores in 96-97. The share of the debt in the total amount offered to public increased from 25% to 60%
over this period. During the year 1997-98, 63% of the total fund mobilization was from debt issues only, clearly signifying a
shift from equity to bond markets
Along with the volume growth of the bond markets, there have been qualitative changes too during this period. Private
placements of bonds have become an important area of bond markets now. For example, during the last two years even
the public issues of debts have been outshined by the Private placement of Bonds. During 1997-98, there were as many
as 251 private placement a massive amount of Rs. 30, 944 crores, of which the largest size of the issue was from IDBI

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mobilizing 1200 crores. The major private placements of bonds were from IDBI, ICICI, IFCI, IRFC, and SAIL etc.

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A phenomenon to be noticed is that the regular return bonds with fixed return are the
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A phenomenon to be noticed is that the regular return bonds with fixed return are the most preferred bonds amongst
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investors. Of the 351 instruments put on market during the period, 156 instruments offered regular return.
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The first bond is introduced in 1998 in AMC (Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation)

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II.NEED OF BONDS:
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1.RESOURCEGAP
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The India Infrastructure, Report, 1996, assessed the total annual investment needs of water supply, sanitation and roads
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sectors at Rs. 28,036 crores per year on an average during 1996-2006. Whereas funds to that extent are not available.
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To overcome these constraints and challenges, the Ministry of Urban Development & Poverty Alleviation has initiated
institutional, fiscal and financial reforms. First generation urban sector reform - known as the 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992, recognizes the principles of local self-governments and empowers urban local bodies with
financial resources through Central Finance Commission and State Finance Commissions. Subsequently, in order to
strengthen these local bodies, second-generation reform have also been started. In the last decade, enormous progress
has been made in removing impediments to efficient investment.
2.Resource Mobilization Effort
In August 1996, the Central Government guidelines entitled 'Urban Development Plans Formulation and Implementation'
were circulated to all State Governments for adoption. These guidelines, apart from other issues, suggest innovative
approaches for fiscal resource mobilization. In the backdrop of the New Economic Policy, it was suggested that the
traditional system of funding based on Plan and budgetary allocations be reduced and ultimately withdrawn due to fiscal
deficit. Subsidies need to be rationalized and urban development plans and projects need to be placed on a commercial
format by designing commercially viable urban infrastructure services and area development projects. This can be
achieved by restoring a proper match between functions and source of revenue by giving additional tax measures. Other
innovative resource mobilization measures include using land as resource, increase in the non-property taxes and using
Public-Private Partnership in service delivery.
3.Evident of new economic policy
In conclusion, it is evident that the New Economic Policy launched in India in 1991-92, did see several important initiatives
in the urban sector designed to encourage private sector participation in urban infrastructure projects. These initiatives,
would need to be taken to their logical conclusion. A series of new Reform Measures are being put together for

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implementation during 10th Plan Period. Through these, we hope to reverse the declining standards of urban
infrastructure in the country.
4. Municipal Bonds
Several Municipal Corporations like successfully issued Municipal Bonds, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Lothian, Nagpur,
Nasik, and Madurai for raising resources for urban infrastructure. The Central Government had announced tax exemption
in case of bonds issued by Municipal / Local Governments. Guidelines were issued by this Ministry on 8.2.2001 for
regulating issue of tax-free municipal bonds. Under the guidelines, such bonds will be issued for raising resources for
capital investment in creation of new infrastructure as well as augmentation of existing systems. Tax free bonds worth Rs.
100 crore by Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation have been permitted for improving infrastructure. Hyderabad Municipal
Corporation has also been permitted to issue tax free municipal bond
for Rs. 82.50 crore.

III.TYPES OF BONDS

A new era has recently opened for the small investor. This segment is government bonds or gilt edge securities. They are
now available for public subscription. In the first serious thrust to create a retail base for gilts six primary dealers have
started selling these government bonds. Gilts offer the highest safety and good liquidity.
Newer varieties of bonds have come up like:
 Inflation Index Bonds
 In-Cash Bonds
 Stepped-Up Bonds

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 Deep-Discount Bonds

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Tax-saving Bonds Call-linked Bonds.
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An investor has the option of investing in the bonds either directly by subscribing to these bonds or by choosing an
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indirect route of buying the units through Mutual Funds which invest in these bonds. Since Mutual Funds invest only in
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rated debt instrument, the risk is also minimized. The income from debt funds are therefore considered to be
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more stable Liquidity is one of the most important requirement of an investor and Indian stock markets are not satisfying
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this demand because of its sporadic trading, Institutions have innovated new alternatives to create liquidity in the bond
markets, ICICI has initiated in this direction and came out with the market making exercise in the debt segment taken an
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initiative stock markets. During the early 90’s interest rates on bonds were around 13 to 14%. It jumped to 16.5% in 1996
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to rapper off again to about 12.5% in 1997. The strengthening of the interest rate are clearly visible with ICICI offering
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13.75% in the its latest issue of safety bonds. IDBI is also planning to come out with the bond issue offering an interest
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rate of around 14 percent, which is to be followed by Power Finance Corporation. These fluctuations in the interest rates
do create opportunities for the capital gains in the secondary markets. For example, the earlier bond offers from IDBI and
ICICI, which offered high interest of around 16%, are now being sold at a price higher than their face value in the
secondary markets. Thus, there exists excellent capital gains opportunity too for bondholders when interest rates go down
in the general.

IV.THE INNOVATIONS IN THE BOND MARKET

1.MUNICIPALBONDS

The development of the bond market has brought about new innovations and features, which are meant to meet the
investor’s demand. One of the new varieties of bonds, which have come up recently, is the Municipal offer initiated by
the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation. The similar bond offers from Ban galore Municipal Corporation, Hyderabad
Municipal Corporation and Pune Municipal Corporation are expected to hit the market in the coming months.
2.INFRASTRUCTURE BONDS
India requires huge investment in coming years to build much-required infrastructure. Indian Government has
accorded this sector high priority status. World over infrastructure sector is funded by bonds. Following the same
trend Indian Financial Institutions like HUDCO, ICICI, IDBI etc. have issued infrastructure sector specific bonds.
Investment in these bonds, besides supporting development of infrastructure projects, is also eligible for tax relief
under sections 54EA, 54EB and 88 of Income Tax Act.
V.MUNICIPAL BONDS:
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CASE STUDY:AMC

INTRODUCTION:
Ahmedabad, the largest city of the state of Gujarat, is the seventh largest city in India. Known as the textile capital of
India, Headband is the commercial capital of the state and is also a major industrial and financial city.
PROFILE
AhmedabadmunicipalCorporation(AMC),India
Population:3,515,361(2001)
LandArea:191km2
Municipal Budget: US$118 million (2000)

Prior to 1993, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) had accumulated a cash loss of over US$9 million and their
financial situation was deteriorating. In 1994, the corporation launched a major effort to strengthen its capacity to develop
commercially viable projects. AMC introduced a series of measures to improve property tax collection, which accounts for
about 30% of tax revenues. while attention was focused on recovering major outstanding tax amounts. Annual property
tax collection increased by 55%.
In 1996, AMC prepared a five-year capital investment plan worth US$150 million for water supply, sewerage, roads,
bridges and solid waste management projects. It proposed to meet 30% of the total investment requirement from internal
accruals, while mobilizing the remaining amount through municipal bonds and loans from financial institutions.
As a result, AMC was able to turn around its financial position and achieve a closing cash surplus of US$50 million in
1999.

In the midst of the overall prosperity of the city, a large poor population has suffered from deprivation of basic services
and amenities. In 2000, 41% of the population lived in slums and low-income housing, with the bulk of the slum residents

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sharing the water

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supply and many living without toilet facilities. u b.
CHALLENGE
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To provide basic services for an expanded urban area and growing population, and improve living conditions in slum
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neighborhoods in the face of cash losses and a deteriorating financial situation.

ACTION
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Introduce fiscal and management reforms to enable the AMC to improve and expand basic
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services and initiate urban development projects.

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Ahmedabad became the first city in India to request and receive a credit rating for a municipal bond issue. The US
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Agency for International Development's Financial Institutions Reform and Expansion (FIRE) Project played a multifaceted
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role in assisting Ahmedabad in developing the bond issue. The city was ultimately assigned an "AA" rating.
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Project Description and Components: To meet the need for improved urban services, AMC designed a major
investment programmed for water supply and sewerage services. The Corporation developed a project that would ensure
a water supply of 180 liters per capita per day (lpcd) for the entire population within the old AMC limits. The project would
also enhance the supply of water in the recently extended eastern areas of the city to 150 lpcd.

Situation Before
Before 1993-94, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation was a loss-making urban local body with
accumulated cash losses of Rs. 350 million.
The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) improved its fiscal profile from 1993 to 1996 by introducing significant fiscal
and management reforms, with technical assistance from United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
These reforms included improving tax collection (octroi and property tax), introducing a computerized double entry
accounting system, upgrading its workforce and financial management, developing a comprehensive capital management
program, and obtaining a credit rating from the Credit Rating Information Services of India, Ltd. (CRISIL). These
innovations laid the groundwork for issuing a municipal bond.

The above measures bought about a turnaround in AMC's financial situation.

Strategy

In 1996, the city took a decision to develop a capital investment plan for five years (1996-97 to 2000-01) for investing Rs.
5947 million in water supply, sewerage, roads, bridges, and solid waste management projects. AMC allocated a major
part, Rs. 4890 million, of its capital investment plan to address water supply and sewerage needs.

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AMC proposed to meet 30 percent of the total investment requirement from internal accruals, while mobilizing the
remaining amount through municipal bonds and loans from financial institutions.

Development Process

The following steps were taken in order to issue the bonds:

1. AMC got the corporation credit rated by a leading financial institution. It received a credit rating of AA(SO) from CRISIL.
2. Octroi collection from ten designated points were earmarked for servicing the bond and kept in an Escrow account.
3. The credit rating was able to build confidence in favour of AMC. This coupled with the good work done by the
corporation successively for three years helped AMC in marketing its financial strategy to mop up public money through
the bond issue for infrastructure projects. The USAID and HUDCO also participated in preparing documents for raising the
bond issue.
4. The corporation very successfully held road shows and created a mechanism to ensure the returns on the money
invested. This was done through an 'Escrow account'.
5. The AMC went to SEBI for the registration of the city bonds. AMC has the distinction of issuing first public municipal
bond in India without a state government guarantee.

Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation took out the public issue of 10,00,000 secured redeemable bonds in 1998. City bonds,
as it is popularly known, were of a face value Rs. 1000 each (for cash at par) aggregating to a total of Rs. 100 crores. The
issue opened on 16th January 1998 and closed on 27th January 1998. The issue was oversubscribed as applications
were received for Rs. 104.67 crores, the allotment was made by 24th January 1998.

The bonds were privately placed, allotted to a dozen Indian financial institutions, including the State Bank of India, the Unit
Trust of India, Housing Development Finance Corporation, commercial banks and mutual funds.

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In the first year, the bond proceeds were not used since project designs and tenders were not ready. The second year

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saw the commencement of construction and by March 31,2000 AMC was able to spend Rs. 915 million of total bond
proceeds.
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Financing
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The Ahmedabad water supply and sewerage project is being financed from number of sources, including the internal
accruals of AMC, debt from capital markets, a loan from USAID Urban Environmental (UE) program and loan from
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financial institutions such as Housing and Urban Development Corporations (HUDCO).

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In 1998, AMC publicly issued secured redeemable bonds aggregating to a total of 1 billion Rupees. City bonds, as they
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are popularly known, had a face value $1,000 Rupees (US$25) each (for cash at par). AMC sold 25% of the bonds to the
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Indian public and the remaining 75% of the issue to institutional investors
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Under pressure of an impending water crisis, AMC was able to rapidly expend bond proceeds to successfully implement
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an emergency bulk water supply scheme known as the Raska Project in a record five months. Designed to supply 65
million gallons of water a day to the city, the Raska Water Project consisted of constructing a pump house and laying
pipelines to bring water to 60% of the city's population.
The estimated total cost of the emergency scheme was Rs. 1,131 million: 80 percent was covered by the HUDCO loan of
Rs. 889 million and 20 percent by the bond proceeds. AMC fully utilised the bond proceeds to complete this project, as
planned, by March 2000.

Implemented the Raska Water Supply project through many contracts. It worked in partnership with two private
contractors to coordinate 32 subcontractors from all parts of India. The entire project was completed in record time, 130
days, starting in November 1999. The Raska project supplies water to 60 percent of the city’s population. The AMC
provides treated water to all residents for two hours in the morning and half an hour in the evening. Timely completion of
the project saved Ahmedabad from severe water shortage in summer of 2000 and provided a permanent and reliable
source of surface water for years to come.
As well, the healthy state of municipal finances also enabled AMC to partner with the business community, non-
governmental organizations (NGO) and other organizations to undertake new initiatives, including:
 a partnership with a textile company to redevelop an important commercial artery;
 a Slum Networking Project in which the corporation partnered with a textile company, an NGO and the slum
community to improve basic infrastructure and provide water and toilets to households.
In March 2002, AMC went ahead with another bond issue of the same amount to complete its original water and
sewerage infrastructure scheme. The second bond is tax exempt. Ahmedabad is the first municipal corporation in India to

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issue tax-free municipal bonds.

RESULTS
Ahmedabad enjoys a high level of autonomy in revenue use in that it depends on the state government for only 10% of its
total revenue in the form of grants for primary education. In addition, management innovations introduced by the municipal
commissioner and supported by staff and elected officials helped AMC change its image among the local citizenry.
Because of the fiscal and management reforms, Ahmedabad built an extensive water project, developed mutual
partnerships to improve traffic congestion and improved conditions.

LESSONSLEARNED
Ahmedabad demonstrated that municipal bonds can work in India for raising finances for infrastructure projects.
However, before actual issuance of bonds, local governments need to institute efficient project management systems and
procedures to reduce time delays and cost overruns. The most critical factor for obtaining market finance is a healthy
municipal revenue base.

Current Status: With the success of the first municipal bond issue, AMC has gone ahead with another bond issue of the
same amount i.e. Rs. 1000 million. However, the second bond issue (issued in October 2001) is tax exempt. AMC is
again the first municipal corporation in India to issue tax free municipal bonds. This bond will be used to complete its
original water
and sewerage infrastructure scheme.

Summary
In January 1998, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation issued municipal bonds for Rs. 1000 million. The issue was
designed to partially finance a Rs. 4890 million water supply and sewerage program. This was a remarkable achievement

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as it was the first municipal bond issue in India without a state government guarantee and it represented the first step

or
towards fully market-based system of local government finance. A 75 per cent private and 25 per cent public issue rated
b.
AA(SO) by Credit Rating Information Services of India Ltd. (CRISIL), indicating a high degree of certainty about timely
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repayment, gave momentum to a growing national consensus that municipal bonds provide a promising alternative for
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financing urban infrastructure.

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1. Municipal bonds mechanism can work in India for raising finances for infrastructure projects.
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2. For mopping up funds through a bond issue, the corporation should have credit rating
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3. The local body must have detailed project proposals ready for implementation to ensure quick utilization of funds.
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All the urban local bodies, whose financial position is good, and who have a good credibility and a sound track record, can
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go for municipal bonds to raise money for infrastructure development.

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MUNICIPAL BONDS:
A Bond has gained importance as sources of funds for urban bodies. Municipalities raise funds directly from the
market by issue of bonds or trough a financial inter-me diary called special purpose vehicle (SPV). The main
difference between direct market borrowings or financial intermediary route is that in the case of former, it is the
municipal corporation, which would be rated, and also the functioning and appraisal capabilities of the inter-me diary
would be evaluated.
Bonds can broadly divided into two categories:
1) General obligation bonds: GO bonds are secured by the unlimited taxing power of the municipal corporation and
are serviced out of tax revenues and assets of corporation. GO bonds are generally provide facility for tax exemption
to the investor and have a lower cost of borrowing There also referred to as full faith and create obligation due to
diversity of security provided. The bonds issued by the AMC Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation are GO bonds of
credit rating was based on the total revenue collection by the municipality.
2) Revenue bonds: RB bonds are tied to a project is issued for a specified project. As a result feasibility analysis of
project is essential before the issue of RB.Net revenue from the projects after meeting project-operating expenses are
pledged to bond holders. Thus RB creates local revenue aware ness regarding the project, its service and enhance
the efficiency of the municipal corporation. RBs are not considered as public debt of the government, and are not
constrained as deficit financing. In short, bonds have a great potential considering the urgent need of urban
infrastructure projects, through it necessitates a developed bond market to provide liquidity to bonds: Legislative
changes empowering local governments to raise resources: financial prudence among governments and certain fiscal
incentives for investment in bonds.

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 MUNICIPALITIES-BOND ISSUE

MUNICIPALITY AMOUNT IN RS CRORES PURPOSE

B ANGALORE 125 Roads, Flyovers

AHMEDABAD 100 Water supply, sewerage

AURANGABAD 50 Water supply, sewerage

HYDERABAD 100 Roads, Flyovers, sewerage

NASHIK 100 Water supply, sewerage

PUNE 200 General

JALGON 200 Airport, housing

REFERENCES:

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 NAGARLOK JOURNELS OF INFRASTRUCTURE 2000 EDITION

or
b.

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WWW.GOOGLE.COM
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 WWW.OUR MCH.COM
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Ecology deals with with the interrelationships between living organisims between living organisms and their environments.
hi

Ecology, relatively a new science, deals with the various principles, which govern such relationships between organisms
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and their environment.

.a

The syudy of ecology is based on the recognisition of more or less independent units of nature technically called
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ecosystem.
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Ecological planning must begin with a coprehensive ecosystem analysis.

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A conventional survey, which merely characterises soil, minerals, topography, plants, animals’ etc., is inadequate instead,
these surveys must be comprehensive. Including an understanding of energy flow, nutrient cycling, population dynamics,
carrying capacity and other species relationships etc. the ultimate objectives of an ecosystem survey should be to predict
the implication of proposed activities.

The next important consideration in ecological planning is to examine the various alternatives carefully before taking any
major decision.
An inter diciplinary team, consisting of ecologists, economists, social scientists and other concerned specialists including
decision makers, should conduct such assessment and prepare an environmental impact statement for taking necessary
precautionary measures.
National environmental Engineering Research Institutre conducts surveys.
Ecological planning at all levels of decision making must be regarded as a priority in view of escalating growth of
population and our commitment to development.
The imp. Of ecology and environmental quality is first recognised in long term perspective of the fourth five-year plan.
Diversity is a combination of the number of species and the number of individuals of each species in a community.
An ecosystem is the whole biotic community in a given area plus its abiotic environment.
The biotic components of any ecosystem are linked as foodchains. Food chains are interlinked to form complex food
webs. Food webs are the basic units of ecosystem ecology.
A population is a group of individual organisms of the same species in a given area.
A community is a group of populations of different species in a given area.
Any feature of the organism or its parts, which is of definite significance in allowing that organism to exit under the
cnditions of its habitat, is thus called adaptation.

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Biological clocks. Plant species possess physiological mechanisms that indicate particular seasons of the year, and plant
species are known as biological clocks.

Zone of transition----Ecotone.
A life form is the sum of the adaptation of the plant to climate.
The final, terminal community that can maintain itself more or less indifinitely in equilibrium with the prevailing environment
is known as the climax community and the stage is climax.

Advocacy planning: the preparations of plans or planning proposals and their advocacy by professionals planners on
behalf of an organization, interest group, or community as an alternative or in opposition to plans, or planning proposals
prepared by an official agency.
Agora: the principal public space of a Greek city, which was the commercial and social center of the city. Meaning-
assembly. Earlier the Acropolis had been the center.
Air conditioning: the control of air in a building to a desired temperature and humidity, and its cleaning and circulation,
obtained by means of plants designed and installed for the purpose.
Air pollution: pollution of the air by smoke is caused mainly by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel, which emit
carbon monoxide, fine carbonaceous particles, and tarry droplets.
Apartment: a building, generally of several stories, contains a number of separate dwellings with a common entrance
from the street and often with services like heating and lighting in common.
Activity analysis: activity analysis is studies concerned with patterned ways in which households, firms, and various
other institutional entities pursue their affairs in time and space. These studies classify entity systems into subsystems,
and they identify pattern in the flow of activities or transactions of each system as it evolves in time and space.
Aqueduct: - a duct or conduit for conveying water from place to place but commonly regarded as an elevated structure
carrying the duct.

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Arcade: - a series of arches- as distinct from lintels- supported on columns such as is seen in medieval cloisters, the

or
interiors of basilicas and churches and in Renaissance piazzas.
b.
BIOTECHNIC: - This and other similar terms (paleotechnic) were coined by Patric Geddes. All the terms apply to modern
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technology and its effect on economic and social life.
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Lewis Mum ford------------techniques and civilization.

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The culture of cities.

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BLIGHT: some times called ‘PLANNING BLIGHT’ but among planner often referred to simply as blight. It stems from
hi

depreciation in the value of land and buildings as the result of planning proposals or planned development. This happens
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when
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Alternative planning proposals for public discussion.

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Where a specific, confirmed proposal.

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Blight can be regarded as the opposite of ‘betterment’.

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Pavements: 1:50 minimum slope of is desirable for most paved surfaces.

Path=0.9m, two abreast-2.2m, three abreast-3.2m
Ramp: an inclined plane-footway or roadway—connecting two levels.
Reclamation: in connection with land use, reclamation means in its widest sense, the recovery or conversion of land
mainly agricultural purposed but occasionally also for construction purposes.
Recreation: is the process where by individuals and communities renew and refresh themselves by pleasant occupants,
amusements and entertains both physical and mental after work or study.

Ribbon development: urban spread along main roads, especially those leading to a city. The practice of building on
either side of a main transport route has been common since the Middle Ages, and many Villages and towns have arises
on this way.
Building along transport routes is related to one form of the linear city.
Radial plan: a development of radiating roads from a city centres, with urban accretions along the roads. It is a plan that
results from natural uncontrolled haphazard growth. But it often forms the bias of good planning of combined with
concentric ring roads, in which the spider-web plan evolves.

Scale: the term scale as applied to the appearance of a building describes a quality of the relationship between
dimensional of the building. And its components and the modest range of dimensions and distances implied by the size of
a human being and by his physical limitations, that is, the ‘ human scale’.
Building must also be in scale with their surroundings and other buildings.
At 1200m heights human form is just detectable.
25m a person are recognizable.

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15m his face is fully discernable.
1-3m,direct and significant human relationship.
When the height: distance ratio is
1:4, 14 relatively small
1:3 with an 18 cone of vision object is visible.
1:2, 30--comprehensible.
1:1, 40--strong experience.
Sculpture: in addition to public monuments in appropriate places in cities and towns, sculpture is often introduced to
provide decorative items of interest so, as can be seen in some of the new urban areas in Germany…
Semeiology: the modern science of Semeiology is concerned with the meaning of signs and forms that appear and are
employed in all social activities.

Space: urban design, like architecture, is partly an art of enclosing space; and the proportion or area of space in relation
to building, the relationship of voids to solids, often greatly contributes to the success or failure of an urban development.
Piazza san petro--------Rome.
Place de concorde Paris
Champ de mars Paris.
They are kept, as valuable urban space because they have been traditionally used for various recreational civic and
religious purposes, because the aesthetic result is pleasurable and become it is satisfactory to keep them so despite the
fact that their practical usefulness has decreased.

Suburbs and suburban growth: suburbs are the compactly developed and developing areas surrounding the central city
in a metropolitan area. These areas are distinguished from the central city by their more homogeneous socioeconomic
and physical character, although they are seldom as unvaried as they are pictured in much current literature.

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or
Twilight area: an area, commonly adjacent to or even surrounding a city center, which the need for redevelopment is
b.
considerable where buildings are in poor condition and decrepit in appearance and where the whole environment is run
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down and deteriorate.
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These areas are areas of transition.

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Ziggurat: an ancient Babylonian and Assyrian structure like a stepped pyramid, with a temple at the top and approached
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by a processional way.
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MOGHAL ARCHITECTURE:
Building style that flourished in northern and central India under the patronage of the Mughal emperors from the mid-16th
.a

to the late 17th century. The Mughal period marked a striking revival of Islamic architecture in northern India. Under the
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patronage of the Mughal emperors, Persian, Indian, and various provincial styles were fused to produce works of unusual
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quality and refinement.

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The tomb of the emperor Humayun (begun 1564) at Delhi inaugurated the new style, though it shows strong Persian
influences. The first great period of building activity occurred under the emperor Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) at Agra and
at the new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri, which was founded in 1569. The latter city's Great Mosque (1571; Jama Masjid,
with its monumental Victory Gate (Buland Darwaza), is one of the finest mosques of the Mughal period. The great fort at
Agra (1565–74) and the tomb of Akbar at Sikandar, near Agra, are other notable structures dating from his reign. Most of
these early Mughal buildings use arches only sparingly, relying instead on post and lintel construction. They are built of
red sandstone or white marble.

Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of emperor Shah Jahan (1628–58), its crowning achievement
being the magnificent Taj Mahal. This period is marked by a fresh emergence in India of Persian features that had been
seen earlier in the tomb of Humayun. The use of the double dome, a recessed archway inside a rectangular fronton, and
park like surroundings are all typical of Shah Jahan period buildings. Symmetry and balance between the parts of a
building were always stressed, while the delicacy of detail in Shah Jahan decorative work has seldom been surpassed.
White marble was a favored building material. After the Taj Mahal, the second major undertaking of Shah Jahan's reign
was the palace-fortress at Delhi, begun in 1638. Among its notable buildings are the red-sandstone-pillared Divan-e Kha
(“Hall of Public Audience”) and the so-called Divan-e Kha (“Hall of Private Audience”), which housed the famous Peacock
Throne. Outside the citadel is the Great Mosque (1650–56; Jama Masjid). The impressive mosque sits on a raised
foundation and is approached by a majestic flight of steps, with an immense courtyard in front.

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The architectural monuments of Shah Jahan's successor, Aurangazeb (reigned 1658–1707), represent a distinct decline,
though some notable mosques were built before the beginning of the 18th century. Subsequent works lost the balance
and coherence characteristic of mature Mughal architecture.

Tomb architecture

Mortuary architecture in Egypt was highly developed and often grandiose. The tomb was not simply a place in which a
corpse might be protected from desecration. It was the home of the deceased, provided with material objects to ensure
continued existence after death. Part of the tomb might reproduce symbolically the earthly dwelling of the dead person; it
might be decorated with scenes that would enable the individual to pursue magically an afterlife suitable and similar to his
worldly existence. For a king the expectations were quite different; for him the tomb became the vehicle whereby he might
achieve his exclusive destiny with the gods in a celestial afterlife.

Most tombs comprised two principal parts, the burial chamber (the tomb proper) and the chapel, in which offerings for the
deceased could be made. In royal burials the chapel rapidly developed into a temple, which in later times was usually built
separately and at some distance from the tomb. In the following discussion, funerary temples built separately will be
discussed with temples in general and not as part of the funerary complex.

Royal tombs
In the earliest dynasties the tombs of kings and high officials were made of mud brick and of such similar size that it is
difficult to distinguish between them. It is now generally thought that the tombs at Abydos were royal, whereas those at
arah were noble. The latter, better preserved than the former, reveal rectangular superstructures, called Mastabas (see
below), with sides constructed in the form of paneled niches painted white and decorated with elaborate “matting”
designs.

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These great superstructures contained many storage chambers stocked with food and equipment for the deceased, who
b.
lay in a rectangular burial chamber below ground. Also within the superstructure, but not always clearly evident, was a low
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mound of earth, possibly representing the primitive grave of earlier times. Sometimes this concealed mound was a low,
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stepped structure, perhaps the precursor of the first great building constructed of stone in Egypt.
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The Step Pyramid of Djoser, second king of the 3rd dynasty, was built within a vast enclosure on a commanding site at
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˜aqq(rah overlooking the city of Memphis. A high royal official, Imhotep, has traditionally been credited with the design and
hi

with the decision to use quarried stone. This first essay in stone is remarkable for its design of six superposed stages of
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diminishing size, and also for its huge enclosure (1,784 × 909 feet [544 × 277 metre]) surrounded by a paneled wall faced
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with fine limestone and containing a series of “mock” buildings that probably represent structures associated with the
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palace in Memphis. There the Egyptian stonemasons made their earliest architectural innovations, using stone to
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reproduce the forms of primitive wood and brick buildings. Fine relief of the king and elaborate wall “hangings” in glazed
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tiles in parts of the subterranean complexes are among the innovations found in this remarkable monument.
NORTH INDIAN

Style of architecture produced throughout northern India and as far south as Bijapur district, characterized by its distinctive
ˆikhara, a superstructure, tower, or spire. The style is sometimes referred to as N(gara, a type of temple mentioned in the
‰ilpa-ˆ(stras (traditional canons of architecture), but exact correlation of the ‰ilpa-ˆ(stra terms with extant architecture
has not yet been established.

The typical Hindu temple in northern India, on plan, consists of a small square-shaped sanctuary (called the garbage…ha,
or “womb-room”) housing the main image, preceded by one or more adjoining pillared map;apas (porches or halls), which
are connected to the sanctum by an open or closed vestibule (antar(la). The entrance doorway of the sanctum is usually
richly decorated with figures of river goddesses and bands of floral, figural, and geometric ornamentation. An ambulatory
is sometimes provided around the sanctum. Above the main sanctuary rises a spire (ˆikhara), which is usually curvilinear
in outline, and smaller rectilinear ˆikharas of the ph(msan( type frequently top the map;apas as well. The whole may be
raised on a terrace (jagati) with attendant shrines at the corners. If a temple is dedicated to the god ‰iva, the figure of the
bull Nandi, the god's mount, invariably faces the sanctum, and, if dedicated to the god Vishnu, standards (dhvaja-
stambha) may be set up in front of the temple.

The centre of each side of the square sanctum is subjected to a gradated series of projections, creating a characteristic
cruciform plan. The exterior walls are usually decorated with sculptures of mythological and semi divine figures, with the
main images of the deities placed in niches carved on the main projections. The interior is also frequently richly carved,
particularly the coffered ceilings, which are supported by pillars of varying design.

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That the prototype of the North Indian temple already existed in the 6th century can be seen in surviving temples such as
the temple at Deogarh, Bih(r state, which has a small stunted ˆikhara over the sanctuary. The style fully emerged in the
8th century and developed distinct regional variations in Orissa, central India, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. A classification of
North Indian temples is generally made on the basis of ˆikhara types, such as the rectilinear ph(msan( and the curvilinear
latina, with its two variations, the ˆekharY and the bh¨mija (see ˆikhara).

One typical form of the North Indian style is seen in the early temples at Orissa, such as the graceful 8th-century
Paraˆur(meˆvara Temple at Bhubaneswar, a city that was a great centre of temple-building activity. From the 10th century
a characteristic Oriya style developed that exhibited a greater elevation of the wall and a more elaborate spire. The
Lingar(ja Temple at Bhubaneswar, of the 11th century, is an example of the Oriya style in its fullest development. The Sun
Temple at Kon(rak, the sanctum of which is badly damaged, is the largest and perhaps the most famous Oriya temple.

A development from the simpler to a more elevated and elaborate style is evident in central India, except that the ˆekharY
type of superstructure, with multiple tenets, is more favored from the 10th century onward. Interiors and pillars are more
richly carved than in Orissa. The Central Indian style in its most developed form appears at Khajuraho, as seen in the
Kap;(rya Mah(deva Temple (c. 11th century). There, an overall effect of harmony and majesty is maintained despite the
exuberance of sculpture on the outer walls; the rich profusion of miniature shrines on the ˆekharY spire reinforces the
ascending movement considerably.

Large numbers of temples are preserved in Gujarat, but most of them have been badly damaged. The early 11th-century
Sun Temple at Modhera isone of the finest.

Also called Dravidian Style, architecture invariably employed for Hindu temples in modern Tamil Nadu from the 7th to the

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18th century, characterized by its pyramidal, or k¨¡ina-type, tower. Variant forms are found in Karnataka (formerly Mysore)

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and Andhra Pradesh states. The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a
b.
superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (map;apa, or map¡apam), enclosed by a peristyle of
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cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing
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sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the k¨¡ina type and consists of an arrangement of
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gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the
corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a
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crowning pot and finial.

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The origins of the Dr(vi;a style can be observed in the Gupta period. The earliest extant examples of the developed style
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are the 7th-century rock-cut shrines at Mah(balipuram and a developed structural temple, the Shore Temple (c. 700), at
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the same site.

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The South Indian style is most fully realized in the splendid B…hadYˆvara temple at Thanj(v¨r, built about 1003–10 by
R(jar(ja the Great, and the greattemple at Gangaikop;acxdapuram, built about 1025 by his son R(jendra Cxla.
Subsequently, the style became increasingly elaborate—the complex of temple buildings enclosed by the court became
larger, and a number of successive enclosures, each with its own gateway (gopura), were added. By the Vijayanagar
period (1336–1565) the gopuras had increased in size so that they dominated the much smaller temples inside the
enclosures.

**************

Also called order of architecture in any of several styles of classical or Neoclassical architecture that are defined by the
particular type of columnand entablature they use as a basic unit. A column consists of a shaft together with its base and
its capital. The column supports a section of an entablature, which constitutes the upper horizontal part of a classical
building and is itself composed of (from bottom to top) an architrave, frieze, and cornice. The form of the capital is the
most distinguishing characteristic of a particular order. There are five major orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and
Composite.

There are many separate elements that make up a complete column and entablature. (See the Figure.) At the bottom of
the column is the stylobate; this is a continuous flat pavement on which a row of columns is supported. Rising out ofthe
stylobate is the plinth, a square or circular block that is the lowest part of the base. Atop the plinth and forming the
remainder of the base are one or more circular moldings that have varying profiles; these may include a torus (a convex
molding that is semicircular in profile), a scotia (with a concave profile), and one or more fillets, or narrow bands.

- 57 -
The shaft, which rests upon the base, is a long, narrow, vertical cylinder that in some orders is articulated with fluting
(vertical grooves). The shaft may also taper inward slightly so that it is wider at the bottom than at the top.

Atop the shaft is the capital, which serves to concentrate the weight of the entablature on the shaft and also acts as an
aesthetic transition between those two elements. In its simplest form (the Doric), the capital consists (in ascending order)
of three parts; the necking, which is a continuation of the shaft but which is set off from it visually by one or more narrow
grooves; the echinus, a circular block that bulges outward at itsuppermost portion in order to better support the abacus;
and the abacus itself, a square block that directly supports the entablature above and transmits its weight to the rest of the
column below.

The entablature is composed of three horizontal sections that are visually separated from each other by moldings and
bands. The three parts of the entablature (in ascending order) are called the architrave, frieze, and cornice.

The unit used in the measurement of columns is the diameter of the shaft at the base; thus, a column may be described
as being eight (lower) diameters high.

Ancient Greek architecture developed two distinct orders, the Doric and the Ionic, together with a third (Corinthian) capital,
which, with modifications, were adopted by the Romans in the 1st century BC and have been used ever since in Western
architecture.

The Doric order is characterized by a slightly tapered column that is the most squat of all the orders, measuring in height
(including the capital) only about four to eight lower diameters. The Greek forms of the Doric order have no individual
base and instead rest directly on the stylobate, although subsequent forms of Doric frequently were given a conventional

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plinth-and-torus base. The Doric shaft is channeled with 20 shallow flutes. The capital, as stated before, consists of a

or
simple necking; a spreading, convex echinus; and a square abacus. The frieze section of the Doric entablature is
b.
distinctive. It is composed of projecting triglyphs (units each consisting of three vertical bands separated by grooves) that
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alternate with receding square panels, called metopes, that may be either plain or carved with sculptured reliefs. The
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Roman forms of the Doric order have smaller proportions and appear lighter and more graceful than their Greek
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counterparts.
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The Ionic order differs from the Doric in having more flutes on its shaft and in the scrolls, or volutes, that droop over the
hi

front and rear portions ofthe echinus in the capital. The echinus itself is carved with an egg-and-dart motif. The height of
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the entire Ionic order—column, base, capital, and entablature— is nine lower diameters. The base of the column has two
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tori (convex moldings) separated by a scotia. The shaft, which is eight lower diameters high, has 24 flutes. On the
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entablature, the architrave is usually made up of three stepped fasciae (bands). The frieze lacks the Doric triglyph and
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metope, and hence this area can hold a continuous band of carved ornament, such as figural groups.
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The Corinthian order is the most elegant of the five orders. Its distinguishing characteristic is the striking capital, which is
carved with two staggered rows of sylized acanthus leaves and four scrolls. The shaft has 24 sharp-edged flutes, while
the column is 10 diameters high.

The Tuscan order is a Roman adaptation of the Doric. The Tuscan has an unfluted shaft and a simple echinus-abacus
capital. It is similar in proportion and profile to the Roman Doric but is much plainer. The column is seven diameters high.
This order is the most solid in appearance of all the orders.

The Composite order, which was not ranked as a separate order until the Renaissance, is a late Roman development of
the Corinthian. It is called Composite because its capital is composed of Ionic volutes and Corinthian acanthus-leaf
decoration. The column is 10 diameters high.

The Doric and Ionic orders originated nearly simultaneously on opposite shores of the Aegean Sea; the Doric on the
Greek mainland and the Ionic in the Greek cities of Asia Minor. (The volutes of the Ionic capital were adapted from
Phoenician and Egyptian capital designs.) The Doric may be considered the earlier order of the two only in its developed
form. Both orders originated in temples constructed out of wood. The earliestwell-preserved example of Doric architecture
is the Temple of Hera at Olympia, built soon after 600 BC. From these beginnings, the evolution of the stone Doric column
can be traced in architectural remains in Greece, Sicily, and southern Italy, where the Doric was to remain the chief order
for monumental buildings for the next eight centuries.

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The Greeks as well as the Romans regarded the Corinthian as only a variant capital to be substituted for the Ionic. The
first known use of a Corinthian capital on the outside of a building is that of the choragic Monument of Lysicrates (Athens,
335/334 BC). The Corinthian was raised to the rank of an order by the 1st-century-BC Roman writer and architect
Vitruvius.

The Romans adopted the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders and modified them to produce the Tuscan order, which is a
simplified form of the Doric, and the Composite order, which is a combination of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. Another
Roman innovation was the superposed order; when columns adorned several successive stories of a building, they were
normally of different orders, in an ascending sequence from heaviest to most slender. Thus columns of the Doric order
were assigned to the ground floor of a building, Ionic ones to the middle story, and Corinthian or Composite ones to the
top story. To avoid the complications of separate orders for each story, the architects of the Renaissance invented the
Colossal order, which is composed of columns extending the height of two or more stories of a building.

Vitruvius was the only ancient Greek or Roman writer on architecture whose works survived the Middle Ages. When his
handbook for Roman architects, De architectura, was rediscovered in the early 15th century, Vitruvius was at once hailed
as the authority on classical architecture. Based on his writings, Italian architects of the Renaissance and Baroque periods
developed an aesthetic canon that established rules for superposing the classical orders. The architects also laid down
rules for the proportions of the orders and their parts down to the most minute members. The exact proportional
dimensions of every element of an order was specified, so that, given the diameter of the column or any other dimension,
the entire order and all of its separate elements could be reconstructed through routine calculations. The rules were thus
carried to extravagant lengths that were undreamed of by the Greeks and rarely observed by the Romans.

Succeeding artistic periods witnessed revivals of the archeologically “correct” use of the orders, though many architects
continued to use the various orders with the utmost freedom. In Modernist architecture of the 20th century, the orders

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have tended to pass from use altogether as superfluous ornament, their structural functions having been taken over by

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columns and piers made of steel or reinforced concrete. u b.
The concept of the Renaissance, whose goal was the rebirth or re-creation of ancient classical culture, originated in
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Florence in the early 15th century and thence spread throughout most of the Italian peninsula; by the end of the 16th
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century the new style pervaded almost all of Europe, gradually replacing the Gothic style of the late Middle Ages. It
encouraged a revival of naturalism, seen in Italian 15th-century painting and sculpture, and of classical forms and
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ornament in architecture, such as the column and round arch, the tunnel vault, and the dome.
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Knowledge of the classical style in architecture was derived during the Renaissance from two sources: the ruins of ancient
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classical buildings, particularly in Italy but also in France and Spain, and the treatise De architectura by the Roman
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architect Vitruvius. For classical antiquity and, therefore, for the Renaissance, the basic element of architectural design
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was the order, which was a system of traditional architectural units. During the Renaissance five orders were used, the
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Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite, with various ones prevalent in different periods. For example, the ornate,
decorative quality of the Corinthian order was embraced during the early Renaissance, while the masculine simplicity and
strength of the Doric was preferred during the Italian High Renaissance. Following ancient Roman practice (e.g., the
Colosseum or the Theatre of Marcellus), Renaissance architects often superimposed the order—that is, used a different
order for each of the several stories ofa building—commencing with the heavier, stronger Tuscan or Doric order below
and then rising through the lighter, more decorative Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite.

For the Renaissance, proportion was the most important predetermining factor of beauty. The great Italian humanist and
architect Leon BattistaAlberti defined beauty in architecture as

Introduction to the planning

Town Planning is concerned, in part, with harmony, delight and efficiency. .But by far its most important aspect-if not its
very purpose-is the study of the ways of arranging building spaces and activities so that we all can more easily enjoy
work and play to the fullest possible extent. Today planning is a task for many people who work as a team comprising
experts and ordinary citizens, a day-to-day civic responsibility requiring a variety of social and professional skills brought
together to suit the needs of the problem at hand.
In our lives we are all planners in that we attempt to organize our activities in a meaningful and purposeful way.
Similarly, we try to arrange our personal possessions also.

Modern urban planning issues

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 Modem urban planning therefore embraces all the intricate relationships which exist between various levels of
government. It must comprehend in some orderly way the physical results of decisions which sometimes have been
made without regard to, the wider social and environmental problems.
All such planning questions have one very significant factor in common. The solutions to the problems they raise
depend on administrative co-operation and joint action. We are onlyjust beginning to recognize the truth of this
proposition. The major task lying ahead of today's governmental and administrative leaders is to devise new strategies
and procedures which will ensure collaboration not only between public and private agencies, but between the public
agencies themselves, at every level of operation.

Challenge before planning

The urban planner will play a major part in the working out of these new strategies, and in helping to define the
community objectives on which they must be based. In short, urban planning is an activity whose frontiers are being
constantly extended to include most of the physical and social determinants of contemporary urban life. At its heart,
planning is concerned with people with enhancing their comfort, convenience, and spiritual values-and with devising the
most acceptable physical framework for human activity in our metropolitan civilization.

Urban planning embraces a variety of activities, which have all originated in and are concerned with the physical
and social fabric of urban life.)The prime functions of planning are to improve the physical settings of our public
and private lives, and to enrich the relationship between man and his natural environment

A KEY TO SUCCESS

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The planner today must give increasing attention to the social and economic aspects of urban growth .a small
planning problem will usually require more than one opinion, whilst a large project will almost certainly require the
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efforts of one or more planning teams groups of experts each of whom contributes his own specialist knowledge
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towards a solution of the common problem.
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Increasingly planning is becoming a task aimed at achieving co ordination of effort not only between private and public
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developers but between the various public agencies themselves. It is surely one of the great challenges of urban govt to
produce the means whereby co-coordinated.
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Significance of public participation

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Thus we reach to the conclusion that planning is no longer a one man job .a small problem will usually require more than
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one opinion, whilst a large project will almost certainly require the efforts of one or more planning teams –groups of
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experts each of whom contributes his own specialist knowledge towards a solution of the common problem.today no
planner pretends to be fully conversant with all the details and complexities of his job.so the planner whether he be in the
government or private practice calls on experts to join the what we call influencing people in that region what we call
peoples participation.

Increasingly planning is becoming a task aimed at the co ordination of effort not only between private and public
developers but also between the various public agencies themselves. It is surely one of the greatest challenges of the
urban government to produce the means whereby coordinated.

PEOPLES ROLE IN PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

we shall be looking in particular at people and the different roles they can play in the planning process. It will be seen that
an individual or a group can play more than one role, and that the role at any one time will be conditioned by the kind of
problem which is facing them and by the resources which they may be able to offer in meeting that problem. Each
problem will have its own particular combination of political, financial, social and geographical conditions which make it in
some degree different from other problems. But if the problems are all unique, the people behind them can be roughly
classified into one or other of several primary categories.

THE CITIZEN
We are all citizens. We live in our particular community, help elect our leaders and pay rates and taxes which finance the
community

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Progress.wheather we are also citizens of the state in which we happen to live and the nation. Furthermore, most of us
owe a loyalty to a fourth unit-our local government council which levies rates and provides us with very real needs such as
local roads, parks and libraries

Thus Our civic loyalties are s t our ways. Our interests and participation in civic affairs will depend a great deal on how we
view our relation ship with each level of government, and on what we stand to gain or lose from such govt as a result of
participation or their intervention in their activities.

Whatever its form, citizenship implies responsibilities and obligations it offers to those so inclined the opportunity to
participate in-civic leadership and their by to play a part in shaping the affairs of the community including urban planning.

At the state, regional and local levels there are a growing number of Opportunities for citizens to play their part in the
making of plans and in the development of better communities. This is especially so at the local level
Where town planning has for a long time been a matter of popular concern as well as a statutory operation under
the control of the local shire or municipal council.

CITIZEN AS CLIENT

The citizen is the mainstay of our democratic society, and respect for his rights is central to our constitutional outlook and
to an legislative procedures. As a member of community, he is entitled to add his voice to the voice of the community.
Furthermore, the community, is the 'ultimate client' of all our planning endeavors at local or national levels no matter who
actually draws the plans, owns the land, finds the money, or reaps the rewards, if any the community is the ultimate
beneficiary of good planning an the victim of bad-A poorly planned housing estate may not lead its builder to bankruptcy
but it will constitute a liability which the community

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as a whole must carry for many decades.

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Planning implies the thoughtful use of resources, and so we can say that a well-run council will as a matter of course see
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that public money is wisely spent in obtaining sound professional help and giving the community the benefits of careful
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planning through the avoidance of poor development, disturbance to amenity, and so on

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THE CITIZEN AS BUILDER

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The total urban environment at a particular point of time is very much the sum of its parts, and most of these parts
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consist of the countless minor changes and additions which are being carried out by individuals acting in their temporary
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capacity of builder or landscape gardener or what you win Generally speaking, no matter how small, there are very few
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development projects which are entirely a private matter.

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THE CITIZEN AS PLANNER

Our third view of the citizen sees him in his role as a planner. For the majority of people living and working in the typical
urban situation, this role is a potential rather than an actual one because an effective mechanism by which citizens can
play a really fruitful and creative part in our various official planning systems has not yet been devised. An honest our and
his involvement in planning would show that in the great majority of cases he will be found objecting in the legal sense of
the word
.
This leads us to the observation that our planning laws tend to reflect the questionable philosophy that planning is the
sole prerogative of the professional, and that citizen participation is limited to the chance to object at certain well-defined
stages in the process. Today, we can see a world-wide trend away from this negative approach to one, which recognize
that many intelligent citizens not only are capable of making useful contributions to a plan but are actually eager to do so.
When this enlightened view is acknowledged in our planning legislation we will at last be able to speak of the citizen as
planner and not merely as a statutory objector

THE CIVIC GROUP

So far we have looked at the individual citizen as client or builder or planner participating in some way in planning
process. but citizens also act in groups which play a variety of roles in planning . What exactly is a citizens group what can
such a group achieve in the fields of urban planning.

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 Typically, the citizens' group, which becomes involved in planning, usually has 'an axe to grind'. The old maxim----~unity
is strength'-is the motto of hundreds of civic committees, progress and protest associations, amenity societies, action
committees, rate-payers' associations and the like, that are constituted either to oppose or object to a particular
development project or to act as a community watchdog over-a period of time. It is perhaps unfortunate that although
these bodies are essential to democratic processes, their lives are often short and their activities tend to be either
defensive and negative in outlook, or else concerned with minor improvements of limited if cosmetic value.

This is not to suggest that such citizens' groups have no positive role in urban affairs. In fact, when they are well
organized with good leadership they provide an effective check to hasty or irresponsible bureaucratic decisions. For this
reason alone we shall always need such groups. However, there is a more creative and constructive role awaiting the
civic association which sets itself the aim not only of exposing the weaknesses in official policy-making but of actively
contributing towards the formulation of better policies and plans.
Here again we come face to face with the statutory planning system. Not one of our state planning systems
contemplates using the resources of civic groups during the early stages of survey, goal definition and plan preparation.
As with the individual citizen, provision is made for negative objections rather than for positive contributions. Thus we can
see that for the, citizen, whether he acts as an individual or as a member of a group, the opportunities for active
participation in planning are few. At present they are not only limited in scope but are frustrating to those more interested
in progress than in protests.

THE ADMMSTRATOR AND THE PLANNER

The above situation poses problems for the urban planner. On the one hand he is in a good position to establish a fruitful
relationship with the local administrator because they are both concerned with the broad spectrum of
Local affairs. On the other, he is likely to be accused of trespassing when he concerns himself with the specialist activities
of a Main Roads Board or a Housing Commission or a Harbour Trust. We are back to the oft-repeated dilemma: how do

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we achieve a co-operative relationship between the specialist agencies of higher government and the generalist planners

or
at the local level?
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At this point it would be easy to despair but in several states there are hopeful signs as politicians and administrators
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begin to take urban planning seriously. Each state is evolving its own system for bringing about a more effective
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co-ordination of statutory bodies, government departments, and local government units. But we have a long way to go.
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Debate on public private affairs

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THE DEVELOPER-PRIVATE AND PUBLIC

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If a plan is to be brought to reality land and money are obvious requirements. In fact, if the plan.is a good one it will have
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been based on a through knowledge of the land to which refers, and it will have incorporated into its provisions all the
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financial information necessary to show how the benefits of implementation will outweigh the costs.
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Today, we are better able to make proper comparative assessments of these benefits and costs. As we continue our
discussion of people in planning we will describe the role of the private and public developers as they seek the best
economic answers to particular development and investment problems.

Much of what we have to say applies equally to public and private developers. Both have to assemble money and land;
both have to understand the various legal and financial restrictions and limitations on their activities; both have to account
for their operations in some formal way. But there are also significant differences between the aims and methods of
private and public developers. We should know something about these differences, and about the way they influence the
character of our plans and our planning policies.

DEVELOPMENT-LAND, MONEY, PEOPLE, PLANS

The actual construction is only one aspect of the total developmental process. Development, like planning, may begin
long before work on the site commences, and continue beyond the construction period till the land and buildings are fully
in use according to the intentions of the plan. To begin with land and money have to be assembled at the right time and in
the right place; ideas examined and worked out on paper; and legal aspects dealt with. The views, and perhaps the
approval, of many different government bodies may be involved as well. After all this a contractor has to be selected and
his work supervised during the term of the contract. Loans, fees and costs then have to be paid and accounted for.
in working out a project several different parties may be involved: the owners of the land; the planning agencies; the
actual developer; the technical and legal advisers; the public authorities; the money-lending agencies; and so on.
Sometimes we find that two or more of these parties may be combined or associated in some way. Many modem

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developers have the support of designers, planners, financiers and other experts within their own organization. In the case
of a local planning project sponsored by a council, the development may take the form of a partnership whereby the local
authority buys the land and prepares an outline plan whilst the actual development and management of the project will be
carried out by a private developer who enters into a special financial arrangement with the sponsoring councii-I

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE

Basically developers may be classified in two groups-public and private. Public development agencies include the
departments of state and federal government, local councils, statutory bodies, universities and hospitals. Private
developers include private individuals or privately owned development companies, insurance companies, administrators
of trust funds, and the big public companies whose shares are fisted on the stock exchanges of our capital cities.
Within these two groups there are other interesting sub-groups. For example the private developer usually operates
with one of three intentions. He may be a speculator, in which case he builds for sale and a quick profit. He may be an
investor where he builds for letting or leasing. He may simply be concerned with building for his own use and occupation.
By contrast, public developers can be distinguished by considering whether or not their operation is 'remunerative'. When
a council decides to redevelop its land in the town centre it will certainly be concerned with obtaining a cash return; if it is
building roads or a new sewage plant there will be no cash return but the benefits will accrue in other ways.

Towards a solution

Key Term
The key term in this respect is "public participation". This concept introduces a variety of problems, especially of a legal
and constitutional nature. These problems not only concern the government; in many cases the population also has many

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questions about this role. However, several countries have learned by experience that the interaction between

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government and citizens can be fruitful and that there is strong social support for joint responsibility in tackling and solving
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the problems with respect to the environment. In many cases this participation is considered an important element in
democratic development, based on mutual respect and confidence.
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The last hundred years have seen tremendous growth in world population, and in the concentration of population in huge
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cities
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The modem city is not only physically big. With its intricate web of complex mechanical, hydraulic and electrical
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services, it is also a very sophisticated technological phenomenon. It is highly dependent on these services; if they are
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inadequate or faulty, disaster may result. For example, a blackout and power failure in a city can bring the entire city to a
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halt and cause widespread confusion and suffering.

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In large cities, man's efforts at successfully ordering his environment are beset with difficulties. As growth continues, it
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becomes less easy to attain order, efficiency, and convenience. We come to accept as normal the unhealthy
characteristics of the modern city-the slums, smog, pollution, congestion. And alongside these physical disorders are the
grave social disorders of loneliness, distrust of authority, alienation, poverty, and the dangers of civil disturbance and
administrative breakdown.

Properly directed urban growth can lead to social, physical and economic improvement. This kind of progress is implicit
in the philosophy of modern situation only through the healthy people’s participation

CITIZENS' PARTICIPATION (a detailed study)

An individual citizen is more directly affected by local government administration than by the policies of the Union and
State Governments. It is at this level that services like road maintenance, street lighting, traffic control, fire-fighting, water
supply, transport and building regulations strike home 0 everyone. The attitudes towards public administration are general
in nature and they are usually shaped by personal contacts. Since the citizen's dealing with the local government is closer
and more frequent, public administration at the local level assumes a critical importance. Not only this, while working for
the improvement of city government, a local authority must endeavour also to secure greater and better understanding
from the citizens. It is only from such an understanding that we can expect greater responsiveness and enthusiasm from
them. There is much that the citizen must learn and be told. A citizen is generally ignorant of what constitutes a municipal
offence so far as sanitation is concerned. Similarly, he is ignorant of other offences mentioned in the Act. So, there is
great need for educating the citizen of his rights under the municipal law. The need is really great in growing urban
centres where homogeneity and background are lacking and the task of achieving reasonable uniformity of conditions is
rendered more difficult.

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 The understanding that We must try to secure, should cover the pre-requisites of orderly community living. A
citizen's attitude must reflect awareness and appreciate of one's rights and obligations as a member to a large
community and must evoke appropriate action.
Rights relate to the basic needs of decent living.
to the sum total of civic functions.
(2) "Citizenship is an obligation, not a privilege.112 He is obliged to impose a (1) The citizen is obliged to accept that
he is duty bound to contribute code of conduct that reflects the interdependence of the citizens in Matters of a civic
nature. Such a code of conduct is all the more essential in a thickly populated and somewhat heterogeneous urban
community. On one hand, the -physical scene must be improved and on the other, an education campaign undertaken,
with the object that the local community is enthused and mobilised with regard to the negative and positive aspects of
civic behaviour. Among the instruments to be used, the most important is local leadership of both individuals and institu-
tions. This must give rise to the birth of an urban community development programme and every city administration must
endeavour to provide a suitable machinery for undertaking such a programme. The problem is to devise ways of giving.
the individual an opportunity to play a more meaningful role in shaping the policies and programmes which affect his
physical, aesthetic occupational, recreational and human environment.
(3) It has been suggested that citizens' forums should be organised for stimulating and ensuring maximum
participation of -the citizen in civic affairs. In United States of America, such groups have conducted studies of various city
problems and worked in the direction of promoting the desired change. In India, a beginning had been made with the
citizen's chest idea. The ward committee can be organized, representing elected councillors as well as others to make a
valuable contribution for improving the standard of civic amenities in a town. This will reduce the distance between the
rulers and the ruled. It is observed that a good citizen is "one who is willing at all times to make some sacrifices, his time,
means And convenience to advance the common welfare and has such an abiding interest in this that he is always
watchful and needs the urgency to do his duty".3 it is realized by all that where a sense of intimate attachment to their
municipal government is lacking, municipal government will be a mockery and a farce and if the relations between

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the municipal government and its citizens are remote and impersonal the very purpose of municipal government will be

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defeated. The report of the Rural-Urban Relationship Committee observed, "The efficiency and effective functioning of
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local bodies and the standard of services provided by them depend not only on the organizational procedure, financial
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capabilities, tax administration and technical and administrative competence of the municipal personnel but also on the
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interest, understanding and co-operation of the citizens. Well-informed citizens conscious of their responsibility can
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respond quickly to the steps taken for improving the services and promoting social and economic development and
co-operate with the administration in its tasks. Good leadership and enlightened participation of the people, civic pride and
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consciousness are the pre-requisites for building up a sound and responsible local administration".4
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A sound and responsible administration must devise out a mechanism for informing itself about its acts of omission
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and commission. Bruere remarked, "However, much a community may desire good government and, however, sensitive
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it may be to bad government, it cannot act wisely day in and day out on governmental matters without information on
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government acts and resultS.5 Decisions not fertilized by thoughts and ideas of outside experts or of citizens themselves
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will remain futile. The more the bureaucracy or the responsitories of power turn their backs on life, the more will their
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creation suffer from the backlash of life.

It is a fact that once the people are involved in their city government, the quality of the services rendered by the local
body improve considerably. The Committee on Rural-Urban Relationship reported, "Involvement of citizens in the affairs
of the local body makes officers and elected councillors responsible to the needs and aspirations of the people. It makes
them active and encourages them to give their best in the service of the people. Decisions meant to benefit a handful of
people or two serve individual interests are minimized. Ultimately, it ensures proper rendering of municipal services and
prevents malingering on the part of the staff. It identifies particular interests with those of the. community, thus, bringing
about a feeling of no longer being regarded as aliens but as instruments for the service of the community". This school of
though contends, "that citizen participation in bureaucratic activities has been (or is potentially) an important stimulus for
developing more effective management for enhancing democratic norms and even for transferring effective power to the
powerless.$ When we believe that the people are the source of all government power that the authority of the people is to
be extended, not restricted. This can be done only by providing each citizen with every opportunity to participate in the
management of the government, and they must it. Certain people are allergic to people's participation but their number is
few and this microscopic minority comprises only those who have a negative approach in life. Steven concludes that this
study has determined that certain individual attributes and attitudinal variables are significantly related to citizens
participation norms. As hypothesized, professional, organizational and personal factors are important determinants of
such values. However, other including respondents, sex and length of service, do not affect these values.

Nevertheless, the lesson here for the practitioner and scholar is clear. Successful efforts to develop citizen’s
participation activities depend, in part on understanding the human factor in the work place. Professional, organizational
and personal norms and values must be taken into account before initiating citizens involvement strategies.

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 INVOLVING CITIZENS IN CIVIC AMENITIES

Before proceeding to design the strategies for securing citizens' involvement in various civic amenities, let us be clear
as to what do we mean by the word citizew involvernent. Citizens involvement is not limited to the simple act of voting in
the Municipal.' ~ elect ions, whenever these are held. It is also not limited to attendance at public meetings or participation
in advisory committees, special boards and commissions and public authorities, although all of these are part of effective
involvement. then refers to the process of providing all residents of.&,Iocal government a full and equal opportunity to
influence those government decisions that effect the quality of their lives. The Word 'residents? means, all those
citizen&-who are -not generally represented by -established interest groups or privat institutions. The word 'decision'
means the final policies and programmes adopted by the local authorities

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The words 'full and equal opportunity' are meant to convey that all residents should have the same
opportunity to influence government decisions regardless of their social, economic and political status
under this definition:

-Citizens identify what do they want the local government to do;

-They have an opportunity to communicate their views;
-They can participate in the decision-making process;
-They can evaluate the action of their representatives.

"The efficiency and success of a democratic Government depends very largely upon the public
understanding of its machinery and the interest the people takes in and the support it gives to its
activities". As a result of their involvement, the following gains may accrue to the local body :

I . Citizens involvement may also affect the quality of public decision by ensuring that such
decisions are based on complete and accurate information. Obtaining citizens' views before final
decisions are arrived at, will enable the local authorities to know the potential alternatives.
Citizens motivated by their opposition to the tentative decision or proposed decisions, may
identify more realistic alternatives than those already under consideration.

2. Citizen’s involvement will provide to the local authorities information which will alert them to the
potential problems and pitfalls that could inhibit the progress of implementation. Another
advantage would be that if the employees know that citizens are monitoring the quality and
quantity of services, their motivation ~o better service delivery will improve,

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Citizen's improvement will also help in improving the Anances of the local body, to the extent that
greater involvement in the making of government decisions creates a positive' incentive for
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citizens to work , for
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Bettering the civic community's financial base. This will increase citizens' willingness to pay for
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the progress and projects, which they know, are going to cater to the basic needs of the
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community.
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4. The increased citizens' involvement in the resolution of neighborhood problems will motivate
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others to solve their own problems. If, for example, citizens become involved in the development
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and operation of programs designed to meet people's need for urban shelter, they may, in the
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process, identify additional ways of solving housing problems which do not require government
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involvement.

In the long run, neighborhood development depends primarily on the willingness and ability of
citizens to develop solution of their problems. Rao had also come to the conclusion, "it is inevitable for the
effective functioning of municipal government to seek measures to foster civic sense and political
consciousness in the civic community".
There are the advantages which citizens' involvement may result in, provided it is not stretched too
far. Citizens' involvement does not mean that on every issue and with every citizen the consultation is to
precede every decision. The idea is to give an opportunity to the affected citizens of expressing their
views on critical issues before such decisions are "looked in concrete". Having decided, that citizens'
involvement is to devise ways of giving the individuals the opportunity to play a more meaningful part in
shaping the governmental policies and programs which affect their physical, aesthetic, occupational,
recreational and human environment. The easiest thing, which a local body can do, is to make
information available to the citizens and citizen groups.
The council agenda and the meeting times of the council and committees could be published in the
newspapers. Detailed minutes of all council meetings should be mailed to any citizen or citizen group
requesting for the same.
Detailed analysis or any decision vitally affecting the community, should be made available, on
request, to a recognized group of citizens.
Public Sector Role Private Sector Role

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 1. Basic Role
Promotion of development
Protection of community interests
2. Professional Planning Role
Settlement planning policies
And guidelines
Regional planning & inter-regional
Coordination
Preparation of
Perspective plans : (20-25 yrs)
Development plans (every 5 yrs)
Monitoring & review
Promotion of private sector's
professional planning role
3. Development Roles
Assembly of land for trunk services and
Assembly of land for development
major public and semi-public uses and
1. Basic Role
- Detailed & specialized planning, and
- Development with a reasonable
Balance between the client's and
Community’s interests.
2. Professional Planning Role
Detailed area planning
(Plans of projects and schemes)
Specialized inputs as expert
consultants pertaining to the
following public sector planning
efforts;
transport system
- urban design
- urban services
fiscal resource planning
project formulation and estimation
legal support
3. Development Roles
-
through outright purchase at market

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EWS/LIG housing prices or land pooling
- EWS/LIG housing Land development
b.
- Development of settlement level andDeveloped
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land distribution
off-site infrastructure Building & distribution, sale of
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- Urban renewal programmebuilt-up spaces

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- Land distribution to usersUrban renewal through

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cooperative action
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4. Non-Legal Roles 4. Non Legal Roles

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- Advice to and persuation of people - Introduction of awareness

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to follow development plans about planning and development

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efforts among the people

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- Intra-public sector coordination- Persuation of

people to support
and cooperation public sector development/renewal
programmes by social groups

198 CRDT, ITPI

UDPF1 Guidelines

Public and private sectors coordination

and cooperation Participation in settlement planning
process with dedication when called
Introduction of incentives and for
inducements to inculcate
development by private sector
with community interest
5. Managerial Role 5. Managerial Roles
- Office administration/management - Development management
- Capital improvement - Capital improvement
- Management and maintenance of - Management and maintenance
settlement level and off-site of on-site urban spaces

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 infrastructure, urban spaces and and infrastructures
built-up spaces.
6. Education, Training & Research 6. Training
- Education, training and research Organisation of professional
by institutions training programme
- In-service training by other Inputs in education, training
organisations and research programmes
- Research by research institutions
7. Legal Roles
- Zoning regulations
- Sub-division regulations
-
- Legal controls pertaining to private
sector participation in planning
and development process (including
informal sector)
- Plan sanction and other related roles

S no Public role Private role

1. Basic Role Promotion of development and Detailed & specialized
Protection of community planning, and

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interests Development with a
b. reasonable Balance
between the client's and
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community interests
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Professional Planning Role Settlement planning

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policiesDetailed area
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planningAnd guidelines (Plans of projects and schem

w

Regional planning &

w

inter-regional Specialized
inputs asexpertCoordination consultants pertaining to th
following public sector plan
Preparation of efforts;
Perspective plans : (20-25 yrs)
Development plans (every 5 yrs) transport system Monitoring &
Promotion of private sector's
urban services professional
planning role fiscal
resource planning
project formulation and estim

Air conditioning: a system giving automatic control, within predetermined limits of the environmental
conditions by heating, cooling, humidification, dehumidification, cleaning and movement of air in
buildings.

Advantages: -
 Working efficiency is increased.
 Enjoy grater comfort
 Reduction in claming and decorating

- 68 -
  Better patronage
 Sealed windows reduce the entry of noise from aircraft and traffic.
 Less risk of fire due to static electricity, caused by dry air.

Relative humidity: =comfort when RH is between 30-70%.

Air condition maintains—40-50%.

Requirements may be divided two types;

1. Those particularly relevant to listening to music or formal speech, as influenced by the properties
of the room itself.
2. those concerned with the effects of noise, internally or externally generated, on particular
activities.
Room acoustics. Listening condition are largely influenced by reverberation time (RT), which is defined
as the time taken for a sound to decayto 1 million

CLASSIC CITY;
Humble city; unpaved lanes lacking drainage and sanitation.
Eg; acropolis, Athens, Hellenic city temple dominated, meeting places were called “pnyx”
Hippodamus: (Greek); he originated the grid rational arrangement –iron street system.
Eg Olynthus (city) bouleuterian (assembly) prytanum (council chamber)
The hearth was situated called “atrium”.
Himmodamus- Piraeus, the part city of Athens, as well as thurii and Rhodes, prince, Miletus.

g
or
HELLENISTIC CITY;
th b.
PRIENCE; rebuilt during the 4 century BC. The physical improvement in Greek cities reflected the deep
roots of Hellenic culture.
u
sh

The open air meeting place-the prays-of the agora and assembly hall replaced the early Greek tours.
POMPEII;
ct

The forum lies in the center of an irregular street system suggestions the problem that the more regular
te

pattern was established as the town grew in population an extended its area.
hi

The early roman dwelling adopted the atrium from Greece houses of the more affluent addend the feature
rc

known as the ‘peristyle’.

.a

Charcoal braziers from room to room – called “hypocaust”, provided heating generally
w

While the public baths (thermae) occupied an important place in the social life of Romans
w
w

Rome: banks of the Tiber.

Ostia; Ostia, the seaport for Rome, was likewise crowded and contained many apartments. The house of
Diana is an example.
TIMGAD: the pattern of a roman city.
The forum roman was the original center of business and political life in the early republic.

The Medieval town:

Irregular street patterns and heavy walls.
MONTPAZIER:
The church of monastery and the castle of the lord dominated the early medieval town.
The church plaza became the market place and with citizenship bestowed upon the people and merchant
guilds established.
The entire town was treated with structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
Romanesque and early gothic buildings.
NAARDEN-church dominated.

Historical development of cities:

There are two basic forms of the city:

1. Walled city
2. Open city

- 69 -
The city means the whole people who inhabit it, the entire collection of the houses the people live in, the
shops in which they work the streets they traverse, and the places in which they trade.

Early civilizations spread along the fertile valleys of the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, and Indus Rivers where
food, water, and transportation were at hand.

In Egypt the lives of the people were dedicated to the pharaoh. The towns they built in the third
millennium B.C were reacted upon his order. Narrow lanes served as open drainage sewers as well as
passageways to the dwellings. Walls surrounded the towns.

City of kahun, Egypt, dating from about 3000BC

Mohanjadaro, Indus valley.
Babylon was a large city spanning the Euphrates River. Surrounded by the great walls and a moat, it was
a monumental city of kings.

The walls did, not surround ancient cities like Knossus. But fortified cities are Tiryns and Mycenae.

The humble city: Greece: for the Greek citizen the temple was the symbol of his democratic way of life.
Ancient city Aegean—small rooms called ‘Megaron”.

Some examples:
KAHUN: Egypt (3000BC).

g
A ventilating device known as ‘mulguf’ is provided on roof for cooling for interior rooms.

or
b.
MOHANJADARO: Indus valley (3000BC).
u
sh

The principal buildings excavated are a public bath and a monastery.

ct

TH
BABYLON: 6 CENTURY BC.
te

It was a large city spreader Euphrates River. Surrounded by great walls, it was a monumental
hi

city.
rc

Isthtar gate, stemphal, Hanging Gardens of nebuchadnezzar’s palace. ---Herodotus (explains the
.a

road system).
w
w

First regional planning: Jerusalem (surrounded by mediterian sea, dead sea)

w

CLASSIC CITY;
Humble city; unpaved lanes lacking drainage and sanitation.
Eg; acropolis, Athens, Hellenic city temple dominated, meeting places were called “pnyx”
Hippodamus: (Greek); he originated the grid rational arrangement –iron street system.
Eg. Olynthus (city) bouleuterian (assembly) prytanum (council chamber)
The hearth was situated called “atrium”.
Himmodamus- Piraeus, the part city of Athens, as well as thurii and Rhodes, prince, Miletus.

HELLENISTIC CITY;
th
PRIENCE; rebuilt during the 4 century BC. The physical improvement in Greek cities reflected the deep
roots of Hellenic culture.
The open air meeting place-the prays-of the agora and assembly hall replaced the early Greek tours.
POMPEII;
The forum lies in the center of an irregular street system suggestions the problem that the more regular
pattern was established as the town grew in population an extended its area.
The early roman dwelling adopted the atrium from Greece houses of the more affluent addend the feature
known as the ‘peristyle’.
Charcoal braziers from room to room – called “hypocaust”, provided heating generally
While the public baths (thermae) occupied an important place in the social life of Romans

- 70 -
Rome: banks of the Tiber.
Ostia; Ostia, the seaport for Rome, was likewise crowded and contained many apartments. The house of
Diana is an example.
TIMGAD: the pattern of a roman city.
The forum roman was the original center of business and political life in the early republic.

Hippodamus. It was natural that an atmosphere of philosophy should impel a search for order in the city.
In the latter part of the forth century an architect from Miletus, by the name of Hippodamus, advanced
positive theroes about the art and science of city planning. He has been credited with the origination of
the “grid iron” street system, although this is not entirely accurate.

The city plan was conceived as a design to serve all the people. The individual dwelling was the common
denominator. Blocks were shaped to provide appropriate orientation for the dwellings within them.
Superimposing the rigid geometrical form of the Hippodamian street system upon the rugged topography
of the sites occupied by most Greek cities created numerous streets so steep they could negotiated only
with steps.

Olynthus----Greek city
Public space: the expanding affairs of government required appropriate facilities. The agora, or market
place, was the center of business and political life, and about it were lined the shops and market booths.
Accessible from the Agora Square, but not facing upon it, were the assembly hall, counsel hall, and
council chamber.

g
or
Common open space in Greek cities was largely confined to enclosure for public buildings.
Building regulations in Greek cities were there. b.
It was in the colonial founded by the city-states on the shores of the Mediterranean that the planning
u
sh

theories of Hippodamus found their fullest expression.

It is recorded that Hippodamus himself planned Piraeus, the port city of Athens, as well as Thurii, and
ct

Rhodes.
te

Size of cities: 40,000 and total population 100,000-150,000.

hi

Hellenic towns relied primarily on local watercourses, wells and springs.

rc

Chronicles of the period referred to the importance of proper orientation.

.a

The houses, that look toward the south, the winter sun shines down into the paestades while in summer,
w

passing high above our heads and over our roofs, it throws them in shadow.
w

The effect of these criteria was a planning system that sprung from the elements of the individual unit.
w

The medieval town:

Barbaric rulers established city-states and formed the nucleus of future nations. The economy rooted in
agriculture, and the rulers parceled their domains among vassal lords who pledged military support for the
kingdom.
The feudal system was the new order.
th
Medieval cities of the 12 and 13 centuries usually had irregular street patterns and heavy walls. In it we
see the castle with its own moat and walls, the market place (A), and the church of St. Nazaire (c).

The radial and lateral pattern of irregular roadways with the church plaza as the principal focal point of the
town. The city of the middle ages grew within the confines of the walls. While the population was small,
there was space in the town, but when it increased the buildings were packed more closely and open
spaces. Sanitation and water supply remained same. The result was intolerable congestion, lack of
hygiene, and pestilence.
th th
During the 13 and 14 centuries young empires to protect their trade and provide military security
founded colonial cities. They were platted for allocation of sites to settlers and the regular plan is a distinct
to the informal development of the normal medieval town.

- 71 -
It was the church rather than the palace that dominated the medieval town. Encircled by its protective
walls, the town was small. In later days the battlements were elaborately engineered, as in Naarden, and
populace was further separated from the open spaces about the town.

The entire town was treated with a structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
Romanesque and early Gothic buildings. Open spaces – the streets and plazas- developed as integral
parts of the sites upon which the buildings were erected. With the exception of a few parts between the
gates and the market place, streets were used as pedestrian circulation about the town rather than traffic
arteries as we know them today.

Dwellings: conservation of heat in the cold climates and the restrictive area of the town caused the
houses to be built in connected rows along the narrow streets. Behind these rows of dwellings open
space was reserved and in them the domestic animals were kept and gardens cultivated.

Life in medieval cities had Colour, a Colour visible to all the people. The church provided pageantry and
gave drama to the life of every man.
Average height-two storey.
Masonry was the usual construction.

Brief points:
Irregular street patterns and heavy walls.
MONTPAZIER:
The church of monastery and the castle of the lord dominated the early medieval town.

g
or
The church plaza became the market place and with citizenship bestowed upon the people and merchant
guilds established. b.
The entire town was treated with structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
u
sh

Romanesque and early gothic buildings.

NAARDEN-church dominated.
ct
te

Neo classic city:

hi

The traditional height of building increases from two storey to 3 and 4 storey.
rc

Population density increases without increase in water supply and sanitation.

.a

Wheel traffic increases.

w

The first sewer installed in London after the Black Death.

w
w

The important aspect concerns the houses types envisaged for different socio-economic
groups. The basic distinction is made between plotted and group housing. The decision regarding house
types for different income groups is essentially based on two consideration-housing preferences and
affordability. In distinguishing between plotted and group housing in relation to financial aspects.

Origin of towns

Pre historic period the origin towns were no social concept and the various groups and
tribes lived together only for collective security from the early stone age the slow process of development
extending over a period of nearly half a million years.

Medieval towns

Towns of this period had walls around them for protection and defense and were very
crowded as result. Some of these towns became centers of wider and wider.

Renaissance towns

The basic concepts of this period were vista forming straight streets. Europe and Jaipur in
India could be cited as examples of this type of towns during this period.

- 72 -
Towns of today

Due to industrial revolution, the towns of today have their roots in the industrial revolution of
the nineteenth century. The phenomenally increased populations were in need of shelter in the form of
housing.

Definitions of Renaissance, industrial revolution

Definition of the age of Renaissance: - in the year 1453 A.D Turkish sultan Mohammed invaded
Constantinople a city that was an abode of Greek culture. The Greek scholar fled to other European
nations along with their ancient Greek literature. The se scholars established schools and monasteries
and taught Greek literature all over Europe and inculcated interest among the people in the revival of
ancient literature and culture. This was known as renaissance period.

Industrial Revolution: - revolution is a sudden change in any field. Invention of machines that were used in
industries and through which production of goods increased was called industrial revolution.

Renaissance style: - literal meaning of this renaissance is 're -birth'. The term is used to designate the
th
period between 1350 and 1600 A.D in developments of the 15 century in Europe. The principal features
of this renaissance are as follows:
1. The effect of rediscovery of the art of antiquities.
2. The development of the technique of perspective where the artist could represent depth and

g
or
recession and so produce realistic spatial relationships.
3. The achievement of greater 'naturalism'. b.
u
sh

Description of Renaissance
ct

The age of renaissance was actually started with revival of art and letters and the
te

transition from the Middle Ages to the modern world. The main cause for renaissance was the evolution
hi

of strong and prosperous city-states and merchant princes. The word renaissance was not originally used
rc

to indicate a stylistic period but was used only a part of such phrases as the renaissance of the arts of
.a

antiquity, it is really became a popular source of inspiration partly because of the newly awakened
w

historical interest in the period.

th th
w

During 15 -19 century the formation and development of renaissance architecture based
w

on five conditions which is as follows:

th
1. Geographical condition: renaissance architecture first started in Italy in the early period of 15 century
and later on spread over the countries like Rome, Venice and Florence.
2. Geological condition: the countries coming under this style covered vast part of Europe and were
availabilities of different materials that decided the character of architecture.
3. Social condition: the intellectual movement. It created a break of continuous evolution of European
styles.
th
4. Historical condition: in the early 16 century, small countries united together and formed one kingdom
that new countries were discovered such as America by Columbus and new materials were
invented.

Characteristics

 The mode of living changed too and brought new buildings in common use. People realized the
beauty of classic style.
 The renaissance divided broadly into three main periods like,
th
Early renaissance -15 century
th
High renaissance -16 century
th th
Baroque - 17 , 18 century.
 In the early renaissance, regional character mainly survived.

- 73 -
 In the high renaissance, it was partially eradicated owing to a widening dissemination of ideas
fostered by travel and the convergence on Rome of so many architects for their training while with
the baroque, it almost wholly disappeared.
The renaissance work prior to the classical revival meant generally a return by many
th
architects to various periods from the inception of the renaissance in their country to the end of the 18
century. As renaissance was influenced in its developments by the earlier traditions of each country and
by the work of individual architects which means partially a return to native of traditions. E.g.: - in
th
England, some architects sought for models in the transition from late renaissance during the 16
century.
th
In about the 15 century man was trying to find some changes and then discovery of the
New World in the field of architecture took place because a source of interest and inspiration to classical
builders but in spite of marked changes of style of art and architecture.

Components of renaissance

The components of the renaissance are as follows:

1. The primary straight streets.
2. Fortification
3. Garden design
4. The place
5. The gridiron.

g
or
Housing condition
b.
Pre nineteenth century planning of residential areas goes for back into history to the grid
u
sh

lay outs of Greek and roman cities. To the again towns of middle ages and to the and to the radial and
circular plans of European cities in the renaissance period ex- in Britain the earlier remaining examples of
ct

large scale grouped housing are to be found in the streets and squares that were built in towns and cities
te

in eighteenth and early nineteenth century

hi
rc

th
19 century housing for the masses
.a
w

It was not until the start of the nineteenth century that man housing began to be
w

constructed as the industrial revolution drew people into the towns and cities where the houses were
w

broadly constructed with in sufficient floor space and facilities inadequate sanitary provision and poor
ventilation. The houses were crammed to gather in close proximity to each other with little or no
communal space.

Industrial revolution

The towns of industrial revolution have their roots in the nineteenth century. The
phenomenally increased population was in need of shelter in the form of housing this new housing was
devoid of adequate lighting and ventilation facilities and was a great social evil and ultimately resulted in
the creation of slums.
The partial identity of the middle class with its connotation of urban place hints at a
fundamental relationship between urbanization and the middle class. The structure of economic activity in
each urban center was a major influence. These economic structures each had different implications for
the conflict of the middle classes with other social groups.
It was specific to the nature of the towns of the period. Towns dominated by the
economic relationships of trading, financing, wage labor and retailing. These needs led to the creation
th
and development of many institutions and social forms, which were identified with being 'a town' in 19
century. For example, over the past hundred years, the rapid industrialization in the country has brought
about drastic changes in and around Hyderabad. Especially in the old city Charminar and its surrounding
resulting in congestion, pollution, increase in population density etc. The huge demand for the housing

- 74 -
stock and commercialization of the area has been cause for the changing pattern of skyline of the area.
Increase in the built up, multi storied thus disturbing the historical and heritage constructions.

Recent housing

The industrialized housing system gives the basic objective. The built housing should
offer higher degree of integration with the natural environment. Most important in the industrialization
housing is They are using some types of materials in housing like concrete panel construction, plug-in
living units, box units, moulded units, mobile housing, modular panel housing, plastic panel systems,
precut housing packages, hybrid systems have been developed during this period. The housing
conditions are depending upon their socio-economic and infrastructure levels.

Housing conditions

The industrial revolution is characterized by certain basic changes which occurred first
th
in England from the middle of the 18 century onwards .The population was increase in industrial
production and the mechanization of productive systems because of the increasing population,
urbanization and migration, over crowding, poor living conditions are happening.

Problems
th th
During the (15 -19 ) century period many of the problems, socio and economic
segregation came during the industrial revolution. The incapacity of urban governments to enlarge their

g
or
traditional responsibilities at a time when cities were developing rapidly led to the proliferation of
substandard buildings the intermingling of noisome industries and housing. And a density of development
b.
that overtaxed primitive water supplies and sewerage systems.
u
sh

 City planning is the attempt to exert a well-considered control on behalf of the people of a city
ct

over the development of their physical environment as a whole.

te
hi

 City planning stands not only for a longer look ahead in planning municipal improvements than
rc

has been customary in the past, but especially for a broader and more penetrating vision of the
.a

interrelations between apparently distinct lines of planning in cities and regions, and of the
w

profound influence which activities carried on in one part of the field and with a view to one set of
w

purposes may have upon conditions in another part of the field.

w

 It takes account of the influence of street plans and depths of blocks upon the prevailing type of
building and thus upon the amount of light and air and privacy in the people's dwellings; of the
effect of railroad locations on the distribution of factories and on the congestion of population and
character of housing; of the economic interrelation between water-supply lands and park lands; of
the social and economic values to be secured by grouping educational and recreational functions
which have ordinarily been separated; and of other combinations innumerable.

 The common-sense application of the city planning ideal may be phrased thus: Whether they like
it or not, whether they know it or not, a collective responsibility rests upon citizens of the present
generation for making or marring their city's future in countless ways.
 City planning may conveniently be considered under three main divisions: The first concerns the
means of circulation--the distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to streets, railways,
waterways, and all means of transportation and communication. The second concerns the
distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to all other public purposes. The third concerns
the remaining or private lands and the character of development thereon, in so far as it is
practicable for the community to control such development.
 Facility of communication is the very basis for the existence of cities; improved methods of
general transportation are at the root of the modern phenomenon of rapid city growth; and the
success of a city is more dependent upon good means of circulation than upon any other physical
factor under its control.

- 75 -
 The methods of taxation and assessment greatly influence the actions of landowners, and of
those having money to invest in land, buildings, or building mortgages. These methods have a
direct influence upon the speculative holding of unproductive property; upon the extent to which
development is carried on in a scattered, sporadic manner, so as to involve relatively large
expense to the community for streets, transportation, sewerage, etc., in proportion to the
inhabitants served; upon the quality and durability of building; and, in those states where property
is classified and taxed at varying rates, upon the class of improvements favored. Exemption from
taxation for a certain period, or other similar bonus, is a familiar device in some cities to
encourage a desired class of developments, such as new factories.
 But the most direct and conspicuous means of controlling developments on private property is
through the exercise of the police power, as in the case of building codes, tenement-house laws,
and special district regulations.
o The first object of building codes, and of the system of building permits and inspections
through which they are enforced, is to ensure proper structural stability.
o A second object is to reduce the danger of fire to a reasonable point.
o A third object is to guard against conditions unreasonably dangerous to health.
Tenement-house laws, factory laws, and other special provisions operating in addition to
the general building code of a city, are directed mainly toward the protection of people
using special kinds of buildings against unhealthful conditions and against personal risk
from fire and accident.

 Buildings are classified according to the purposes for which they are used, according to their
location with respect to boundaries (such as fire limits), according to the materials of which they

g
or
are built, and in dozens of other ways; and for each class minute and varied prescriptions and
prohibitions are made which, in the aggregate, play an important part in determining the size,
b.
height, purposes, plan, general appearance, and cost of the structures which a lot owner can
u
sh

erect and those which he can expect his neighbor to erect.

 The amount of light entering any given window in a city, and, in a general way, the amount of air,
ct

is dependent mainly upon the distance to the next opposite building wall, and the height to which
te

that wall rises above the level of the window.

hi
rc

 An examination of the building codes and tenement-house laws of American cities shows a
.a

confusing diversity in the regulations limiting building heights and horizontal spaces to be left
w

open, and there are some cities in which there is practically no effective regulation at all. The
w

more modern zoning ordinances are based on studies has light and air requirements, and
w

promise much for the improvement of community health.

 We have considered the three main divisions of city planning, dealing respectively with the lands
devoted to the means of circulation, the lands devoted to other public purposes, and the lands to
private ownership. Within all of these divisions, the actual work of city planning comprises the
following steps:

o The first step is a study of conditions and tendencies, a survey of the pertinent facts and
an estimate of the most probable future changes in those facts.
o The second step is a definition of purposes to be attained.
o The third step is the planning of physical results suitable to these purposes.
o The fourth and last step is the bringing of those plans to execution through suitable legal
and administrative machinery.
o Every one of those steps of progression is vital; every part of the three main divisions of
the field is important. The following chapters of this book, written by as many different
men, illustrate typical parts of the field considered from the point of view sometimes of
one step of progression, sometimes of another.

 Every element in their physical environment affects the people in some degree both on the
economic side, as determining their efficiency, and on the aesthetic side, as determining their

- 76 -
 enjoyment of life. Therefore in the design of everything which enters into the city, both of these
aspects must be given weight

Site planning: site planning is the art of arranging an external physical environment in complete detail.
Site planners are all those who deal with structures and the land.

It is a design problem that lies on the boundaries between architecture, engineering, city planning, and
landscape architecture, and is practiced by professionals of all these groups.

Site has an impact that is biological, social, and psychological.

Site planning locates structures and activities in three-dimensional space, and the differences that arise

from spatial arrangement are the meat of the matter: differences in proportion, volume, density, shape,

grain, pattern, or linkage.

The designer must and the group for whom he is that whatever he does will soon undergo the first of a
series of continuous modifications.
It is the organization of the external physical environment up to the largest scale at which it can still be

g
subject to unified and complete control; it deals with structures, land, and the entire complex of physical

or
forms above, below, and on the surface; it has at its heart the disposition of objects and activities in three-
b.
dimensional space;
u
sh

Typical goals

ct

Functional Hierarchy

te

Optimum communication
 Choice
hi

 Cost
rc

 Health and Comfort

.a

 Adaptability
w

 Image quality
w
w

Site analysis:
 The analysis of a site depends on the use to which it is to be put. A quarryman, a fortifications
engineer, or a building contractor will see the same piece of ground quite differently, and each
view will be correct for the given purpose.

 Every site, however disturbed, had some time to experience the mutual adjustment of its
elements. Surface flow has created a drainage pattern, plant and animal life has achieved an
ecological balance, neighboring structures lean against each other, shops have arranged
themselves in relation to the resident population, climate has weathered all alike.
 Any site is composed of these factors – above, below, and at the ground- but all of many factors
are interrelated, and have achieved some sort of balance, whether it be static or one that is
moving toward another equilibrium.

 Surface conditions: to begin with, it is useful to canvas the site factors, which are typically most
significant in the design of building groups. These include the subsurface factors, the topography,
the cover, the climate, and the pattern of existing land use.

 The topographic surface, the boundary between earth and air, has particular implications for site
development. Some times it determines the organization of the plan. The gradient of paths, the

- 77 -
 flow of utilities, the use of areas, the disposition of building, the visual aspect, are all affected by
it.

 In most cases the existing topography already has an underlying order brought about by the flow
of surface water.
 If human beings are to be comfortable, there are certain optimum ranges of daylight, of air
movement and purity, and of temperature and humidity.
 The plan modifies the existing climate to approximation this optimum condition.
 Finally, there are many man made characteristics to be studied in analyzing a site. The essential
elements almost always include the accessibility to external facilities or persons—schools or
pupils, shops or customers, -plus the relation of the site to the general circulation system.
 The more accessible, urbanized, and developed a site becomes, the more these man made
features of use, structure, circulation, and utilities become predominant over the factors of soil,
topography, and over.
 Most often the survey include the preparation of a base map showing the legal lines such as
boundaries and assents; the location of utilities, roads, paths, buildings, and walls; the local
activities and circulations; the presence of swamps, streams, and water bodies; the general
vegetative cover including precise locations of large trees; a notation of rock outcrops and other
visible geologic features; contours and the spot elevations of key points; compass directions; and
the character of the site environs.

The site plan locates two things: physical objects and human activities. Land use refers to activity
locations, but it also implies the general physical forms that permit those activities, such as an open piece

g
or
of ground at a recreation location, or a detached house in a low- density residential area.
b.
Zoning regulations and building byelaws.
u
sh

 Zoning is the division of a community into zones or districts according to present and potential use of
ct

properties for the controlling and directing the use and development of those properties.
te

 It is primarily concerned with the use of land and buildings.

hi

 Zoning ordinances typically subdivide the city or town into districts, in each of which specified uses
rc

are authorizes and building height, bulk, and setback requirements are imposed.
.a

 The division of the community into zones is necessary in order to provide special regulations for
w

different sections of the community in accordance with the planned development of each particular
w

section.
w

 Although zoning regulations vary according to the uses established for each type of zone, regulations
within a given zone or the same kinds of zone must be uniform.
 Thus, zoning contemplates different regulations to effectuate different land uses in different zones.
 Zoning attempts to group together those uses, which are most compatible. It has among its purpose
 Conserving the value of its property.
 Assuring orderly community growth.
 Safeguarding the general public welfare.

 It seeks to preserve the planned character of the neighborhood by excluding uses and structures,
which are prejudicial to the restricted purposes of the area and to achive, the gradual elimination of
existing nonconforming uses.
 By gilding community growth along orderly lines, zoning helps to minimize the demands for school
facilities, utilities, streets, policing, fire protection, and other facilities and services, in particular before
the city is prepared to provide these.
 The objective of zoning legislation is to establish regulations, which provide locations for all essential
uses of land and buldings, and to ensure that each use is located in the most appropriate place.
 Legitimate business operations, which may be undesirable in one location, may represent appropriate
land use in some other area.

ZONING AND THE LANDUSE REGULATIONS:

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 Zoning was originally created in order to control the development of land-uses. Its projected goal was
the city in twenty years or more, and it thus laid out large enough Commercial, residential, industrial,
public and semi-public areas, often on undeveloped land, to accommodate and channel this
estimated growth.
 Super speculative skyscraper development and over building, often land-use changes by the
pressure of politics gives rise to the incentive zoning.
 The zones are further sub-divided in to wards and studied intensively with respective to population,
economic, cultural milieu, the architectural character, administrative limits, and urban form.
 Hence ward/sector area plans and regulations should support the land-use regulation. The historical
area and CBD preservation takes prime role in this concept as the danger of ‘money’ invading the
‘culture’ persists.

The zoning regulations are broadly divided as:

 Land use plan with Zoning
 Permissible built-op area and FAR, built form regulations.
 Use index of permitted and permissible Land-uses.
 Observing the existing land use and planned direction and trend of growth of the city makes the broad
land-use plan of the city. Under each land-use zone the multiple land use areas are given. The land-
use plan states:
1. Maximum permissible floor area.
2. Maximum permissible Coverage.
3. Maximum permissible Height.

g
4. Minimum greenery and setbacks.

or
5. Minimum Parking spaces. b.
u
 The parking and greenery within the plot area should be taken into outmost care as the pressure of
sh

land value swallows the care for living environment.


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There is special need to look after the historic and conservation areas, as the purpose and function
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changes from its original form.


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The proper implementation is only possible if the user is well informed of what he can do. Hence the
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availability of well published reports (Newspaper-best medium) and clear broad sets of plan are
necessary.
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w
w

Building bye-laws
w

A byelaw is a local law framed by a subordinate authority. Building codes or bye-laws are defined as
standards and specifications designed to grant minimum safeguards to the workers during construction;
to the health and comfort of users; and to provide enough safety to the public in general.
Objects of byelaws:
1. Guidelines to the designing architect or engineer.
2. Prevent haphazard development.
Applicability of building byelaws:
1. Additions and alterations to a building:
2. New construction
3. Requirement of open space.

Floor space index: the ratio of the total built up area inclusive of walls of all the floors to the area of the
land on which the building the building stands is known as floor space index or F.S.I.
The local authority determines the value of FSI and it may be different for different areas and for different
buildings of the town.

Historical development of cities:

There are two basic forms of the city:

3. Walled city

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4. Open city

The city means the whole people who inhabit it, the entire collection of the houses the people live in, the
shops in which they work the streets they traverse, and the places in which they trade.

Early civilizations spread along the fertile valleys of the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, and Indus Rivers where
food, water, and transportation were at hand.

In Egypt the lives of the people were dedicated to the pharaoh. The towns they built in the third
millennium B.C were reacted upon his order. Narrow lanes served as open drainage sewers as well as
passageways to the dwellings. Walls surrounded the towns.

City of kahun, Egypt, dating from about 3000BC

Mohanjadaro, Indus valley.
Babylon was a large city spanning the Euphrates River. Surrounded by the great walls and a moat, it was
a monumental city of kings.

The walls did, not surround ancient cities like Knossus. But fortified cities are Tiryns and Mycenae.

The humble city: Greece: for the Greek citizen the temple was the symbol of his democratic way of life.
Ancient city Aegean—small rooms called ‘Megaron”.

Some examples:

g
or
KAHUN: Egypt (3000BC).
A ventilating device known as ‘mulguf’ is provided on roof for cooling for interior rooms.
b.
u
sh

MOHANJADARO: Indus valley (3000BC).

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The principal buildings excavated are a public bath and a monastery.

te

TH
BABYLON: 6 CENTURY BC.
hi

It was a large city spreader Euphrates River. Surrounded by great walls, it was a monumental
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city.
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Isthtar gate, stemphal, Hanging Gardens of nebuchadnezzar’s palace. ---Herodotus (explains the
w

road system).
w
w

First regional planning: Jerusalem (surrounded by mediterian sea, dead sea)

CLASSIC CITY;
Humble city; unpaved lanes lacking drainage and sanitation.
Eg; acropolis, Athens, Hellenic city temple dominated, meeting places were called “pnyx”
Hippodamus: (Greek); he originated the grid rational arrangement –iron street system.
Eg. Olynthus (city) bouleuterian (assembly) prytanum (council chamber)
The hearth was situated called “atrium”.
Himmodamus- Piraeus, the part city of Athens, as well as thurii and Rhodes, prince, Miletus.

HELLENISTIC CITY;
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PRIENCE; rebuilt during the 4 century BC. The physical improvement in Greek cities reflected the deep
roots of Hellenic culture.
The open air meeting place-the prays-of the agora and assembly hall replaced the early Greek tours.
POMPEII;
The forum lies in the center of an irregular street system suggestions the problem that the more regular
pattern was established as the town grew in population an extended its area.
The early roman dwelling adopted the atrium from Greece houses of the more affluent addend the feature
known as the ‘peristyle’.
Charcoal braziers from room to room – called “hypocaust”, provided heating generally
While the public baths (thermae) occupied an important place in the social life of Romans

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Rome: banks of the Tiber.
Ostia; Ostia, the seaport for Rome, was likewise crowded and contained many apartments. The house of
Diana is an example.
TIMGAD: the pattern of a roman city.
The forum roman was the original center of business and political life in the early republic.

Hippodamus. It was natural that an atmosphere of philosophy should impel a search for order in the city.
In the latter part of the forth century an architect from Miletus, by the name of Hippodamus, advanced
positive theroes about the art and science of city planning. He has been credited with the origination of
the “grid iron” street system, although this is not entirely accurate.

The city plan was conceived as a design to serve all the people. The individual dwelling was the common
denominator. Blocks were shaped to provide appropriate orientation for the dwellings within them.
Superimposing the rigid geometrical form of the Hippodamian street system upon the rugged topography
of the sites occupied by most Greek cities created numerous streets so steep they could negotiated only
with steps.

Olynthus----Greek city
Public space: the expanding affairs of government required appropriate facilities. The agora, or market
place, was the center of business and political life, and about it were lined the shops and market booths.
Accessible from the Agora Square, but not facing upon it, were the assembly hall, counsel hall, and
council chamber.

g
or
Common open space in Greek cities was largely confined to enclosure for public buildings.
b.
Building regulations in Greek cities were there.
u
sh

It was in the colonial founded by the city-states on the shores of the Mediterranean that the planning
theories of Hippodamus found their fullest expression.
ct

It is recorded that Hippodamus himself planned Piraeus, the port city of Athens, as well as Thurii, and
te

Rhodes.
hi

Size of cities: 40,000 and total population 100,000-150,000.

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Hellenic towns relied primarily on local watercourses, wells and springs.

.a

Chronicles of the period referred to the importance of proper orientation.

w

The houses, that look toward the south, the winter sun shines down into the paestades while in summer,
w

passing high above our heads and over our roofs, it throws them in shadow.
w

The effect of these criteria was a planning system that sprung from the elements of the individual unit.

The medieval town:

Barbaric rulers established city-states and formed the nucleus of future nations. The economy rooted in
agriculture, and the rulers parceled their domains among vassal lords who pledged military support for the
kingdom.
The feudal system was the new order.
th
Medieval cities of the 12 and 13 centuries usually had irregular street patterns and heavy walls. In it we
see the castle with its own moat and walls, the market place (A), and the church of St. Nazaire (c).

The radial and lateral pattern of irregular roadways with the church plaza as the principal focal point of the
town. The city of the middle ages grew within the confines of the walls. While the population was small,
there was space in the town, but when it increased the buildings were packed more closely and open
spaces. Sanitation and water supply remained same. The result was intolerable congestion, lack of
hygiene, and pestilence.
th th
During the 13 and 14 centuries young empires to protect their trade and provide military security
founded colonial cities. They were platted for allocation of sites to settlers and the regular plan is a distinct
to the informal development of the normal medieval town.

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It was the church rather than the palace that dominated the medieval town. Encircled by its protective
walls, the town was small. In later days the battlements were elaborately engineered, as in Naarden, and
populace was further separated from the open spaces about the town.

The entire town was treated with a structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
Romanesque and early Gothic buildings. Open spaces – the streets and plazas- developed as integral
parts of the sites upon which the buildings were erected. With the exception of a few parts between the
gates and the market place, streets were used as pedestrian circulation about the town rather than traffic
arteries as we know them today.

Dwellings: conservation of heat in the cold climates and the restrictive area of the town caused the
houses to be built in connected rows along the narrow streets. Behind these rows of dwellings open
space was reserved and in them the domestic animals were kept and gardens cultivated.

Life in medieval cities had Colour, a Colour visible to all the people. The church provided pageantry and
gave drama to the life of every man.
Average height-two storey.
Masonry was the usual construction.

Brief points:
Irregular street patterns and heavy walls.
MONTPAZIER:
The church of monastery and the castle of the lord dominated the early medieval town.

g
or
The church plaza became the market place and with citizenship bestowed upon the people and merchant
guilds established. b.
The entire town was treated with structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
u
sh

Romanesque and early gothic buildings.

NAARDEN-church dominated.
ct
te
hi

Neo classic city:

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The traditional height of building increases from two storey to 3 and 4 storey.
.a

Population density increases without increase in water supply and sanitation.

w

Wheel traffic increases.

w

The first sewer installed in London after the Black Death.

w

The important aspect concerns the houses types envisaged for different socio-economic
groups. The basic distinction is made between plotted and group housing. The decision regarding house
types for different income groups is essentially based on two consideration-housing preferences and
affordability. In distinguishing between plotted and group housing in relation to financial aspects.

Origin of towns

Pre historic period the origin towns were no social concept and the various groups and
tribes lived together only for collective security from the early stone age the slow process of development
extending over a period of nearly half a million years.

Medieval towns

Towns of this period had walls around them for protection and defense and were very
crowded as result. Some of these towns became centers of wider and wider.

Renaissance towns

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 The basic concepts of this period were vista forming straight streets. Europe and Jaipur in
India could be cited as examples of this type of towns during this period.

Towns of today

Due to industrial revolution, the towns of today have their roots in the industrial revolution of
the nineteenth century. The phenomenally increased populations were in need of shelter in the form of
housing.

Definitions of Renaissance, industrial revolution

Definition of the age of Renaissance: - in the year 1453 A.D Turkish sultan Mohammed invaded
Constantinople a city that was an abode of Greek culture. The Greek scholar fled to other European
nations along with their ancient Greek literature. The se scholars established schools and monasteries
and taught Greek literature all over Europe and inculcated interest among the people in the revival of
ancient literature and culture. This was known as renaissance period.

Industrial Revolution: - revolution is a sudden change in any field. Invention of machines that were used in
industries and through which production of goods increased was called industrial revolution.

Renaissance style: - literal meaning of this renaissance is 're -birth'. The term is used to designate the
th
period between 1350 and 1600 A.D in developments of the 15 century in Europe. The principal features
of this renaissance are as follows:

g
or
4. The effect of rediscovery of the art of antiquities.
5. The development of the technique of perspective where the artist could represent depth and
b.
recession and so produce realistic spatial relationships.
u
sh

6. The achievement of greater 'naturalism'.

ct

Description of Renaissance
te
hi

The age of renaissance was actually started with revival of art and letters and the
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transition from the Middle Ages to the modern world. The main cause for renaissance was the evolution
.a

of strong and prosperous city-states and merchant princes. The word renaissance was not originally used
w

to indicate a stylistic period but was used only a part of such phrases as the renaissance of the arts of
w

antiquity, it is really became a popular source of inspiration partly because of the newly awakened
w

historical interest in the period.

th th
During 15 -19 century the formation and development of renaissance architecture based
on five conditions which is as follows:
th
5. Geographical condition: renaissance architecture first started in Italy in the early period of 15 century
and later on spread over the countries like Rome, Venice and Florence.
6. Geological condition: the countries coming under this style covered vast part of Europe and were
availabilities of different materials that decided the character of architecture.
7. Social condition: the intellectual movement. It created a break of continuous evolution of European
styles.
th
8. Historical condition: in the early 16 century, small countries united together and formed one kingdom
that new countries were discovered such as America by Columbus and new materials were
invented.

Characteristics

 The mode of living changed too and brought new buildings in common use. People realized the
beauty of classic style.
 The renaissance divided broadly into three main periods like,
th
Early renaissance -15 century
th
High renaissance -16 century
th th
Baroque - 17 , 18 century.

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 In the early renaissance, regional character mainly survived.
 In the high renaissance, it was partially eradicated owing to a widening dissemination of ideas
fostered by travel and the convergence on Rome of so many architects for their training while with
the baroque, it almost wholly disappeared.
The renaissance work prior to the classical revival meant generally a return by many
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architects to various periods from the inception of the renaissance in their country to the end of the 18
century. As renaissance was influenced in its developments by the earlier traditions of each country and
by the work of individual architects which means partially a return to native of traditions. E.g.: - in
th
England, some architects sought for models in the transition from late renaissance during the 16
century.
th
In about the 15 century man was trying to find some changes and then discovery of the
New World in the field of architecture took place because a source of interest and inspiration to classical
builders but in spite of marked changes of style of art and architecture.

Components of renaissance

The components of the renaissance are as follows:

6. The primary straight streets.
7. Fortification
8. Garden design
9. The place
10. The gridiron.

g
or
Housing condition b.
u
sh

Pre nineteenth century planning of residential areas goes for back into history to the grid
lay outs of Greek and roman cities. To the again towns of middle ages and to the and to the radial and
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circular plans of European cities in the renaissance period ex- in Britain the earlier remaining examples of
te

large scale grouped housing are to be found in the streets and squares that were built in towns and cities
hi

in eighteenth and early nineteenth century

rc
.a

th
19 century housing for the masses
w
w

It was not until the start of the nineteenth century that man housing began to be
w

constructed as the industrial revolution drew people into the towns and cities where the houses were
broadly constructed with in sufficient floor space and facilities inadequate sanitary provision and poor
ventilation. The houses were crammed to gather in close proximity to each other with little or no
communal space.

Industrial revolution

The towns of industrial revolution have their roots in the nineteenth century. The
phenomenally increased population was in need of shelter in the form of housing this new housing was
devoid of adequate lighting and ventilation facilities and was a great social evil and ultimately resulted in
the creation of slums.
The partial identity of the middle class with its connotation of urban place hints at a
fundamental relationship between urbanization and the middle class. The structure of economic activity in
each urban center was a major influence. These economic structures each had different implications for
the conflict of the middle classes with other social groups.
It was specific to the nature of the towns of the period. Towns dominated by the
economic relationships of trading, financing, wage labor and retailing. These needs led to the creation
th
and development of many institutions and social forms, which were identified with being 'a town' in 19
century. For example, over the past hundred years, the rapid industrialization in the country has brought
about drastic changes in and around Hyderabad. Especially in the old city Charminar and its surrounding

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resulting in congestion, pollution, increase in population density etc. The huge demand for the housing
stock and commercialization of the area has been cause for the changing pattern of skyline of the area.
Increase in the built up, multi storied thus disturbing the historical and heritage constructions.

Recent housing

The industrialized housing system gives the basic objective. The built housing should
offer higher degree of integration with the natural environment. Most important in the industrialization
housing is They are using some types of materials in housing like concrete panel construction, plug-in
living units, box units, moulded units, mobile housing, modular panel housing, plastic panel systems,
precut housing packages, hybrid systems have been developed during this period. The housing
conditions are depending upon their socio-economic and infrastructure levels.

Housing conditions

The industrial revolution is characterized by certain basic changes which occurred first
th
in England from the middle of the 18 century onwards .The population was increase in industrial
production and the mechanization of productive systems because of the increasing population,
urbanization and migration, over crowding, poor living conditions are happening.

Problems
th th
During the (15 -19 ) century period many of the problems, socio and economic

g
or
segregation came during the industrial revolution. The incapacity of urban governments to enlarge their
traditional responsibilities at a time when cities were developing rapidly led to the proliferation of
b.
substandard buildings the intermingling of noisome industries and housing. And a density of development
u
sh

that overtaxed primitive water supplies and sewerage systems.

ct
te

 City planning is the attempt to exert a well-considered control on behalf of the people of a city
hi

over the development of their physical environment as a whole.

rc
.a

 City planning stands not only for a longer look ahead in planning municipal improvements than
w

has been customary in the past, but especially for a broader and more penetrating vision of the
w

interrelations between apparently distinct lines of planning in cities and regions, and of the
w

profound influence which activities carried on in one part of the field and with a view to one set of
purposes may have upon conditions in another part of the field.

 It takes account of the influence of street plans and depths of blocks upon the prevailing type of
building and thus upon the amount of light and air and privacy in the people's dwellings; of the
effect of railroad locations on the distribution of factories and on the congestion of population and
character of housing; of the economic interrelation between water-supply lands and park lands; of
the social and economic values to be secured by grouping educational and recreational functions
which have ordinarily been separated; and of other combinations innumerable.

 The common-sense application of the city planning ideal may be phrased thus: Whether they like
it or not, whether they know it or not, a collective responsibility rests upon citizens of the present
generation for making or marring their city's future in countless ways.
 City planning may conveniently be considered under three main divisions: The first concerns the
means of circulation--the distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to streets, railways,
waterways, and all means of transportation and communication. The second concerns the
distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to all other public purposes. The third concerns
the remaining or private lands and the character of development thereon, in so far as it is
practicable for the community to control such development.
 Facility of communication is the very basis for the existence of cities; improved methods of
general transportation are at the root of the modern phenomenon of rapid city growth; and the

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 success of a city is more dependent upon good means of circulation than upon any other physical
factor under its control.
 The methods of taxation and assessment greatly influence the actions of landowners, and of
those having money to invest in land, buildings, or building mortgages. These methods have a
direct influence upon the speculative holding of unproductive property; upon the extent to which
development is carried on in a scattered, sporadic manner, so as to involve relatively large
expense to the community for streets, transportation, sewerage, etc., in proportion to the
inhabitants served; upon the quality and durability of building; and, in those states where property
is classified and taxed at varying rates, upon the class of improvements favored. Exemption from
taxation for a certain period, or other similar bonus, is a familiar device in some cities to
encourage a desired class of developments, such as new factories.
 But the most direct and conspicuous means of controlling developments on private property is
through the exercise of the police power, as in the case of building codes, tenement-house laws,
and special district regulations.
o The first object of building codes, and of the system of building permits and inspections
through which they are enforced, is to ensure proper structural stability.
o A second object is to reduce the danger of fire to a reasonable point.
o A third object is to guard against conditions unreasonably dangerous to health.
Tenement-house laws, factory laws, and other special provisions operating in addition to
the general building code of a city, are directed mainly toward the protection of people
using special kinds of buildings against unhealthful conditions and against personal risk
from fire and accident.

g


or
Buildings are classified according to the purposes for which they are used, according to their
location with respect to boundaries (such as fire limits), according to the materials of which they
b.
are built, and in dozens of other ways; and for each class minute and varied prescriptions and
u
sh

prohibitions are made which, in the aggregate, play an important part in determining the size,
height, purposes, plan, general appearance, and cost of the structures which a lot owner can
ct

erect and those which he can expect his neighbor to erect.

te

 The amount of light entering any given window in a city, and, in a general way, the amount of air,
hi

is dependent mainly upon the distance to the next opposite building wall, and the height to which
rc

that wall rises above the level of the window.

.a


w

An examination of the building codes and tenement-house laws of American cities shows a
w

confusing diversity in the regulations limiting building heights and horizontal spaces to be left
w

open, and there are some cities in which there is practically no effective regulation at all. The
more modern zoning ordinances are based on studies has light and air requirements, and
promise much for the improvement of community health.

 We have considered the three main divisions of city planning, dealing respectively with the lands
devoted to the means of circulation, the lands devoted to other public purposes, and the lands to
private ownership. Within all of these divisions, the actual work of city planning comprises the
following steps:

o The first step is a study of conditions and tendencies, a survey of the pertinent facts and
an estimate of the most probable future changes in those facts.
o The second step is a definition of purposes to be attained.
o The third step is the planning of physical results suitable to these purposes.
o The fourth and last step is the bringing of those plans to execution through suitable legal
and administrative machinery.
o Every one of those steps of progression is vital; every part of the three main divisions of
the field is important. The following chapters of this book, written by as many different
men, illustrate typical parts of the field considered from the point of view sometimes of
one step of progression, sometimes of another.

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  Every element in their physical environment affects the people in some degree both on the
economic side, as determining their efficiency, and on the aesthetic side, as determining their
enjoyment of life. Therefore in the design of everything which enters into the city, both of these
aspects must be given weight

Site planning: site planning is the art of arranging an external physical environment in complete detail.
Site planners are all those who deal with structures and the land.

It is a design problem that lies on the boundaries between architecture, engineering, city planning, and
landscape architecture, and is practiced by professionals of all these groups.

Site has an impact that is biological, social, and psychological.

Site planning locates structures and activities in three-dimensional space, and the differences that arise
from spatial arrangement are the meat of the matter: differences in proportion, volume, density, shape,
grain, pattern, or linkage.

The designer must and the group for whom he is that whatever he does will soon undergo the first of a
series of continuous modifications.
It is the organization of the external physical environment up to the largest scale at which it can still be
subject to unified and complete control; it deals with structures, land, and the entire complex of physical
forms above, below, and on the surface; it has at its heart the disposition of objects and activities in three-
dimensional space;

g
or
Typical goals
 Functional Hierarchy b.
 Optimum communication
u

sh

Choice
 Cost
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 Health and Comfort

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 Adaptability
hi

 Image quality
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.a

Site analysis:
 The analysis of a site depends on the use to which it is to be put. A quarryman, a fortifications
w
w

engineer, or a building contractor will see the same piece of ground quite differently, and each
w

view will be correct for the given purpose.

 Every site, however disturbed, had some time to experience the mutual adjustment of its
elements. Surface flow has created a drainage pattern, plant and animal life has achieved an
ecological balance, neighboring structures lean against each other, shops have arranged
themselves in relation to the resident population, climate has weathered all alike.
 Any site is composed of these factors – above, below, and at the ground- but all of many factors
are interrelated, and have achieved some sort of balance, whether it be static or one that is
moving toward another equilibrium.

 Surface conditions: to begin with, it is useful to canvas the site factors, which are typically most
significant in the design of building groups. These include the subsurface factors, the topography,
the cover, the climate, and the pattern of existing land use.

 The topographic surface, the boundary between earth and air, has particular implications for site
development. Some times it determines the organization of the plan. The gradient of paths, the
flow of utilities, the use of areas, the disposition of building, the visual aspect, are all affected by
it.

 In most cases the existing topography already has an underlying order brought about by the flow
of surface water.

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  If human beings are to be comfortable, there are certain optimum ranges of daylight, of air
movement and purity, and of temperature and humidity.
 The plan modifies the existing climate to approximation this optimum condition.
 Finally, there are many man made characteristics to be studied in analyzing a site. The essential
elements almost always include the accessibility to external facilities or persons—schools or
pupils, shops or customers, -plus the relation of the site to the general circulation system.
 The more accessible, urbanized, and developed a site becomes, the more these man made
features of use, structure, circulation, and utilities become predominant over the factors of soil,
topography, and over.
 Most often the survey include the preparation of a base map showing the legal lines such as
boundaries and assents; the location of utilities, roads, paths, buildings, and walls; the local
activities and circulations; the presence of swamps, streams, and water bodies; the general
vegetative cover including precise locations of large trees; a notation of rock outcrops and other
visible geologic features; contours and the spot elevations of key points; compass directions; and
the character of the site environs.

The site plan locates two things: physical objects and human activities. Land use refers to activity
locations, but it also implies the general physical forms that permit those activities, such as an open piece
of ground at a recreation location, or a detached house in a low- density residential area.

Factors Influencing The Site Planning:

g
or
Inventory of site factors:
b.
The designer had to begin gathering facts about the site, securing information from maps and
u
sh

personal inspections about the site, and securing information from maps and personal inspections of the
area. Such data could include the location of and other information about existing:
ct
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1.Constructed elements
hi

a. Legal and physical boundaries, private holdings, and public easements.

rc

b. Buildings, bridges, and other structures including those of historical and archeological
.a

significances.
w

c. Roads, walks, and other transportation ways.

w

d. Electric mines, gas mines, and other utilities.

w

e. Land uses agriculture, industry, recreation, and others.

f. Applicable ordinances such as zoning regulations and health codes.

2. Natural resources
a. Topography, including high and low points, gradients, and drainage patterns.
b. Soil types, by name if available, for clues regarding the surface permeability, stability, and
fertility.
c. Water bodies, including permanence, fluctuations, and other habits.
d. Subsurface matter: geology of the underlying rock including existence of commercially or
functionally valuable material such as sand and gravel, coal, or water.
e. Vegetation, types and individual specimens of consequence.
f. Wildlife, including existence of desirable habitats such as low cover for pheasants, caves for
bears, or berries for birds.

3. Natural forces including both macroclimates as generally found over the entire site and
microclimate characteristics or changes from the norm experienced in isolated patches).
a. Temperature especially day, night, and seasonal norms, extremes, and their durations.
b. Sun angles, at various seasons and times of the day.
c. Sun pockets such as might be found in forest clearings; frost pockets, which may be found in
low spaces where the wind that sweeps away the morning dew is blocked.
d. Wind directions and intensities, both daily and seasonal.

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 e. Precipitation: rain, snow, and sleet seasons and accumulations; storm frequencies and
intensities

4. Perceptual characteristics
a. Views into and form the site; significant features
b. Smells and sounds and their sources
c. Spatial patterns
d. Lines, forms, textures, colors, and size relationships which give the site its peculiar
character
e. General impressions regarding experience potential of the site and its parts.

INVENTORY OF OFF-SITES FACTORS:

The designer must also accumulate information about the constructed, natural, and
perceptual elements on the properties, which surround or otherwise affect the site. These might
include both existing and anticipated

1. Land-use patterns
2. Stream and drainage sources
3. Visuals, smells, and sounds.
4. Aesthetic character
5. Public utility locations and capacities

g
or
6. Transportation ways and systems
b.
New towns:
u
 New urban settlements have come into being all over the world throughout human history, many
sh

spontaneously by the ‘organic growth’ of villages and many by deliberate plantation.

ct

 The new towns movement here described began with Ebenezer Howard’s proposal for Grade cities
te

and the establishment in England of Letch worth (1903) and Welwyn Garden City.
hi

 Its primary purpose is to provide an alternative to the overgrowth, congestion and Suburban sprawl of
rc

cities by creating new moderate sized towns in which people can have good homes in healthy and
.a

pleasant surroundings near their places of work, with urban services and cultural facilities and access
w

to the open courtyard.

w
w

Satellite towns:
 Term first applied by Garden city advocates of New towns, which were thought of as mainly self-
contained and separated by green belts from major cities, but economically and culturally related to
term. Subsequently the term was sometimes used for large-scale city fringe developments more
intelligibility named’ industrial suburbs’.
 The term’quasi-satellite’ was applied by the London country council about 1930 to some of its
suburban housing projects of a purely dormitory character.
 Satellite towns are often planned to implement a policy of decentralization from a large city in
preference to suburban development.

Zoning regulations and building byelaws.

 Zoning is the division of a community into zones or districts according to present and potential use of
properties for the controlling and directing the use and development of those properties.
 It is primarily concerned with the use of land and buildings.
 Zoning ordinances typically subdivide the city or town into districts, in each of which specified uses
are authorizes and building height, bulk, and setback requirements are imposed.
 The division of the community into zones is necessary in order to provide special regulations for
different sections of the community in accordance with the planned development of each particular
section.

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 Although zoning regulations vary according to the uses established for each type of zone, regulations
within a given zone or the same kinds of zone must be uniform.
 Thus, zoning contemplates different regulations to effectuate different land uses in different zones.
 Zoning attempts to group together those uses, which are most compatible. It has among its purpose
 Conserving the value of its property.
 Assuring orderly community growth.
 Safeguarding the general public welfare.

 It seeks to preserve the planned character of the neighborhood by excluding uses and structures,
which are prejudicial to the restricted purposes of the area and to achive, the gradual elimination of
existing nonconforming uses.
 By gilding community growth along orderly lines, zoning helps to minimize the demands for school
facilities, utilities, streets, policing, fire protection, and other facilities and services, in particular before
the city is prepared to provide these.
 The objective of zoning legislation is to establish regulations, which provide locations for all essential
uses of land and buldings, and to ensure that each use is located in the most appropriate place.
 Legitimate business operations, which may be undesirable in one location, may represent appropriate
land use in some other area.

ZONING AND THE LANDUSE REGULATIONS:

 Zoning was originally created in order to control the development of land-uses. Its projected goal was
the city in twenty years or more, and it thus laid out large enough Commercial, residential, industrial,

g
public and semi-public areas, often on undeveloped land, to accommodate and channel this

or
estimated growth. b.
 Super speculative skyscraper development and over building, often land-use changes by the
u
pressure of politics gives rise to the incentive zoning.
sh

 The zones are further sub-divided in to wards and studied intensively with respective to population,
ct

economic, cultural milieu, the architectural character, administrative limits, and urban form.
te

 Hence ward/sector area plans and regulations should support the land-use regulation. The historical
hi

area and CBD preservation takes prime role in this concept as the danger of ‘money’ invading the
rc

‘culture’ persists.
.a

The zoning regulations are broadly divided as:

w

 Land use plan with Zoning

w

 Permissible built-op area and FAR, built form regulations.

w

 Use index of permitted and permissible Land-uses.

 Observing the existing land use and planned direction and trend of growth of the city makes the broad
land-use plan of the city. Under each land-use zone the multiple land use areas are given. The land-
use plan states:
6. Maximum permissible floor area.
7. Maximum permissible Coverage.
8. Maximum permissible Height.
9. Minimum greenery and setbacks.
10. Minimum Parking spaces.

 The parking and greenery within the plot area should be taken into outmost care as the pressure of
land value swallows the care for living environment.
 There is special need to look after the historic and conservation areas, as the purpose and function
changes from its original form.
 The proper implementation is only possible if the user is well informed of what he can do. Hence the
availability of well published reports (Newspaper-best medium) and clear broad sets of plan are
necessary.

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 Building bye-laws
A byelaw is a local law framed by a subordinate authority. Building codes or bye-laws are defined as
standards and specifications designed to grant minimum safeguards to the workers during construction;
to the health and comfort of users; and to provide enough safety to the public in general.
Objects of byelaws:
3. Guidelines to the designing architect or engineer.
4. Prevent haphazard development.
Applicability of building byelaws:
4. Additions and alterations to a building:
5. New construction
6. Requirement of open space.

Floor space index: the ratio of the total built up area inclusive of walls of all the floors to the area of the
land on which the building the building stands is known as floor space index or F.S.I.
The local authority determines the value of FSI and it may be different for different areas and for different
buildings of the town.

New towns:
 New urban settlements have come into being all over the world throughout human history, many
spontaneously by the ‘organic growth’ of villages and many by deliberate plantation.
 The new towns movement here described began with Ebenezer Howard’s proposal for Grade cities
and the establishment in England of Letch worth (1903) and Welwyn Garden City.
 Its primary purpose is to provide an alternative to the overgrowth, congestion and Suburban sprawl of

g
or
cities by creating new moderate sized towns in which people can have good homes in healthy and
b.
pleasant surroundings near their places of work, with urban services and cultural facilities and access
to the open courtyard.
u
sh

Satellite towns:
ct

 Term first applied by Garden city advocates of New towns, which were thought of as mainly self-
te

contained and separated by green belts from major cities, but economically and culturally related to
hi

term. Subsequently the term was sometimes used for large-scale city fringe developments more
rc

intelligibility named’ industrial suburbs’.

.a

 The term’quasi-satellite’ was applied by the London country council about 1930 to some of its
w

suburban housing projects of a purely dormitory character.

w

 Satellite towns are often planned to implement a policy of decentralization from a large city in
w

preference to suburban development.

 City planning is the attempt to exert a well-considered control on behalf of the people of a city
over the development of their physical environment as a whole.

 City planning stands not only for a longer look ahead in planning municipal improvements than
has been customary in the past, but especially for a broader and more penetrating vision of the
interrelations between apparently distinct lines of planning in cities and regions, and of the
profound influence which activities carried on in one part of the field and with a view to one set of
purposes may have upon conditions in another part of the field.

 It takes account of the influence of street plans and depths of blocks upon the prevailing type of
building and thus upon the amount of light and air and privacy in the people's dwellings; of the
effect of railroad locations on the distribution of factories and on the congestion of population and
character of housing; of the economic interrelation between water-supply lands and park lands; of
the social and economic values to be secured by grouping educational and recreational functions
which have ordinarily been separated; and of other combinations innumerable.

 The common-sense application of the city planning ideal may be phrased thus: Whether they like
it or not, whether they know it or not, a collective responsibility rests upon citizens of the present
generation for making or marring their city's future in countless ways.

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 City planning may conveniently be considered under three main divisions: The first concerns the
means of circulation--the distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to streets, railways,
waterways, and all means of transportation and communication. The second concerns the
distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to all other public purposes. The third concerns
the remaining or private lands and the character of development thereon, in so far as it is
practicable for the community to control such development.
 Facility of communication is the very basis for the existence of cities; improved methods of
general transportation are at the root of the modern phenomenon of rapid city growth; and the
success of a city is more dependent upon good means of circulation than upon any other physical
factor under its control.
 The methods of taxation and assessment greatly influence the actions of landowners, and of
those having money to invest in land, buildings, or building mortgages. These methods have a
direct influence upon the speculative holding of unproductive property; upon the extent to which
development is carried on in a scattered, sporadic manner, so as to involve relatively large
expense to the community for streets, transportation, sewerage, etc., in proportion to the
inhabitants served; upon the quality and durability of building; and, in those states where property
is classified and taxed at varying rates, upon the class of improvements favored. Exemption from
taxation for a certain period, or other similar bonus, is a familiar device in some cities to
encourage a desired class of developments, such as new factories.
 But the most direct and conspicuous means of controlling developments on private property is
through the exercise of the police power, as in the case of building codes, tenement-house laws,
and special district regulations.
o The first object of building codes, and of the system of building permits and inspections

g
or
through which they are enforced, is to ensure proper structural stability.
o A second object is to reduce the danger of fire to a reasonable point.
b.
o A third object is to guard against conditions unreasonably dangerous to health.
u
sh

Tenement-house laws, factory laws, and other special provisions operating in addition to
the general building code of a city, are directed mainly toward the protection of people
ct

using special kinds of buildings against unhealthful conditions and against personal risk
te

from fire and accident.

hi
rc

 Buildings are classified according to the purposes for which they are used, according to their
.a

location with respect to boundaries (such as fire limits), according to the materials of which they
w

are built, and in dozens of other ways; and for each class minute and varied prescriptions and
w

prohibitions are made which, in the aggregate, play an important part in determining the size,
w

height, purposes, plan, general appearance, and cost of the structures which a lot owner can
erect and those which he can expect his neighbor to erect.
 The amount of light entering any given window in a city, and, in a general way, the amount of air,
is dependent mainly upon the distance to the next opposite building wall, and the height to which
that wall rises above the level of the window.

 An examination of the building codes and tenement-house laws of American cities shows a
confusing diversity in the regulations limiting building heights and horizontal spaces to be left
open, and there are some cities in which there is practically no effective regulation at all. The
more modern zoning ordinances are based on studies has light and air requirements, and
promise much for the improvement of community health.

 We have considered the three main divisions of city planning, dealing respectively with the lands
devoted to the means of circulation, the lands devoted to other public purposes, and the lands to
private ownership. Within all of these divisions, the actual work of city planning comprises the
following steps:

o The first step is a study of conditions and tendencies, a survey of the pertinent facts and
an estimate of the most probable future changes in those facts.
o The second step is a definition of purposes to be attained.
o The third step is the planning of physical results suitable to these purposes.

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 o The fourth and last step is the bringing of those plans to execution through suitable legal
and administrative machinery.
o Every one of those steps of progression is vital; every part of the three main divisions of
the field is important. The following chapters of this book, written by as many different
men, illustrate typical parts of the field considered from the point of view sometimes of
one step of progression, sometimes of another.

 Every element in their physical environment affects the people in some degree both on the
economic side, as determining their efficiency, and on the aesthetic side, as determining their
enjoyment of life. Therefore in the design of everything which enters into the city, both of these
aspects must be given weight

Site planning: site planning is the art of arranging an external physical environment in complete detail.
Site planners are all those who deal with structures and the land.

It is a design problem that lies on the boundaries between architecture, engineering, city planning, and
landscape architecture, and is practiced by professionals of all these groups.

Site has an impact that is biological, social, and psychological.

Site planning locates structures and activities in three-dimensional space, and the differences that arise
from spatial arrangement are the meat of the matter: differences in proportion, volume, density, shape,
grain, pattern, or linkage.

g
or
The designer must and the group for whom he is that whatever he does will soon undergo the first of a
series of continuous modifications. b.
It is the organization of the external physical environment up to the largest scale at which it can still be
u
sh

subject to unified and complete control; it deals with structures, land, and the entire complex of physical
forms above, below, and on the surface; it has at its heart the disposition of objects and activities in three-
ct

dimensional space;
te
hi

Typical goals
rc

 Functional Hierarchy
.a

 Optimum communication

w

Choice

w

Cost
w

 Health and Comfort

 Adaptability
 Image quality

Site analysis:
 The analysis of a site depends on the use to which it is to be put. A quarryman, a fortifications
engineer, or a building contractor will see the same piece of ground quite differently, and each
view will be correct for the given purpose.

 Every site, however disturbed, had some time to experience the mutual adjustment of its
elements. Surface flow has created a drainage pattern, plant and animal life has achieved an
ecological balance, neighboring structures lean against each other, shops have arranged
themselves in relation to the resident population, climate has weathered all alike.
 Any site is composed of these factors – above, below, and at the ground- but all of many factors
are interrelated, and have achieved some sort of balance, whether it be static or one that is
moving toward another equilibrium.

 Surface conditions: to begin with, it is useful to canvas the site factors, which are typically most
significant in the design of building groups. These include the subsurface factors, the topography,
the cover, the climate, and the pattern of existing land use.

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  The topographic surface, the boundary between earth and air, has particular implications for site
development. Some times it determines the organization of the plan. The gradient of paths, the
flow of utilities, the use of areas, the disposition of building, the visual aspect, are all affected by
it.

 In most cases the existing topography already has an underlying order brought about by the flow
of surface water.
 If human beings are to be comfortable, there are certain optimum ranges of daylight, of air
movement and purity, and of temperature and humidity.
 The plan modifies the existing climate to approximation this optimum condition.
 Finally, there are many man made characteristics to be studied in analyzing a site. The essential
elements almost always include the accessibility to external facilities or persons—schools or
pupils, shops or customers, -plus the relation of the site to the general circulation system.
 The more accessible, urbanized, and developed a site becomes, the more these man made
features of use, structure, circulation, and utilities become predominant over the factors of soil,
topography, and over.
 Most often the survey include the preparation of a base map showing the legal lines such as
boundaries and assents; the location of utilities, roads, paths, buildings, and walls; the local
activities and circulations; the presence of swamps, streams, and water bodies; the general
vegetative cover including precise locations of large trees; a notation of rock outcrops and other
visible geologic features; contours and the spot elevations of key points; compass directions; and
the character of the site environs.

g
or
The site plan locates two things: physical objects and human activities. Land use refers to activity
b.
locations, but it also implies the general physical forms that permit those activities, such as an open piece
u
sh

of ground at a recreation location, or a detached house in a low- density residential area.

ct

Factors Influencing The Site Planning:

te
hi

Inventory of site factors:

rc
.a

The designer had to begin gathering facts about the site, securing information from maps and
w

personal inspections about the site, and securing information from maps and personal inspections of the
w

area. Such data could include the location of and other information about existing:
w

1.Constructed elements
g. Legal and physical boundaries, private holdings, and public easements.
h. Buildings, bridges, and other structures including those of historical and archeological
significances.
i. Roads, walks, and other transportation ways.
j. Electric mines, gas mines, and other utilities.
k. Land uses agriculture, industry, recreation, and others.
l. Applicable ordinances such as zoning regulations and health codes.

2. Natural resources
g. Topography, including high and low points, gradients, and drainage patterns.
h. Soil types, by name if available, for clues regarding the surface permeability, stability, and
fertility.
i. Water bodies, including permanence, fluctuations, and other habits.
j. Subsurface matter: geology of the underlying rock including existence of commercially or
functionally valuable material such as sand and gravel, coal, or water.
k. Vegetation, types and individual specimens of consequence.
l. Wildlife, including existence of desirable habitats such as low cover for pheasants, caves for
bears, or berries for birds.

- 94 -
 3. Natural forces including both macroclimates as generally found over the entire site and
microclimate characteristics or changes from the norm experienced in isolated patches).
f. Temperature especially day, night, and seasonal norms, extremes, and their durations.
g. Sun angles, at various seasons and times of the day.
h. Sun pockets such as might be found in forest clearings; frost pockets, which may be found in
low spaces where the wind that sweeps away the morning dew is blocked.
i. Wind directions and intensities, both daily and seasonal.
j. Precipitation: rain, snow, and sleet seasons and accumulations; storm frequencies and
intensities

4. Perceptual characteristics
f. Views into and form the site; significant features
g. Smells and sounds and their sources
h. Spatial patterns
i. Lines, forms, textures, colors, and size relationships which give the site its peculiar
character
j. General impressions regarding experience potential of the site and its parts.

INVENTORY OF OFF-SITES FACTORS:

The designer must also accumulate information about the constructed, natural, and
perceptual elements on the properties, which surround or otherwise affect the site. These might

g
or
include both existing and anticipated
b.
1. Land-use patterns
u
sh

2. Stream and drainage sources

3. Visuals, smells, and sounds.
ct

4. Aesthetic character
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5. Public utility locations and capacities

hi

6. Transportation ways and systems

rc
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w

Land acquisition act:

 The first piece of legislation in India in respect to the acquisition of property was in Bengal
w
w

regulation act of 1824.

 In 1850, it was felt that legislation was needed, for acquiring lands for them also.
 The building Act of 1839 was the first piece of legislation in Bombay where provisions for
acquisition of lands for the purposes of widening or altering any existing public road, street or
other thoroughfare within the islands of Bombay and colaba were provided. It was a similar act to
Bengal Regulation Act of 1824.
 Later the act of 1852 was passed in Madras for the purpose of facilitating the acquisition of land
in the presidency of St. Fort George. This act adopted first seven sections of the Bengal
Regulations Act of 1824 with certain modifications.
 For the whole of British India, an Act on this subject was for the first time enacted in 1857.
 Under this act. The collector was empowered to fix the amount of compensation to be paid by
agreement, if possible, but if there was no such agreement possible, the dispute had to be
referred to arbitrator.
 This act amended by the act of 1861 and subsequently by the Act of 1863.
 Ultimately the legislature had to intervene and the act of 1870 was passed. This act, for the first
time, provided for a reference to a civil court for the determination of the amount of compensation
when the collector could not settle by agreement.
 But the act of 1870 was found to be equally unsatisfactory, particularly the matters of
reference to the court and consequently another act in the year 1894 was passed in place
of the said act of 1870.

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  The act of 1870 was not found entirely effective for the protection of either the governments or
the persons interested in lands to be acquired.
 Before 1894 the valuation of land was entirely in the hands of arbitrator for whose decision there
was no appeal.
 Under this 1894 act the collector’s award was normally final, unless desired by the concerned
parties to be referred to the court.
Definition of land:
 In the context of land acquisition, the term land does not refer merely to vacant land but includes
structures and trees, which may exist on it.
 Hence section 3 (a) of the land acquisition act, 1894 clearly defines the expression of land as
including benefits to arise out of land and things attached to the earth permanently fastened to
anything attached to the earth.
Alternative methods of possession of land:

 There are 3 methods

o Mutual agreement on scale price (outright scale)
o Taking over land on lease.
o Compulsory acquisition of property under the land acquisition act.

The purpose of the eminent domain or the power of state to acquire private property is given expression
by article 31 of the constitution.
A few principles relating to acquisition of property can be derived from Article 31 as explained below:

g
or
1. A person cannot be deprived of his property by a mere executive flat without the backing of a law.
The implication is that the executive must set according to and within the framework of a law which must
b.
provide necessary powers to the government for compulsory acquisition of property.
u
sh

3. The land acquisition law has to conform to two constitutional requirements so as to be operative.
Firstly, the acquisition can only be public purpose and secondary the acquisition law should
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provide for payment of compensation for the property acquired.

te
hi

Concept of public purpose: the phrase, whatever else it may mean, must include a purpose, the object
rc

or aim in which the general interest of the community, as opposed to the particular interest of individuals,
.a

is directly and vitality concerned.

w
w

The act that specific land is required for public purpose shall be conclusive evidence that the land is
w

needed for public purpose.

An important administrative principle with regard to the operation of land Acquisition Act is that whenever
any Government Dept. or a public authority want to acquire any land, they will not themselves directly
undertake the various stages of acquisition under the Act but they must send their requisition proposal to
the appropriate office of the Government who will on behalf of the land, go through the various stages of
the land acquisition procedure until he takes possession of the land and hands it over to the concerned
department or the public authority. Hence, in every distinct and big city of our country.

Important stages in land acquisition:

1. Publication of preliminary notification under section of the act by the Government that a particular
land is needed or likely to be needed for a public purpose.
2. Hearing of objections to the above-mentioned notification from interested parties by the collector.
3. Declaration under section 6 of the act by the government that the land is required for public
purpose.
4. Notification under section 9 of the act by the collector declaring government’s intention.
5. Enquiry into the compensation claims and passing of award by the collector.
6. Taking possession of the land by the collector after payment of compensation and handing it over
to the authority requiring the same.

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In fact, land acquisition, 1894 has stood the test of acquisition procedures for nearly a century and has
served the public authority usefully in this regard. A criticism has often levied that the land acquisition
proceedings take considerable time and this criticism is justified to considerable extent.
Another aspect of the land Acquisition Act is that it is too much executive ridden in which the Government
and the land acquisition collector enjoy vast discretionary powers.

The Mulla committee on land acquisition has recently submitted its report to the Govt of India suggesting
some changes in the land Acquisition law.

Land ceiling:

 The 1971 election Manifests of Congress started ‘limitations must be placed on urban property.
th
Measures will be taken to curb antisocial racketeering in the purchase and sale of land’. The 25
Amendment to the Constitution (1971) paved the way for the urban land (ceiling and regulation)
Act that was in pursuance of above pages.
 The state Governments were generally in favour of the bill. but the problem of taking over,
managing and disposing of urban properties, affected adversely by the draft bill were considered
colossal.
 Hence, while the original pledges of the Government related to urban poverty, the ULC&R Act
imposes a ceiling only on private holdings of vacant lands.
 Urban land reforms means bringing about radical changes in urban economic institutions such as
urban land ownerships, holdings and tenancy, regulation of land values, property taxation,

g
availability of pre-emption right and improvements in land acquisition and development and

or
disposal process.
 b.
Such reforms are necessary for assuring the availability of land in adequate quantity for
u
reasonable prices at the right time to public authorities and individuals.
sh

 In India, it will be clear that it was not the urban crisis, which exists in neither our country nor the
need for bulk acquisition of urban land so as to secure neither an orderly growth of our cities nor
ct

the concept of urban land reforms. Widely practiced in Latin American countries. That led the
te

government to enact ULC&RACT. The initial stimulus for the act came frame opponents of
hi

agrarian reforms legislation.

rc

 Through land is mentioned in the state list in schedule VIIth to the constitution. The ULC&R Act
.a

was enacted by the parliament after the adoption of resolution by the legislatures of 11 states
w

requesting the parliament to enact such a law in the manner specified in Article 525.
w
w

 Broad objective of the act:

o A bill to provide for the imposition of a ceiling on vacant land in the urban agglomerations.
For the acquisition of such land in excess of the ceiling limit, to regulate the construction
of buildings on such land and for matters connected therewith with a view to preventing
the concentration of urban land in the hands of a few persons and speculation and
profiteering thereon and with a view to bringing about an equitable distribution of land in
urban agglomeration to sub serve the common good’.

 There is a proliferation of national concepts like’ urban agglomeration’, vacant lands, urban land
and urbanisable land in the act.
 Land appurtenant’ means such land as is required to be kept open as per regulations.
 Compensation—market value.
 The act also imposes a ceiling on the plinth area of all future dwelling units varying from 300 sq.
mts. In cities of categories of A, B, to 500 sq.m C and D.
 There is also some exemptions and non-applicability of act.
 The cities have been grouped under categories A, B, C, D
o A-Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, madras
o B-exceeding 1 million
o C- 3 lacks-1 million
o D- 2-3 lacks.

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Development control and zoning regulations:
 Development controls are an integral part of development plans. They aim at regulating
development in accordance with land use, set backs many other things on a compatible manner.
 These are arise out of
 Sporadic growth of private properties
 Sprawl of slums
 Major transportation congestion point
 Other congested residential and industrial zones
 Availability of land for reclamation and thus offering new opportunities for development
Aim and objectives
o Guides development or the use of land and preserve other site against the intrusion of
undesirable development.
o Curbs misuse.
o Regulates the non-use of misuse of land.
 It sets certain trends in the framework of development process.
 It provides certain demand in a changing pattern of land use.
 Development control is a skilled process.
 Elements:
o Health
o Safety
o Convenience
o Economy and

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or
o Amenity
b.
Tools of development control:
u
sh

 Land use control

 Sub-division control
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 Height control
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 Plot coverage control

hi

 Setback control
rc

 Density control
.a

 Building line control

w

 Architectural control
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 Advertisement control
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 Building bylaws or regulations

 Zoning

Land use control helps to regulate the allocation of different uses such that the basic requirements of
each one of the uses are fulfilled.
The main aim of the control should be to promote land development in a planned and orderly manner and
to ensure the reservation of adequate quantity of land for future planned growth.
Sub division regulations are also need in cases of new industrial townships where the municipal act not is
in operation.
Height controls are designated primarily to ensure an adequate supply of light and air.
FAR is the ratio of the gross floor area of all storeys of a building to the total area of the plot. Higher FAR
is usually for CBD since the land values are higher.

ZONING LAWS: the term zoning is generally understood by the Layman as referring to designation of
lands in the city for different users.
Zoning ordinance sub divides the city into districts in each of which specified uses are permissible and
restrictions regarding the height; bulk, density and setbacks for the structures are specified for each
district.
The ordinance should be based on basic population, economic and land use studies and planning goals.

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 Objectives of Zoning are protecting the private use and enjoyment of property and to promote the welfare
of the individual property owner.
1. Safeguarding the character and amenity value of a residential or any other type of a area.
2. Imposing the restrictions on minimum open space around the buildings in the interest of light and
air and controlling the density of development by limiting the size of the structures and thus
preventing congestion.

The objective of the zoning is normally attained in Indian cities through the enforcement of land use
proposals in the Master plan and the detailed town planning schemes.
The enforcement of development control is an important aspect of spatial planning particularly at the
level of local area.

PLANNING LAWS OF UNITED KINGDOM:

 The British laws largely guide Indian legislations.
 The Housing And Town-Planning Act, 1909 was the first enactment to deal with town planning.
 The house and town planning Act, 1919 authorized the issue of interim development orders to protect
the interests of those who wanted to develop their sits even before the scheme came into operation.
 Next came the town-planning act, 1925, which consolidated the previous Acts and was the first
independent act on town planning.
 The Town And Country Planning Act 1932; the first time the word country has been introduced.

BARLOW COMMISSION:
 The royal commission on the distribution of the industrial population was set up in 1937 under the

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chairmanship of Sir Mon Tague Barlow to inquire on distribution of the industrial population of
b.
Great Britain and to consider what social economic or strategic disadvantage arise from the
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concentration of industries in national interests.
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Finally the commission stressed the need for a vigorous policy for dispersal of population
combined with restrictions on further growth of the biggest cities.
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UTHWATT COMMITTEE ON COMPENSATION AND BETTERMENT:

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 As recommended by the Barlow commission, an Expert Committee under the Chairmanship of

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Mr. Justice Uthwatt was set up in 1941 to make an objective analysis of the subject of payment of
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compensation and recovery of betterment in respect of the public control of the use of land and to
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advice as a matter of urgency what steps should be taken now or before.

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 The committee stated in its findings that the ownership of land does not carry with it an
unqualified right of the user and therefore restrictions based on the duties of neighborliness may
be imposed without liability of payment of compensation.

 The committee’s recommendations formed the basis of Town and Country acts 1944 and 1947.

Scott committee on land utilization in rural areas

 This committee under the Chairmanship of Mr. Justice Scott was appointed in 1941 to consider
the conditions which should govern building and other constructional development in country area
consistently with the maintenance of agriculture and in particular the sectors affecting the location
of the industry.
 In this report, the committee stressed the deplorable living conditions in rural areas.

 Town and country planning act, 1947.

o This act superseded all previous planning legislation and it’s considered very
comprehensive and drastic regarding its effects on ownership of land.
 Town and country planning act, 1968.
o This is the act, which repeals all former enactments on planning:

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 o The minister for Housing and Local Government deals with matters relating to Town and
country planning.
Town and country planning act, 1971.
This act suggests that each local planning authority must institute a survey of their area examining the
matters that may be expected to affect the development of that area or keep all such matters under
review.

Planning laws IN INDIA:

Planning legislation in India was essentially confirmed to building bylaws and building regulation. The
urbanization produced a great shift of population from the rural to the urban areas. This sad state of
st
affairs led to a conceptualization of sanitary commission in 1864 and the 1 CITY IMPROVEMENT ACT
was enacted in major cities.
They were: The Bombay Improvement Act 1898.
The Mysore Improvement Act-1903
The Calcutta improvement Act-1911.

Sir PATRICK GEDDES suggested the need for TOWN planning legislation in INDIA. Accordingly for the
first time the town planning acts were enacted.
They were: the Bombay town planning act-1915.

BHORE COMMITTEE-1946.
a committee was appointed to look into the adaptability of the town planning acts in various states and the

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following policies were outlined:
1. Regulating urban development through town planning. b.
2. Separate ministers for various department
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3. Improvement of large areas.

4. Formulate the model legislation.
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After independence of India FIVE year plans gave guidance for planning.
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nd
2 five year plan provides the preparation of plans of larger cities., organizing planning activities, regional
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plans
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rd
3 five year plan provides enactment of town planning legislation. Provided fund for urban area planning,
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industrial towns, capital towns.

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At this two bodies formed.

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1.COPP-committee of planning projects.

2. BOPE-bureau of public enterprise.
Maharashtra has been a pioneer in town and country planning in our country in more than one way, in
enacting the first town-planning act
Secondly, in effective application of plot reconstitution technique in implementing its town planning
schemes. Thirdly, the law providing is statutory regional planning.

CIDCO-The City And Industrial Development Corporation.

Regional planning laws in India:

1.Maharashtra regional and town planning act-1966
2.Tamilnadu town and country planning-1973.
3. Madyapradesh-1973.
4.model T&CPA—1973.
The development charge concept introduced by this act (4) in the Indian scene appears to have been
successful (Hyderabad)

The Delhi Master Plan prepared in 1962 was in fact the first comprehensive urban development plan with
regional perspective, for any city in the country.
Some of the basic causes of the slow implementation of development plan are:
1. Poor financial position of local authority.

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 2. Lack of skilled technical manpower.
3. Delay in land acquisition procedure.
4. High land values.
5. Individual interest crating problem to development plan.
6. Unrealistically prepared development plan.

Land acquisition act:

 The first piece of legislation in India in respect to the acquisition of property was in Bengal
regulation act of 1824.
 In 1850, it was felt that legislation was needed, for acquiring lands for them also.
 The building Act of 1839 was the first piece of legislation in Bombay where provisions for
acquisition of lands for the purposes of widening or altering any existing public road, street or
other thoroughfare within the islands of Bombay and colaba were provided. It was a similar act to
Bengal Regulation Act of 1824.
 Later the act of 1852 was passed in Madras for the purpose of facilitating the acquisition of land
in the presidency of St. Fort George. This act adopted first seven sections of the Bengal
Regulations Act of 1824 with certain modifications.
 For the whole of British India, an Act on this subject was for the first time enacted in 1857.
 Under this act. The collector was empowered to fix the amount of compensation to be paid by
agreement, if possible, but if there was no such agreement possible, the dispute had to be
referred to arbitrator.
 This act amended by the act of 1861 and subsequently by the Act of 1863.
 Ultimately the legislature had to intervene and the act of 1870 was passed. This act, for the first

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time, provided for a reference to a civil court for the determination of the amount of compensation
when the collector could not settle by agreement. b.
 But the act of 1870 was found to be equally unsatisfactory, particularly the matters of
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reference to the court and consequently another act in the year 1894 was passed in place
of the said act of 1870.
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 The act of 1870 was not found entirely effective for the protection of either the governments or
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the persons interested in lands to be acquired.

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 Before 1894 the valuation of land was entirely in the hands of arbitrator for whose decision there
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was no appeal.
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 Under this 1894 act the collector’s award was normally final, unless desired by the concerned
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parties to be referred to the court.

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Definition of land:
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 In the context of land acquisition, the term land does not refer merely to vacant land but includes
structures and trees which may be existing on it.
 Hence section 3 (a) of the land acquisition act, 1894 clearly defines the expression of land as
including benefits to arise out of land and things attached to the earth permanently fastened to
anything attached to the earth.
Alternative methods of possession of land:

 There are 3 methods

o Mutual agreement on scale price (outright scale)
o Taking over land on lease.
o Compulsory acquisition of property under the land acquisition act.

The purpose of the eminent domain or the power of state to acquire private property is given expression
by article 31 of the constitution.
A few principles relating to acquisition of property can be derived from Article 31 as explained below:

1. A person cannot be deprived of his property by a mere executive flat without the backing of a law.
The implication is that the executive must set according to and within the framework of a law which must
provide necessary powers to the government for compulsory acquisition of property.

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2. The land acquisition law has to conform to two constitutional requirements so as to be operative.
Firstly, the acquisition can only be public purpose and secondary the acquisition law should provide for
payment of compensation for the property acquired.
Concept of public purpose: the phrase, whatever else it may mean, must include a purpose, the object
or aim in which the general interest of the community, as opposed to the particular interest of individuals,
is directly and vitality concerned.

The act that specific land is required for public purpose shall be conclusive evidence that the land is
needed for public purpose.
An important administrative principle with regard to the operation of land Acquisition Act is that whenever
any Government Dept. or a public authority want to acquire any land, they will not themselves directly
undertake the various stages of acquisition under the Act but they must send their requisition proposal to
the appropriate office of the Government who will on behalf of the land, go through the various stages of
the land acquisition procedure until he takes possession of the land and hands it over to the concerned
department or the public authority. Hence, in every distinct and big city of our country.

Important stages in land acquisition:

7. Publication of preliminary notification under section of the act by the Government that a particular
land is needed or likely to be needed for a public purpose.
8. Hearing of objections to the above-mentioned notification from interested parties by the collector.
9. Declaration under section 6 of the act by the government that the land is required for public
purpose.
10. Notification under section 9 of the act by the collector declaring government’s intention.

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11. Enquiry into the compensation claims and passing of award by the collector.
12. Taking possession of the land by the collector after payment of compensation and handing it over
b.
to the authority requiring the same.
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In fact, land acquisition, 1894 has stood the test of acquisition procedures for nearly a century and has
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served the public authority usefully in this regard. A criticism has often levied that the land acquisition
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proceedings take considerable time and this criticism is justified to considerable extent.
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Another aspect of the land Acquisition Act is that it is too much executive ridden in which the Government
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and the land acquisition collector enjoy vast discretionary powers.

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The Mulla committee on land acquisition has recently submitted its report to the Govt of India suggesting
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some changes in the land Acquisition law.

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Land ceiling:

 The 1971 election Manifests of Congress started ‘limitations must be placed on urban property.
th
Measures will be taken to curb antisocial racketeering in the purchase and sale of land’. The 25
Amendment to the Constitution (1971) paved the way for the urban land (ceiling and regulation)
Act that was in pursuance of above pages.
 The state Governments were generally in favour of the bill. but the problem of taking over,
managing and disposing of urban properties, affected adversely by the draft bill were considered
colossal.
 Hence, while the original pledges of the Government related to urban poverty, the ULC&R Act
imposes a ceiling only on private holdings of vacant lands.
 Urban land reforms means bringing about radical changes in urban economic institutions such as
urban land ownerships, holdings and tenancy, regulation of land values, property taxation,
availability of pre-emption right and improvements in land acquisition and development and
disposal process.
 Such reforms are necessary for assuring the availability of land in adequate quantity for
reasonable prices at the right time to public authorities and individuals.
 In India, it will be clear that it was not the urban crisis, which exists in neither our country nor the
need for bulk acquisition of urban land so as to secure neither an orderly growth of our cities nor
the concept of urban land reforms. Widely practiced in Latin American countries. That led the

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 government to enact ULC&RACT. The initial stimulus for the act came frame opponents of
agrarian reforms legislation.
 Through land is mentioned in the state list in schedule VIIth to the constitution. The ULC&R Act
was enacted by the parliament after the adoption of resolution by the legislatures of 11 states
requesting the parliament to enact such a law in the manner specified in Article 525.

 Broad objective of the act:

o A bill to provide for the imposition of a ceiling on vacant land in the urban agglomerations.
For the acquisition of such land in excess of the ceiling limit, to regulate the construction
of buildings on such land and for matters connected therewith with a view to preventing
the concentration of urban land in the hands of a few persons and speculation and
profiteering thereon and with a view to bringing about an equitable distribution of land in
urban agglomeration to sub serve the common good’.

 There is a proliferation of national concepts like’ urban agglomeration’, vacant lands, urban land
and urbanisable land in the act.
 Land appurtenant’ means such land as is required to be kept open as per regulations.
 Compensation—market value.
 The act also imposes a ceiling on the plinth area of all future dwelling units varying from 300 sq.
mts. In cities of categories of A, B, to 500 sq.m C and D.
 There is also some exemptions and non-applicability of act.
 The cities have been grouped under categories A, B, C, D

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o A-Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, madras

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o B-exceeding 1 million b.
o C- 3 lacks-1 million
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o D- 2-3 lacks.
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Air Pollution
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Automobile Traffic Pollution Automobile exhaust contains unburned hydrocarbons, particulates,

carbon dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen and sulfur that contribute to acid rain, smog, and global
hi

warming. The oxides combine with water vapor in the air to form acids, which return to the ground as
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acid rain. Smog, a mixture of smoke (particulates) and fog, irritates the eyes, throat, and lungs and
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also damages plants. Photochemical smog, a particularly harsh form of smog, is created when
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sunlight triggers a chemical reaction between the unburned hydrocarbons and the oxides of nitrogen
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in automobile exhaust. Carbon dioxide, produced from the burning of fossil fuels including gasoline, is
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the leading cause of the greenhouse effect, a phenomenon thought to be responsible for rising global
temperatures.

Spruce Forest Damaged by Acid Rain Forests, lakes, ponds, and other terrestrial and aquatic
environments throughout the world are being severely damaged by the effects of acid rain. Acid rain
is caused by the combination of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen compounds with water in the
atmosphere to produce rain with a very low pH. Normally, rainwater has a pH of 6.5, making it slightly
acidic. However, with the addition of sulphur and nitrogen compounds, the pH of rainwater may drop
to as low as 2.0 or 3.0, making it dangerously acidic. In addition to chemically burning the leaves of
plants, acid rain Poisons Lake Water, which kills most if not all of the aquatic inhabitants.

Industrial Smokestacks Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other types of contaminants pouring from
industrial smokestacks contribute to worldwide atmospheric pollution. Carbon dioxide contributes
significantly to global warming, while sulfur dioxide is the principal cause of acid rain in the
northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and Eastern Europe. Other environmental
problems stemming from smokestack emissions include respiratory diseases, poisoned lakes and
streams, and damaged forests and crops.

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 Brown Smog over Phoenix, Arizona Smog is caused by industrial and automobile pollution. It is
compounded by temperature inversions, which cause the air pollution to be kept in a particular area
for extended periods. Continued exposure to smog can result in respiratory problems, eye irritation,
and even death.
Air Pollution and Acid rain
Rainwater once was the purest form of water available but now is often contaminated by pollutants in
the air. Acid rain is caused when industrial emissions mix with atmospheric moisture. Pollutants may
be carried in clouds for long distances before falling, which means that forests and lakes far away
from factories may be damaged by acid rain. In the near vicinity of the factories, additional damage is
caused by deposition, a kind of dry rain in which the larger pollutant particles fall to the ground. Air
pollution has been increasing since the Industrial Revolution but only recently have side effects such
as acid rain become severe and widespread enough to evoke international concern.

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Noise Pollution or Sound
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Pollution, exposure of people or

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animals to levels of sound that are

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annoying, stressful, or damaging to the ears. Although loud and frightening sounds are part of nature,
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only in recent centuries has much of the world become urban, industrial, and chronically noisy.
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Most noise pollution comes from machines, especially automobiles, trucks, and aircraft. Construction
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equipment, farm machines, and the din of machinery inside factories can be dangerously loud. Some
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home appliances, shop tool, lawnmowers, and leaf blowers can also be noisy, as are guns,
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firecrackers, and some toys. Even music, when played at very high volume, particularly through
personal headphones, is as damaging to the ears as a roaring chain saw. Even the oceans are
increasingly noisy. The engines of ships, especially large vessels and supertankers, produce a lot of
sound, and traffic is increasing. Offshore oil exploration and drilling are also noisy. And more recently,
very loud, low-frequency sonar signals are being sent through the seas to detect submarines and to
gain information about water temperatures and global warming.

The most significant health problem caused by noise pollution is hearing loss (see Deafness). Any
noise appreciably louder than talking can damage the delicate hair cells in the cochlea, the structure
in the inner ear that converts sound waves into auditory nerve signals. The initial damage to the
cochlea may be temporary, but with repeated exposure, the damage becomes permanent. Loud
noise deafens quickly—extremely loud sounds such as gunshots at close range, can cause
immediate hearing loss. But even sound levels of only 85 decibels will cause some hearing loss after
prolonged exposure.
Even at levels below those that cause hearing loss, noise pollution produces problems. Noise makes
conversation difficult, interferes with some kinds of work, and disturbs sleep. As a source of stress, it
can promote high blood pressure and other cardiovascular problems, as well as nervous disorders.

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Noise also puts stress on domestic animals and wildlife. In remote areas, helicopters and military
aircraft often frighten animals.
Pollution, contamination of Earth’s environment with materials that interfere with human health,
the quality of life, or the natural functioning of ecosystems (living organisms and their physical
surroundings). Although some environmental pollution is a result of natural causes such as
volcanic eruptions, most is caused by human activities.
There are two main categories of polluting materials, or pollutants. Biodegradable pollutants are
materials, such as sewage, that rapidly decompose by natural processes. These pollutants
become a problem when added to the environment faster than they can decompose (see Sewage
Disposal). Nondegradable pollutants are materials that either do not decompose or decompose
slowly in the natural environment. Once contamination occurs, it is difficult or impossible to
remove these pollutants from the environment.
A small fish that grazes on these plants accumulates a high concentration of the toxin. Larger fish
or other carnivores that eat the small fish will accumulate even greater, and possibly life-
threatening, concentrations of the compound. This process is known as bioaccumulation.
IMPACTS OF POLLUTION Because humans are at the top of the food chain, they are
particularly vulnerable to the effects of nondegradable pollutants. This was clearly illustrated in
the 1950s and 1960s when residents living near Minamata Bay, Japan, developed nervous
disorders, tremors, and paralysis in a mysterious epidemic. More than 400 people died before
authorities discovered that a local industry had released mercury into Minamata Bay. This highly
toxic element accumulated in the bodies of local fish and eventually in the bodies of people who

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consumed the fish. More recently research has revealed that many chemical pollutants, such as

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DDT and PCBs, mimic sex hormones and interfere with the human body’s reproductive and
b.
developmental functions. These substances are known as endocrine disrupters. See
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Occupational and Environmental Diseases.
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Pollution also has a dramatic effect on natural resources. Ecosystems such as forests, wetlands,
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coral reefs, and rivers perform many important services for Earth’s environment. They enhance
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water and air quality, provide habitat for plants and animals, and provide food and medicines. Any
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or all of these ecosystem functions may be impaired or destroyed by pollution. Moreover,

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because of the complex relationships among the many types of organisms and ecosystems,
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environmental contamination may have far-reaching consequences that are not immediately
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obvious or that are difficult to predict. For instance, scientists can only speculate on some of the
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potential impacts of the depletion of the ozone layer, the protective layer in the atmosphere that
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shields Earth from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays.

Another major effect of pollution is the tremendous cost of pollution cleanup and prevention. The
global effort to control emissions of carbon dioxide, a gas produced from the combustion of fossil
fuels such as coal or oil, or of other organic materials like wood, is one such example. The cost of
maintaining annual national carbon dioxide emissions at 1990 levels is estimated to be 2 percent
of the gross domestic product for developed countries. Expenditures to reduce pollution in the
United States in 1993 totaled $109 billion: $105.4 billion on reduction, $1.9 billion on regulation,
and $1.7 billion on research and development. Twenty-nine percent of the total cost went toward
air pollution, 36 percent to water pollution, and 36 percent to solid waste management.
In addition to its effects on the economy, health, and natural resources, pollution has social
implications. Research has shown that low-income populations and minorities do not receive the
same protection from environmental contamination, as do higher-income communities. Toxic
waste incinerators, chemical plants, and solid waste dumps are often located in low-income
communities because of a lack of organized, informed community involvement in municipal
decision-making processes.
TYPES OF POLLUTION
Pollution exists in many forms and affects many different aspects of Earth’s environment. Point-
source pollution comes from specific, localized, and identifiable sources, such as sewage
pipelines or industrial smokestacks. Nonpoint-source pollution comes from dispersed or

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uncontained sources, such as contaminated water runoff from urban areas or automobile
emissions.
The effects of these pollutants may be immediate or delayed. Primary effects of pollution occur
immediately after contamination occurs, such as the death of marine plants and wildlife after an
oil spill at sea. Secondary effects may be delayed or may persist in the environment into the
future, perhaps going unnoticed for many years. DDT, a nondegradable compound, seldom
poisons birds immediately, but gradually accumulates in their bodies. Birds with high
concentrations of this pesticide lay thin-shelled eggs that fail to hatch or produce deformed
offspring. These secondary effects, publicized by Rachel Carson in her 1962 book, Silent Spring,
threatened the survival of species such as the bald eagle and peregrine falcon, and aroused
public concern over the hidden effects of nondegradable chemical compounds.
Air Pollution
Human contamination of Earth’s atmosphere can take many forms and has existed since humans
first began to use fire for agriculture, heating, and cooking. During the Industrial Revolution of the
18th and 19th centuries, however, air pollution became a major problem. Urban air pollution is
commonly known as smog. The dark London smog that Evelyn wrote of is generally a smoky
mixture of carbon monoxide and organic compounds from incomplete combustion (burning) of
fossil fuels such as coal, and sulfur dioxide from impurities in the fuels. As the smog ages and
reacts with oxygen, organic and sulfuric acids condense as droplets, increasing the haze. Smog
developed into a major health hazard by the 20th century. In 1948, 19 people died and thousands
were sickened by smog in the small U.S. steel-mill town of Donora, Pennsylvania. In 1952, about

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4,000 Londoners died of its effects.

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A second type of smog, photochemical smog, began reducing air quality over large cities like Los
b.
Angeles in the 1930s. This smog is caused by combustion in car, truck, and airplane engines,
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which produce nitrogen oxides and release hydrocarbons from unburned fuels. Sunlight causes
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the nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons to combine and turn oxygen into ozone, a chemical agent
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that attacks rubber, injures plants, and irritates lungs. The hydrocarbons are oxidized into
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materials that condense and form a visible, pungent haze.

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Eventually most pollutants are washed out of the air by rain, snow, fog, or mist, but only after
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traveling large distances, sometimes across continents. As pollutants build up in the atmosphere,
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sulfur and nitrogen oxides are converted into acids that mix with rain. This acid rain falls in lakes
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and on forests, where it can lead to the death of fish and plants, and damage entire ecosystems.
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Eventually the contaminated lakes and forests may become lifeless. Regions that are downwind
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of heavily industrialized areas, such as Europe and the eastern United States and Canada, are
the hardest hit by acid rain. Acid rain can also affect human health and man-made objects; it is
slowly dissolving historic stone statues and building facades in London, Athens, and Rome.
One of the greatest challenges caused by air pollution is global warming, an increase in Earth’s
temperature due to the buildup of certain atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide. With the
heavy use of fossil fuels in the 20th century, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have
risen dramatically. Carbon dioxide and other gases, known as greenhouse gases, reduce the
escape of heat from the planet without blocking radiation coming from the Sun. Because of this
greenhouse effect, average global temperatures are expected to rise 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees
(2.5 to 10.4 Fahrenheit degrees) by the year 2100. Although this trend appears to be a small
change, the increase would make the Earth warmer than it has been in the last 125,000 years,
possibly changing climate patterns, affecting crop production, disrupting wildlife distributions, and
raising the sea level.
Air pollution can also damage the upper atmospheric region known as the stratosphere.
Excessive production of chlorine-containing compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
(compounds formerly used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and in the manufacture of polystyrene
products) has depleted the stratospheric ozone layer, creating a hole above Antarctica that lasts
for several weeks each year. As a result, exposure to the Sun’s harmful rays has damaged
aquatic and terrestrial wildlife and threatens human health in high-latitude regions of the northern
and southern hemispheres.

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Noise Pollution
Unwanted sound, or noise, such as that produced by airplanes, traffic, or industrial machinery, is
considered a form of pollution. Noise pollution is at its worst in densely populated areas. It can
cause hearing loss, stress, high blood pressure, sleep loss, distraction, and lost productivity.
Sounds are produced by objects that vibrate at a rate that the ear can detect. This rate is called
frequency and is measured in hertz, or vibrations per second. Most humans can hear sounds
between 20 and 20,000 hertz, while dogs can hear high-pitched sounds up to 50,000 hertz. While
high-frequency sounds tend to be more hazardous and more annoying to hearing than low-
frequency sounds, most noise pollution damage is related to the intensity of the sound, or the
amount of energy it has. Measured in decibels, noise intensity can range from zero, the quietest
sound the human ear can detect, to over 160 decibels. Conversation takes place at around 40
decibels, a subway train is about 80 decibels, and a rock concert is from 80 to 100 decibels. The
intensity of a nearby jet taking off is about 110 decibels. The threshold for pain, tissue damage,
and potential hearing loss in humans is 120 decibels. Long-lasting, high-intensity sounds are the
most damaging to hearing and produce the most stress in humans.
Solutions to noise pollution include adding insulation and sound-proofing to doors, walls, and
ceilings; using ear protection, particularly in industrial working areas; planting vegetation to
absorb and screen out noise pollution; and zoning urban areas to maintain a separation between
residential areas and zones of excessive noise.
CONTROLLING POLLUTION

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Because of the many environmental tragedies of the mid-20th century, many nations instituted

or
comprehensive regulations designed to repair the past damage of uncontrolled pollution and
b.
prevent future environmental contamination. In the United States, the Clean Air Act (1970) and its
amendments significantly reduced certain types of air pollution, such as sulfur dioxide emissions.
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The Clean Water Act (1977) and Safe Drinking Water Act (1974) regulated pollution discharges
and set water quality standards. The Toxic Substances Control Act (1976) and the Resource
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Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) provided for the testing and control of toxic and
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hazardous wastes. In 1980 Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response,

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Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as Superfund, to provide funds to clean
rc

up the most severely contaminated hazardous waste sites. These and several other federal and
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state laws helped limit uncontrolled pollution, but progress has been slow and many severe
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contamination problems remain due to lack of funds for cleanup and enforcement.
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International agreements have also played a role in reducing global pollution. The Montréal
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Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) set international target dates for
reducing the manufacture and emissions of the chemicals, such as CFCs, known to deplete the
ozone layer. The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and Their Disposal (1989) serves as a framework for the international regulation of
hazardous waste transport and disposal.
Since 1992 representatives from more than 160 nations have met regularly to discuss methods to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 1997 the Kyōto Protocol was devised, calling for
industrialized countries to reduce their gas emissions by 2012 to an average 5 percent below
1990 levels. At the end of 2000 the Kyōto Protocol had not yet been ratified; negotiators were still
working to find consensus on the rules, methods, and penalties that should be used to enforce
the treaty.
Regulations and legislation have led to considerable progress in cleaning up air and water
pollution in developed countries. Vehicles in the 1990s emit fewer nitrogen oxides than those in
the 1970s did; power plants now burn low-sulfur fuels; industrial stacks have scrubbers to reduce
emissions; and lead has been removed from gasoline. Developing countries, however, continue
to struggle with pollution control because they lack clean technologies and desperately need to
improve economic strength, often at the cost of environmental quality. The problem is
compounded by developing countries attracting foreign investment and industry by offering
cheaper labor, cheaper raw materials, and fewer environmental restrictions. The maquiladoras,

- 107 -
assembly plants along the Mexican side of the Mexico-U.S. border, provide jobs and industry for
Mexico but are generally owned by non-Mexican corporations attracted to the cheap labor and
lack of pollution regulation. As a result, this border region, including the Río Grande, is one of the
most heavily polluted zones in North America. To avoid ecological disaster and increased
poverty, developing countries will require aid and technology from outside nations and
corporations, community participation in development initiatives, and strong environmental
regulations.
Nongovernmental citizen groups have formed at the local, national, and international level to
combat pollution problems worldwide. Many of these organizations provide information and
support for people or organizations traditionally not involved in the decision-making process. The
Pesticide Action Network provides technical information about the effects of pesticides on
farmworkers. The Citizen’s Clearinghouse for Hazardous Waste, established by veterans of the
Love Canal controversy, provides support for communities targeted for hazardous waste
installations. A well-organized, grassroots, environmental justice movement has arisen to
advocate equitable environmental protections. Greenpeace is an activist organization that
focuses international attention on industries and governments known to contaminate land, sea, or
atmosphere with toxic or solid wastes. Friends of the Earth International are a federation of
international organizations that fight environmental pollution around the world.

. Air pollution
Air Pollution, addition of harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in damage to the

g
environment, human health, and quality of life. One of many forms of pollution, air pollution

or
occurs inside homes, schools, and offices; in cities; across continents; and even globally. Air
b.
pollution makes people sick—it causes breathing problems and promotes cancer—and it harms
u
plants, animals, and the ecosystems in which they live. Some air pollutants return to Earth in the
sh

form of acid rain and snow, which corrode statues and buildings, damage crops and forests, and
make lakes and streams unsuitable for fish and other plant and animal life.
ct
te

Pollution is changing Earth’s atmosphere so that it lets in more harmful radiation from the Sun. At
hi

the same time, our polluted atmosphere is becoming a better insulator, preventing heat from
rc

escaping back into space and leading to a rise in global average temperatures. Scientists predict
.a

that the temperature increase, referred to as global warming, will affect world food supply, alter
sea level, make weather more extreme, and increase the spread of tropical disease.
w
w

MAJOR POLLUTANT SOURCES

w

Most air pollution comes from one human activity: burning fossil fuels—natural gas, coal, and
oil—to power industrial processes and motor vehicles. Among the harmful chemical compounds
this burning puts into the atmosphere are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
sulfur dioxide, and tiny solid particles—including lead from gasoline additives—called particulates.
Between 1900 and 1970, motor vehicle use rapidly expanded, and emissions of nitrogen oxides,
some of the most damaging pollutants in vehicle exhaust, increased 690 percent. When fuels are
incompletely burned, various chemicals called volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) also enter the
air. Pollutants also come from other sources. For instance, decomposing garbage in landfills and
solid waste disposal sites emits methane gas, and many household products give off VOCs.
Some of these pollutants also come from natural sources. For example, forest fires emit
particulates and VOCs into the atmosphere. Ultrafine dust particles, dislodged by soil erosion
when water and weather loosen layers of soil, increase airborne particulate levels. Volcanoes
spew out sulfur dioxide and large amounts of pulverized lava rock known as volcanic ash. A big
volcanic eruption can darken the sky over a wide region and affect the Earth’s entire atmosphere.
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, for example, dumped enough volcanic
ash into the upper atmosphere to lower global temperatures for the next two years. Unlike
pollutants from human activity, however, naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the
atmosphere for a short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change.

- 108 -
 Once in the atmosphere, pollutants often undergo chemical reactions that produce additional
harmful compounds. Air pollution is subject to weather patterns that can trap it in valleys or blow it
across the globe to damage pristine environments far from the original sources.
Building materials in hot climate:

 Te exposure conditions encountered in hot regions markedly differ from those in temperature
climate. In this respect, particular attention should be given to solar radiation, high temperature,
elevated humidity, and some other factors.
 Solar radiation effects:
1. Thermal effects
2. Chemical transformations
3. Incentive zoning
 Polymerization ordination of organic materials, such as paints, asphalts, bitumen’s, plastics and
rubber.
 Effects on walls due to light on cracks & weakened connections between structured connections.
 Timber, which is an inherently water- bearing material, loses moisture and hence wraps & cracks.
 Plain and reinforced concrete with a high alumina- cement content and some types of gypsum
plaster are given to recrystalization when exposed to elevated temperatures.
 In hot air area, the durability of building material and structures is affected by their fouling with dust
and sand particles.
 Dust and sand also foul equipment, mechanisms, window hinger & door locks.
 Dust and sand particles give rise to erosion when they come in to contact with unpainted metal

g
surfaces.

or
 Accumulation of sand and dust on roots may cause the collapse of the bearing members, which is
b.
why periodic inspection and cleaning of root structures is a must in such regions.
u
 Concrete and stone find the most extensive application in hot regions, become of their durability.
sh

 Stones and cement in humid areas is quite a challenging problem, since the materials tends to take
ct

up moisture and CO2 from the air and hardens permanently.

 Metals have proved their worth in hot regions as bearing & filter elements.
te

 Aluminum & copper alloys offer good resistance to climatic factors.

hi

 As far glass, the usual form of wear is the abrasion by sand dust.
rc

 The marginal portions of a glass pane are shaded by the casement, so the temperature difference
.a

within the same pane may run to 20C some times causing breakage.
w

 Asbestos cement is a poor choice for exposed structures in hot climate regions. It frequently
w

cracks in cyclic heating and cooling.

w

 Paints and plastics are subject to rapid destruction by increased solar radiation which intensities
physical, chemical & photochemical processes.
 Paints resistance increase by adding asbestos to paints and politicizes to plastics.
 Elevated humidity brings about swelling and pointed corrosion and may spur the development of
mould and algal.
 Rugged & reliable as they are in temperature climate regions, bituminous materials and sealants
lose much of their durability in hot areas.
Climate: a region with certain conditions of temperature, dryness, winds, light, etc.

‘Integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric environment, characteristic of a certain
geographical location’.

Tropical climates are those where heat is the dominant problem, where, for the greater part of the year
buildings serve to keep the occupants cool, rather than warm, where the annual mean temperature is not
less than 20C.
The spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2,300 nm.
1. Ultraviolet radiation—290-380nm, producing photochemical effects, bleaching, and sunburn.
2. Visible light, 380(violet}-700nm(red).
3. Short infrared radiation, 700-2300nm, radiant heat with some photochemical effects.

- 109 -
Earth—troposphere (3-10)—stratosphere (10-30)—mesosphere (30-100)—thermosphere (100-
300)—Exosphere (300-1000)---
Ozone layer---16Kms-40Kms
The intensity of radiation reaching the upper surface of the atmosphere is taken as the solar constant.
1395W/metre square.
st st
21 June – longest day. 23.5. 21 December, shortest day.

There is a slippage at the boundary layer between the earth and its atmosphere caused by what is known
as the ‘Coriolis force’.
The dry bulb or true air temperature is a value in the shade; the thermometer being mounted inside a
louvered wooden box, known as the Stevenson screen and alternative is thermograph.

The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH), i.e., the amount of moisture actually
present in unit mass or unit volume of air, in terms of g/Kg or g/cubic meter.
The relative humidity (RH) is, however, a much more useful form of expression, as it gives a direct
indication of evaporation potential.
RH=AH/SH*100

SH=saturation humidity.

Humidity is generally measured by wet-and-dry bulb hygrometer.

DBT-dry bulb temp. WBT-wet bulb temp.

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or
Another indication or expression of atmospheric humidity is the vapour pressure, i.e., the partial pressure
of water vapour present in the air. b.
The atmospheric pressure (P) is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air (Pa) and the partial vapour
u
pressure’ (Pv):
sh

P=Pa+Pv
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RH=AH/SH*100=Pa/Pv*100.
te

Vapour pressure units=Newton per metre square. (N/m3).

hi

The relationship of all these quantities, i.e., of dry bulb and wet bulb temperature, absolute, relative
rc

humidity and of vapour pressure is shown by the psychometric chart.

.a
w

Humidity recorded by Hydrograph.

w
w

Precipitation is the collective term used for rain, snow, hail, dew and frost. It is measured by rain gauges,
i.e., calibrated receptacles and expressed in millimeter per a time unit.

The driving rain index characteristics a given location and expresses the degree of exposure. it is the
product of annual rainfall (in m) and the annual average wind velocity.
The exposure is moderate if the index is between 3 and 7 m2/s and severe if over 7m2/s.
Obviously this index only broadly classifies the given location; the actual rain penetration will
depend on the instantaneous rain intensity and the simultaneous wind velocity.

Sky luminous values are needed if day lighting in buildings is to be predicted.

A simple sunshine recorder wills registrar the duration of sunshine, which can be expressed in number of
hours per day, as an average for each month.

Solar radiation: a number of sophisticated instruments solrimeter, heliometer, actinometer and

pyranometer.unit are watt per metre square.
W/m*m=J/m*m.
A Pitot tube and its direction measured by wind wane measure by a cup type or propeller anemometer or
wind velocity. An anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind velocity and directional
changes.

- 110 -
For the purposes of showing the diurnal variations of one climatic parameter throughout the year, an
isopleth’s chart can be used.

The interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere and the gravitational forces, together with the
distribution of land and sea masses.
Tropical climates: two factors—air temperature and humidity.

Four types of climates:

1.warm-humid climate: near the equator.

Little seasonal variation throughout the year; gusty rains; RH remains high, at about 75% for the most
time; vapour pressure is 2500-3000 N/m*m.
Annual rainfall can vary from 2000-5000 mm; cloud covers vary between 60-90%. Gusts of 30 m/s have
been reported.
Special characteristics: high humidity accelerates mould and algal growth, rusting and rotting.

2. Warm-humid island climate:

Little seasonal variation negligible; gusty rains; RH remains high, at about 55% for the most time; vapour
pressure is 1750-2500 N/m*m.
Annual rainfall can vary from 1250-1800 mm; cloud covers normally clear. Gusts of 30 m/s have been
reported. Solar radiation is strong and mainly direct, with a very small diffuse component.
Special characteristics are the tropical cyclones or hurricanes with wind velocities from 45-70 m/s, which

g
or
constitute a serious hazard. The high salt content of the atmosphere encourages corrosion in coastal
areas. b.
u
sh

3.Hot- dry desert climate: 15degrees-30

Two marked seasons occur: a hot and a somewhat cooler period.
ct
te

Diurnal range is very great: 17-22 deg C; RH varies 10-55%; vapour pressure is normally between 750-
hi

1500 N/m*m.
rc

Annual rainfall can vary from 50-155 mm; solar radiation is direct and strong during the day.
.a

Special characteristics during certain month’s dust and sand storms may be frequent.
w
w

4. Hot dry maritime desert climate:

w

Diurnal mean varies between 9-12 deg C.RH is steadily high, between 50-90%; with vapour pressure of
1500-2500 N/m*m. rainfall is very low. Special characteristics: dust and sand storms may occur.

5. Composite or monsoon climate:

RH-20-55%; annual rainfall varies from 500-1300 mm; vegetation, which is sparse- characteristic of a
region with brown and red barren ground, changes rapidly and dramatically with the rain.
Special characteristics: seasonal changes in relative humidity cause rapid weakening of building material.
Dust and sand storms may occur.

6. Tropical upland climate: the diurnal range is great; RH-45-99%. VP=800-1600 n/m*m; precipitation
is less than 1000mm.vegetation is green although not very luxuriant during the west season. The soil
may be damp in the rains but dries quickly.

 Every city, town or village and even a precinct in a town may have its own climate, slightly different
from climate described for the region—the macroclimate.
 Site climate establishes the scale;
 Designer’s task is to identify the area most suitable for habitation.
 Factors governing the local condition:
 Topography: slope, orientation, exposure, elevation, hills or valleys, at or near the site.

- 111 -
 Ground surface: whether natural or man-made, its reflectance, permeability and soil temperature.
 Three-dimensional objects: such as trees, or tree-belts, fences, walls and buildings.
 Temperature inversion, as the daytime situation of decreasing temperature with the increase of height
is taken as normal.
 The relative humidity depends as much on the air temperature as on the actual amount of water
vapour present in the air.
 When the dew point temperature is reached the formation of fog will start, and if there is no further
rapid cooling and no air movement.
Isoseismic maps: maps showing the earthquakes locations.
The process involved in converting foodstuff into living matter and useful form of energy are known as
metabolism.

During the past 50 years many attempts have been made and many experiments have been carried out
in order to device a single scale which combines the effects of these four factors. Such scales are
collectively referred as thermal indices or comfort scales.

ET: the findings plotted on psychometric chart, producing ‘equal comfort lines’. They named the new
scale as effective temp. It can be defined as the temperature of a still, saturated atmosphere, which
would, in the absence of radiation, produce the same effect.

CET: correlated effective temperature: includes ET and air movement.

EW: equivalent warmth. Scale was constructed and defined by a Nomograph.

g
OT: operative temperature. It combined the effects of radiation and air temp.

or
ECI: equatorial comfort index: together with measurements of air temp. Humidity and air movement.
b.
RT: resultant temp. Predicted four-hour sweat rate (P4SR). Heat stress index (HIS).
u
sh

The bio climatic chart: on which the comfort zone is defined in terms of DBT and RH, but subsequently
ct

it is shown, by additional lines, how this comfort zone is pushed up by the presence of air movements and
te

how it is lowered by radiation.

hi

Effective temperature- its use

rc

Incorporating the appropriate modification, a Nomograph has been constructed which defines the ET
.a

index from DBT and WBT readings.

These scales (basic scale) still do not make any allowance for radiation heat exchange between the body
w

and its environment.

w

MRT mean radiant temperature: if all surfaces in as environment were uniformly at this temperature, it
w

would produce the same net radiant heat balance as the given environment with its various temperatures.
The globe thermometer reading and the MRT are identical only if the air is completely still and there is no
convective heat exchange between the globe and the air.
If there is no radiation loss or gain and air is saturated, the globe and wet-bulb temperature will be
identical: the connecting line will be horizontal.
Anemometers with moving parts will rarely respond to air movements below 0.5-m/s. even small air
speeds of random directions can be measured through their cooling effect. The Kata thermometer is an
instrument used for this purpose.
Kata air speed Nomograph---Kata factor, cooling power, air speed, cooling time, temp.

The thermal comfort zone: -the range of conditions within which at least 80% of the people would feel
comfortable. It is shown on the bioclimatic chart.
Above 1.5 m/s the air movement can produce secondary or side effects, which may be annoying.

The Thermal quantities:

Temperature:
 The temperature is as the outward appearance of the thermal state of the body. If the
molecular movement is spread over to other bodies (eg: air) its intensity within the body
decreases and the body appears to be cooling.

- 112 -
  The Celsius scale measures temperature. This has been constructed by taking the freezing and
boiling points of water (at normal atmospheric pressure) as fixed points and dividing the interval
into 100 degrees.
 The interval of the Kelvin scale temperature is the same as the Celsius scale, but the
starting point is zero,
 i.e., Absolute zero, which is –273.15 degC.
Heat:
 Heat is a form of energy, appearing as molecular movement in substances or as ‘ radiant
heat’, a certain wavelength band of electromagnetic radiation in space (700 to 10,000 nm). As
such it is measured in Joules.
 The Joule is derived from the 3 basic units:
1. Velocity: a movement of unit length in unit time, metre/second.
2. Acceleration: a unit change in velocity in unit time, metre/second square.
3. Force: which can cause unit acceleration of a body having unit mass, Newton

 Weight -is actually the gravitational acceleration of a unit mass.

 The gravitational acceleration is 9.8 met/sec square.
 Work - unit work is carried out if a unit force is acting over a unit length, Joule.
 Energy- is the potential or capacity for carrying out a certain work, Work.
 The British Thermal Unit (Btu) was defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the
temperature of 1lb of water by 1 degF.

g
 1 Btu = 1056.06 J

or
 1 kcal = 4186.8 J b.
 Specific heat - the amount of heat energy necessary to cause unit temperature increase of a unit
u
mass of a substance, J/Kg. degC.
sh

 The higher the specific heat of a substance, the more heat it will absorb for a given increase in
ct

temperature.
te

 Water has the higher specific heat: 4187 J/Kg. DegC.

hi

 For gases often the volumetric specific heat of air is around 1300 J/metre cube. DegC.
rc

 Latent heat: latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat energy absorbed by unit mass of
.a

the substance at change of state without any change in temperature. J/Kg.


w

Thermal capacity of a body is the product of its mass and the specific heat of its material. It is
w

measured as the amount of heat required to cause unit temperature increase of the body,
w

J/degC.
 Calorific value is the amount of heat released by unit mass of a fuel or food material by its
complete combustion and it is measured in J/Kg. Per volume it is J/metre cube.

Heat flow:
 The greater the temperature difference, the faster the rate of heat flow.
 Power is the ability to carry out a certain work in unit time; its units; J/sec or ‘Watt’.
 As a pound of ice requires 144 Btu of heat to melt it in to water of the same temperature.
 Density- the rate heat flow in unit area, units; W/metre square.

Conductivity:
 Thermal conductivity: The rate at which molecular movement spreads varies with different
materials and is described as the property of material.
 Thermal conductivity can be measured as the rate of heat flow through unit area of unit thickness
of the material. W/ m. degC.
 Resistivity: Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. Units; m. degC / W.
 Better insulators will have higher Resistivity values.
 Water has conductivity of – 0.580 W/m. degC
 Air has conductivity of – 0.026 W/ m. degC
 If air in the pores of a material is replaced by water, its conductivity rapidly increases.

- 113 -
  The more pores a material, the greater the increase in conductivity with increased moisture
content.
 Conductance- is the heat flow rate through a unit area of the body when the temperature
difference between the two surfaces is 1 degC. Units; W/metre square. DegC
Surface conductance:
 Surface conductance includes the convective and the radiant components of the heat exchange
at surfaces.
 The overall, air-to-air resistance is the sum of the body’s resistance and the surface resistances.
 The magnitude of surface or film-conductance is a function of surface quantities and of the
velocity of air passing the surface.
Transmittance:
 The reciprocal of this air-to-air resistance is the air-to-air transmittance, or U-value=1/Ra
 This is the quantity most often used in building heat gain problems, as its use greatly simplifies
the calculations.
Cavities:
 If an air space or cavity is enclosed within a body, through which the heat transfer is considered,
this will offer another barrier to the passage of heat.
Convention:
 The rate of heat transfer in convention depends on three factors:
1. Temperature difference
2. The rate of movement of the carrying medium in terms of Kg/s.
3. The specific heat of the carrying medium in J/metre cube. DegC.

g
Radiation:

or
 In radiation heat transfer the rate of heat flow depends on the temperatures of the emitting and
b.
receiving surfaces and on certain qualities of these surfaces; the emittance and absorbance.
u
 Radiation received by a surface can be partly absorbed and partly reflected.
sh

 Light colored, smooth and shiny surfaces tend to have a higher reflectance. For the perfect
ct

reflective theoretical white surface: r =1, a =0

te

 The perfect absorber, the theoretical black body would have the coefficients; r =0, a =1.

hi

The wavelength of emitted radiation depends on the temperature of the emitter. The sun with its
rc

surface around 5 500 degC.

 Bright metal foils are successfully used for insulation in situations where heat is transmitted
.a

mainly by radiation.
w

 Radiation incident on a plane surface can be measured instrumentally and its intensity described
w
w

in terms of W/meter square.

Sol-air temperature:
 For building design purpose it is useful to combine the heating effect of radiation incident on a
building with the effect of warm air.
 The incident radiation increases the surface temperature far above the air temperature, thus
some heat is dissipated to the out -door air immediately.
 The greater the surface conductance value, the more heat will be dissipated.
Solar gain factor:
 The solar gain factor is defined as the heat flow rate through the construction due to solar
radiation as a fraction of the incident solar radiation.
 It might be useful to consider the combined effect of reflective surfaces and thermal insulation.
 Its value should not exceed 0.04 in warm-humid climates or 0.03 in the hot-dry season of
composite climates, when ventilation is reduced.
 The constant value for external surface conductance as: Fo = 20 W/metre square. DegC.

Heat exchange of buildings:

 The thermal balance- the existing thermal condition is maintained if;

- 114 -
 Q1+Qs+Qc+Qv+Qm-Qe = 0
 If the sum of this equation is less than zero (negative), the building will be cooling, and if
it is more than zero, the temperature in the building will increase.
 Conduction heat flow rate through a wall of a given area can be described by the
equation Qc = A x U x T
 Convention heat flow rate between the interior of a building and the open air depends on
the rate of ventilation.
 The rate of ventilation heat flow is described by: Qv = 1300 x V x T
Internal heat gain:
 Heat output from a body (inside the building) is a heat gain for the building.
 The total rate of energy is emission of electric lamps can be taken as internal heat gain. The large
part of this energy emitted as heat (95% for incandescent lamps and 79% for fluorescent lamps.
 The emitted light when incident on surfaces will be converted in to heat. The rate of cooling by
evaporation can only be measured if the rate of evaporation itself is known.

If the evaporation rate is expressed in kg/h, the corresponding heat loss rate cane be found:
Qe=666 X Kg/h.
Heat gain is usually calculated for the purposes of air condition design.
Condensation: when the RH reaches 100%, i.e., saturation, dew or condensation appears. The
temperature at which this happens is referred to as ‘dew point’ temperature.
Most building materials are porous and offer little resistance to the passage of vapour. If the inside humid
air penetrates the wall, when it reaches a layer having a temp less than its own dew point temp. Moisture
will condense. This phenomenon is known as interstitial condensation.

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or
Building materials in hot climate: b.
u

sh

Te exposure conditions encountered in hot regions markedly differ from those in temperature
climate. In this respect, particular attention should be given to solar radiation, high temperature,
ct

elevated humidity, and some other factors.

te

 Solar radiation effects:

hi

1. Thermal effects
rc

2. Chemical transformations
.a

3. Incentive zoning
 Polymerization ordination of organic materials, such as paints, asphalts, bitumen’s, plastics and
w
w

rubber.
w

 Effects on walls due to light on cracks & weakened connections between structured connections.
 Timber, which is an inherently water- bearing material, loses moisture and hence wraps & cracks.
 Plain and reinforced concrete with a high alumina- cement content and some types of gypsum
plaster are given to recrystalization when exposed to elevated temperatures.
 In hot air area, the durability of building material and structures is affected by their fouling with dust
and sand particles.
 Dust and sand also foul equipment, mechanisms, window hinger & door locks.
 Dust and sand particles give rise to erosion when they come in to contact with unpainted metal
surfaces.
 Accumulation of sand and dust on roots may cause the collapse of the bearing members, which is
why periodic inspection and cleaning of root structures is a must in such regions.
 Concrete and stone find the most extensive application in hot regions, become of their durability.
 Stones and cement in humid areas is quite a challenging problem, since the materials tends to take
up moisture and CO2 from the air and hardens permanently.
 Metals have proved their worth in hot regions as bearing & filter elements.
 Aluminum & copper alloys offer good resistance to climatic factors.
 As far glass, the usual form of wear is the abrasion by sand dust.
 The marginal portions of a glass pane are shaded by the casement, so the temperature difference
within the same pane may run to 20C some times causing breakage.
 Asbestos cement is a poor choice for exposed structures in hot climate regions. It frequently
cracks in cyclic heating and cooling.

- 115 -
 Paints and plastics are subject to rapid destruction by increased solar radiation which intensities
physical, chemical & photochemical processes.
 Paints resistance increase by adding asbestos to paints and politicizes to plastics.
 Elevated humidity brings about swelling and pointed corrosion and may spur the development of
mould and algal.
 Rugged & reliable as they are in temperature climate regions, bituminous materials and sealants
lose much of their durability in hot areas.

Principles of lighting and illumination:

 Visual responses: the sensitive surface of the eye, the retina, automatically adjusts itself to the
amount of light falling upon it, and this enables to the amount of light falling upon it, and this
enables the eye to perform usefully over an extremely wide range of brightness.
 This mechanism of ‘adaptation’ is however, limited in the sense that at any instant only a portion
of its range can be useful.
 Eyes can see the things clearly above or below the ‘adoption’ level.
 This inability of the eyes to adapt themselves to widely contrasting degrees of brightness is at the
root of most lighting problems.
 The effects are termed collectively as ‘glare’.
 Discomfort: the degree of discomfort will depend on the brightness of the source relative to the
brightness of the background. Example: - motor car headlight.
 Source area: -a lamp close to the eyes causes more discomfort than the same lamp in the

g
distance. In other words discomfort is dependent on the area of the bright source.

or
 Additive effects: the effects of glare sources are additive; that is to say, a large number of small
b.
sources cause the same degree of discomfort as a small number of large sources of the same
u
brightness.
sh

 Relationship between Brightness of Surroundings: another factor of major importance in

ct

practice is that, if the brightness of the source is increased, the brightness of the surroundings
te

must be increased by more than a proportional extent in order to maintain the same degree of
comfort.
hi

 More light would have to be thrown on to the walls and ceiling or else lighter Colour would have to
rc

be used in the direction.

.a

 In natural lighting the discomfort caused by bright cloud seen through a window is more
w

pronounced than that caused by a blue sky of low brightness- even though the cloudy sky
w

increases the room’s illumination in proportion to its own higher brightness.

w

 Effect of Very Bright Conditions: in daylight and sunlight, degrees of brightness approach the
upper limit to which the eye can adapt itself and progressively more discomfort is felt irrespective
of surrounding conditions.
 With very bright skies large windows cause more discomfort than small ones; to increase the
brightness of the surroundings will not reduce discomfort but will increase it.
 Contrast grading: A sharp jump of brightness from a light source to the area surrounding it
causes discomfort, but grading the brightness between the two reduces it. The practical
application of this is known as ‘contrast grading’.
 Angle of Displacement: A glare source, which is uncomfortable when, viewed directly is
acceptable when removed beyond 50 from the direction of vision.
 This factor chiefly determines the angle of cut-off required to screen a lamp because, for normal
tasks, vision is generally horizontal or below eye- level.
 Industrial fittings rarely have a cut-off greater than 20 degrees, which is clearly inadequate, but
there are signs that up to 40 or 50 degrees will be employed in the future.
 Shape of Glare Source: recent studies indicate that a long source maintained horizontally is no
more glaring than a square source, but that a long source mounted vertically increases
discomfort. Thus a fluorescent tube set vertically will be more glaring than one set horizontally,
and a tall window will be more glaring than a long window of equal area.

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 Disability: Disability alone arises when there are low levels of illumination where the lighting is
from very large sources of low brightness, as, for ex: from a large window on a dull day, from a
large lay light, or when the source is an indirectly lighted ceiling.
 Disability effects are dependent not on the brightness of the source but on its intensity, that is, on
the total amount of light reaching the eyes, i.e. area x brightness. Disability effects are worst in
the area closest to the source.
 The Task and its Surroundings: Visual perception of fine detail is at its best when the work or
the thing we are looking at is a little brighter than its surroundings.
 Lost of visual acuity occurs when the brightness of the surrounding area is either very much lower
or higher than the point of interest, but the loss is greater when the surrounding area is brighter.
Disability is more marked when the task is small.
 Severe conditions of disability are almost always accompanied by discomfort, or even pain, and it
is sometimes not easy to distinguish visual discomfort caused by actual differences of brightness
from the mental discomfort or irritation of not being able to see a thing properly.
 Attentiveness: One of the most influential of the numerous factors to be borne in mind by lighting
designers is that the eye is attracted to light-sources. The term ‘photo- tropism’ has been coined
recently to describe this reflex action.
 Photo- tropism is instinctive: we tend to look at the brightest and most contrasty things in a view,
and also at moving things.
 The relationship between Attention, Comfort and Acuity: Maximum phototropic effect occurs
when the area of interest is very bright and the surroundings are very dark; maximum acuity
occurs when the surroundings are a little less bright than the point of interest; maximum comfort

g
occurs when the point of interest and its surroundings are equal brightness.

or
 Clearly, there, conditions producing strong visual attraction are not comfortable and do not result
b.
in good visual acuity.
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 On the other hand, the conditions producing good acuity are not comfortable in the sense that
sh

they require a field of view of uniform brightness, which cannot provide a resting place for the
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eye.
 Effect of background to visual task on Acuity, Comfort and Attention: Each of the visual
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hi

factors discussed here have a greater or lesser influence on building and lighting design.

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Certain of them will exert themselves strongly in particular problems. Thus, for ex; the effect of
the shape of a glare source is of comparatively little significance in most artificial lighting
.a

installations as there are few situations in which a vertical source can be efficient and give
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adequate distribution of light; but in day lighting it may be a critical factor as it affects the design
w

of windows.
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 For general guidance to designers, the following conclusions emerge clearly from these factors;
1) The object of attention should be the brightest part of the field of view.
2) The ‘local surround’ to the object of attention and the general background should be of
progressively lower brightness.
3) The sources of light should be limited in brightness and area, and should be graded into
their surroundings.
 Emotional Responses: Emotions range from happiness to sorrow, excitement to depression,
calm to irritation; work, personality, company and environment affect them.
 Most of the subjective effects of lighting probably come under the general heading Stimulation.
An environment without sparkle and contrasts in brightness is likely to be depressing; the lack of
stimulation induces inattention and sleepiness.
 Indirect lighting, for ex; produces just these reactions because the illumination is wholly diffused
and hence without contrast.
 It has been observed that what is commonly understood to be ‘Gloom’ in brightness- contrast:
top-lighted museums are notorious for their gloominess;
 The gloom is caused not so much by lack of light as by disability glare which prevents the eye
from seeing into whole areas of detail.
 If the contrasts are very sharp, we experience discomfort also; it is likely enough that the
combination of discomfort and disability lead to an emotional state of irritation.
Natural light:

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  The measurement of day light:
 The daylight at a point indoors is measured, in the same way as the eye, as a percentage of
the illumination outside, appraises it. The ratio is termed a Daylight Factor (D.F)
 D.F is often confused with a sky factor a similar ratio used to express only direct light from
the sky; a Daylight factor includes all reflected light.
 The Design of Windows:
 The shape and size of a window affects the distribution of light and the following simple rules
give general guidance:
1. The height of a window chiefly determines the penetration of daylight; width has
comparatively little influence.
2. Generally, a high window, area for area, is more efficient not only because it gives good
penetration but because it provides a larger day lighted area within a given sky factor
counter.

Housing:

Introduction
 There has been an enormous increase in the level of urbanization in the third world in the last 4
decades.
 India is a poor country with a large part of its population working in informal and formal sector. In
1984-85, nearly 37% of its population lived below the poverty line.

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 In India, the estimate of inadequate housing of urban population is as high as 20-25%. It has

or
continued to deteriorate over the last 30 years. The urban poor are hit very badly, cannot afford a
b.
house with minimum basic amenities and therefore try to find a shelter for them in areas that lack the
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services essential for a healthy and adequate life.
sh

 Provision of housing and urban services to the urban poor is one of the most critical challenges of
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third world Governments. The situation is particularly deplorable in large towns and cities, especially
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in the metropolitan areas where one -third of city's population is either pavement dwellers or living in
slums and squatter settlements.
hi
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Housing the urban poor

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The urban poor population constitutes 8 crore in the total population of India. The urban
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poor live which is as follows:

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 In authorized slums
 In unauthorized/illegal settlements along railway tracks, near garbage.
 On streets and pavements
 City outskirts
 In migrant or construction colonies
 Illegally encroaching the land

The presence of slums and squatter presents clearly the failure of the society and the Govt. to provide
the adequate facilities. Below the definitions of slums and squatter are as follows:

Slum: - which indicate housing that falls below a certain level, which is necessary to contribute a human
development.

Squatter: - which indicate housing that is either the result of illegal occupation or has been developed in
an unauthorized fashion.
It depends upon the conditions, characteristics of the occupants. In India,
they may consist of low- income and low status persons who have been forced to live outside the bounds
of tenured land holding in order to survive in an urban setting.

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Informal sector: - the informal sector arises for reasons of economic survival where formal job creation
lags behind urban population growth. Housing has various relationships to the informal sector. Informal
sector poverty leads to informal squatter settlements and pavement dwellings. Industrial workers mostly
inhabit the slums or other formal sector workers, which reveals the shortage of land and dwelling units
arising in the process of industrialization and commercialization.

Strategies for housing the urban poor

Housing strategies for the urban poor need a holistic and multi-pronged approach covering many aspects
foremost among them would be ensuring adequate supply of serviced land.
The national report for habitat has focused on the following strategies to improve the
availability of land for urban housing in general and housing for the poor in particular:

 Land development should be a joint activity of the public sector and private sector, including the co-
operative sector with adequate safeguards to protect the lower income groups.
 Promotion of optimum utilization of land and releasing lands into the urban market.
 Development of an automated and cadastral and land tilting system throughout the country in order to
ensure effective functioning of land market.
 Cross subsidization can be used effectively for making affordable housing accessible to the urban
poor.
 Many developed and developing countries have used the system of inclusionary zoning for making
available land and housing to the poor.
 It would be essential to create a land bank for the urban poor in order to facilitate the process of

g
or
making them available the affordable shelter.
b.
Approaches
u
sh

The standards, in terms of space and materials, were too high and the resultant cost of housing was
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beyond the paying capacity of the poor. This approach requires lot of finance that was meager. The
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earliest response of this situation was a technological approach, which sought to reduce the gap between
hi

cost and affordability by developing technological alternatives for low cost housing. This approach had its
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own limitations.
.a

Another approach adopted was slum clearance and the relocation of slum dwellers
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into publicly built, highly subsidized standard housing units. Again this approach made even the
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cheapest house built under social housing schemes beyond the means of the target group.
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The inadequate understanding of the magnitude and nature of housing problems

resulted in a large proliferation of slums and squatter settlements in towns and cities. Now the govt.
understood that the approach that is to be made should not be a constructive one.
In terms of planned efforts slum improvement, self-help housing, incremental housing, sites and
services etc. has emerged as alternatives to housing problems of the urban poor. All these approaches
accept a model of progressive house construction focusing on provision of secure tenure and a range of
basic services.
During the 1950s and 1960s, the almost universal response to slums and squatter
settlements was to construct public housing. From mid-60s a different approach began to be considered:
instead of constructing standard houses for themselves i.e. self help housing.
This approach translated into execution of two main types of projects: sites and services and slum
upgrading. Upgrading involves legalization of tenure and installation of infrastructure. Some countries
have given priority to one of the approaches, whereas in some countries both have been implemented
simultaneously.

Impact of self-help housing

In general, self-help housing projects have performed better in regard to affordability and
accessibility when compared to conventional housing. With regard to the impact of self-help housing
programmes on urban housing. Malawi is the only country where a substantial number of the urban
population is a housed in sites and services house. Self-help housing interventions have been affected by

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a number of problems and constraints. Self -help housing seeks to bring down then cost of housing and
make it however, there appears to be reluctance on the part of Govt. to lower standards.

Site and Services

In the 'site and services' approach, each family is provided with a small plot, which is
serviced with a water tap, storm water drainage, a sewerage connection and a paved access with street
lighting. The level of servicing varies with the beneficiary's ability to pay. The site and services approach
has various advantages:

 It can cover beneficiaries of very low-income groups without heavy subsides thus reducing financial
burden on public agencies.
 This approach incorporates the concept of progressive development of services and facilities
depending on the resource availability and growth of settlement.
 It allows people to undertake incremental housing construction at a speed that matches their needs
and their needs and ability to generate resources.

Limitations

It has its own limitations like:

 Weakness in the implementation process.
 Failure in the location
 The beneficiaries, primarily intended to be from EWS, need to live close to their workplace in order to

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keep their travel cost and non-availability of land in prime locations results in many of these projects
being located in the peripheral areas of urban centers. So, these settlements remain unoccupied.
b.
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sh

Incremental housing
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The low-income households in India suffer not only from shortage of cash for down
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payment but also from lack information. Lack of information is also a major factor responsible for lower
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income groups to be kept out of the organized sector housing. The concept of ' incremental housing' has
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not found acceptance within the Govt./formal sector and hence, the poor performance, have to depend
.a

upon the informal sector for their housing needs.

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Whether it is a rural or urban area, land availability and land tenure form the base of
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the housing problem. In urban areas, there is no such scheme and the price of urban land being what it
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is, it is beyond the reach of the poor. Consequently, resulting in land encroachment by the poor. Also, the
low-income group households tend to buy unauthorized plots from private developers who" illegally"
convert agricultural land into residential colonies. The legal status of these lands is also not very clear as
most of these are sold on "Power of Attorney" since law prohibits even subdivision of rural holdings. While
no enumeration has been made so far, it is felt that growth of squatter and unauthorized colonies is much
faster than those of regular housing in urban areas in India. The task force on Housing and Urban
Development appointed by Planning Commission offered two estimates:
.
The slum Acts of various states have given legitimacy to notified slums and their
improvement has become a matter of state policy, the most neglected area is the so called unauthorized
colonies consisting of economically weaker sections who have some income to become eligible for a
housing loan.
It may also be noted that the state of Madhya Pradesh is the only state in India, which has granted secure
land tenure to urban squatters by passing an act popularly called the "Patta Act". It entitles any landless
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person occupying up to 50 sq.m of land for residential purposes on 10 April 1984.

Government 's approach

Government of India heavily depended on other countries in dealing with the slum
problem. As regards policy towards slums and squatters, Govt. started off with a negative approach of
slum clearance way back in five-year plans. Slum clearance must aim at improving the city's substandard

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localities as well as substandard residential buildings. Drastic action was taken to arrest the growth of
unauthorized huts on vacant lands. Such constructions serve as a nucleus for the creation of new slums.
But it could not implement success. National Commission on urbanization set during seventh five-year
plan also looked into the problem of housing the slum dwellers and informal sector. Recommendations for
housing the urban poor in 1988, which is as follows:

1. Housing policy must aim at increasing the supply of serviced land and low cost shelter, improving and
upgrading slums and conserving the existing stock.

2. The state must facilitate housing and ensure access to basic inputs. It should not become a real
estate developer.

3. The sites and services program should be extended to cover an entire cross section of society.
Besides providing housing, the program should be used to generate employment.
4. Public agencies in the housing sector should be restructured for fulfillment of their new role as
facilitators rather than providers of housing.

Government action as such is the only effective measure for securing adequate supply of
housing because of the very nature of the housing market. It is understood that with the present rate
of growth of population, it will take time for the authorities to provide a home for each and every
family. Thus a massive program has to be launched by our country for providing houses for the urban
poor, which involves huge capital cost.

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or
COMMUNITY PLANNING:
b.
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DEFINITION:
sh
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 Community is an interacting population of various kinds of individuals in a common space.

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 A group of people with a common characteristic or interest together with a larger city.
hi

Essential elements of a community:

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 Group of people: community is a group of human beings it can’t even be imagined with out a
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group of human being.

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 Definite locality: the first condition of the community is definite locality.

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 Community sentiment: a community is a local area which people using the same mores,
languages, feeling more or less common sentiments and acting upon the same attitudes.
 Permanency: A community is not transitory and temporary like a crowd. For it is essentially a
permanent life in a definite place.
 Natural: Communities are not made or created by an act of will but these are natural. An
individual is born in a community it is by virtue of the community that he develops.
 Particular name: Every community has some particular name, which is expressive of the
individuality or personality of its locality.

EFFACTED FACTORS IN THE GROWTH OF COMMUNITY:

 The growth of community is not caused by any one factor; various factors like Geographic, Social,
Economic and Ecological factors have been active participant in this growth.

Geographic Factors:

The more important of this kind of factor is Land, Water and Climate.

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  Land: The most important geographical or topographical with respect to permanent community is
land; in this both the fertility and the layout of the land are important.
 Water: The facilities of water has much to do with the growth of communities at any particular
locality it is almost in conceivable that communities can come up where water is not available.
 Climate: The climate of a place is also an important factor in the growth of village or urban
community.

Social factors:

Social factors in the growth of communities include peace, security, Co-operation and business
etc.
Peace: for a permanent and healthy development of communities it is essential that there should be
external and internal peace.
Security: Peace is based on security, the permanently growth of communities being Impossible in
the absence of the latter.
Co-operation: Community development is difficult to achieve when there is no co-operation.
 In the villages people are so close to each other that they cannot make progress with out co-
operation.
Intelligence and business: the biggest single social factor responsible for the growth of a village or
urban communities is the intelligence, Ex- The credit for the improved conditions of communities

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must go to their Business and Intelligence.

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
b.
Migration: The movement of people from place in their search for better living conditions is a
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potent factor in the demand for new houses or communities.
sh
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Economic factors:
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Economic factors in the growth of communities includes the communities Agriculture and Cottage
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Industries etc.,
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Agriculture: Even today the mainstays of the village community is agriculture and their growth
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depends upon the state of agriculture.

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Industries: Industries are a very important economic factor in the growth of the community.

These industries provide a means of livelihood to land less people they also offer, means of utilization
of the leisure.
Ecological factors:

The way of living of different people refers from town to town or village to village according to the variation
in ecological factor.

There are some ecological elements of the community is Population, Distance from the town, Geographic
location.

Population: Its population considerably influences the life of a community.

 When population increases the villages are denoted by the term town while a further
increase leads to the same unit being called a city because the increase in population also means
the construction or establishments of markets, increase in the no of shops where new
commodities available, the opening schools and colleges and the arrangements of police and
other security measures.

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Distance from the town: The community is also influenced considerably by the factor of its distance from
the town.
 The sub-urban or villages which are at a great distance from the town commodities such
as cosmetics, new clothes, fashionable objects are not available in villages, nor the people of the
village are in close contact with the people in the town in respect of economic or social status.

Geographic location: In the villages situated if forests, mountains, plains, in the Polar Regions there
apparently a some different in respect of their socio, economic, cultural and political life.
**********************----------------------***************--------------------*********************

Design of residential areas:

The residential areas to be carefully designed with respect to be following aspects:

1. Aesthetics
2. Basic materials.
3. Housing unit
4. Layout
5. Size and shape
6. Street system

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or
`****The credit of designing the first true skyscraper goes to Major William L.jenny-an architect of
b.
Chicago.
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Agencies for Housing
sh
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Following are the three agencies, which may be considered responsible for the construction of houses:
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1. Government.
hi

2. Co-operative housing societies.

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3. Individuals.
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Housing schemes demand high initial capital cost and because of the long durability of many houses, the
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net addition proves to be of marginal nature. Govt has introduced The urban land (ceiling and regulation)
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act, 1976 which mainly aims at securing excess urban vacant lands in private hands for development of
houses of acceptable standards for the weaker sections of the society.
Some of the objectives in housing policy:

1. It should be a comprehensive policy.

2. Check the populations growth
3. Haphazard growth should be prevented.
4. Ensure adequate financial provisions.
5. Low cost techniques.

2. Co-operative housing societies:

First is the saraswath co-operative housing society-1915.

At present, this agency become very popular because of encouragement at government level with
respect to two main aspects of housing, namely,
1. Acqusition of land at reasonable price; and
2. Financial help in the form of loans to be paid in installments at low rates of interest.

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A group of house-seeking persons combine and form a legal body, known as housing society.

INVESTMENT IN HOUSING: it is estimated that housing project worth Rs.1 crore per year will provide
jobs to about 8000 men and women directly and indirectly.
The investment in housing results in over-all increase in productivity of economy in the following three
ways:
1. It increases the mobility of manpower.
2. It promotes social development.
3. It provides an incentive to productive Labour.

A massive investment in housing may be taken up in the following order:

1. Slum improvement scheme.

2. Urban housing.
3. Rural housing.

HUDCO: The Housing And Urban Development Corporation was set up in 1970 and its main functioning
is to promote housing and urban development programmes in the country.
HUDCO serves as the Apex control Agency for mobilization of financial resources for housing and urban
development programmes.

One of the main objectives of HUDCO is also to finance or undertake the setting up of building material

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or
industries because of the fact that building materials constitute about 70% of the total cost of the
construction. b.
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sh

CIDCO: CITY AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION.

ct
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Under companies act.

The functions of CIDCO are planning, implementation, administration and maintenance of the New
hi

Bombay and other areas which may be entrusted to it by the government.

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The new project is MRT (mass rapid transit).

.a

The main objective of CIDCO is take off the ever-increasing load of the existing cities by providing,
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among other things, housing and social amentias for the population in these carefully selected urban
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growth centres.
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Eg. New Aurangabad, New Nasik, New Nanded

. NETWORKS AND SERVICES:

There are five imp roles for town planner:
1. Strategy formulation
2. Integrated networks and services development
3. Monitoring networks and services development
4. Reservation of land for networks and services
5. Reducing the development cost of land

1.WATER SUPPLY

Quality: Drinking water must free from pathogens.

Temp: Should be cool (desirable 50 degrees F and generally less than 80).

Turbidity: is shall be between 2.5 and less than 10 parts per million (p. p.m)
Turbidity is an account of suspended and colloidal inorganic matter such as salt, clay and mud particle.
At 20-p.p.m, water is cloudy. At 100 p.p.m it is distinctly turbid.

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Colour: for drinking purpose water should be less than 10 p.p.m. Colour is due to organic and inorganic
compound.
The max. Permissible amount of manganese and iron compound for water distribution is between 0.3 to
0.6 p.p.m.

Odour and taste: is due to the presence of microscopic organic matter like sodium, chloride, and
carbonates.
Can be removed by aeration and filtration.
Organic pollution: contamination of water with organic matter is indicated by the presence of nitrogen in
water.
Urine contains both ammonia and chloride.
Oxygen: organic life in natural water needs oxygen for life. The amount thus consumed is known as
biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D)
Salt: sodium chloride more than 250 p.p.m makes the water unpalatable.
Alkanity: is due to presence of mineral salts dissolved in water.
Hardness: is due to the presence of bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
Measure: one grain of calcium carbonate in one-gallon water is one degree of hardness, which is
equivalent to 14 p.p.m
PH value: hydrogen ion concentration.

PH + pOH =14
_<7 acid and _>7 is alkaline.
Sedimentation, filtration and sterilization:

g
or
The process of removing suspended impurities is called sedimentation
Removing of Smaller particle and bacteria by Filtration. b.
Sterilization means killing of bacteria by adding chlorine, ammonia, and ozone or UV treatment.
u
sh

QUANTITY OF URBAN WATER SUPPLY:

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Depends upon -----pop, climate, type of sewerage.

hi

Population: economic status (higher status use more water)

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Design period: 30 years.

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Public water supply: in India.

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Up to 10,000------70-100 liters per day.

10-50,000---------100-125
Above 50,000-----125-200
Rate of supply: max. Seasonal demand is may be 1.3 times average annual demand.
Peak factor:

Up to 50,000-----3 times the avg rate of water supply.

50,000-2,00,000-----2.5
Above 2,00,000------2 times

Pressure: 7m for single store, 12m double, 17m for three and 22 for four storey buildings.

The ground water is under constant movement. It’s velocity, which is a function of speed, and direction
can be studied with the use of dyes.

Annual rainfall is measured for 35 years.

The amount of water available at the reservoir site may be computed as follows:

W=R X A X P

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W= the amount of water available in cubic meters.
R= annual rainfall in m
A= catchment area in sq.m
P= the likely percent of run-off for that year.

Volume of the reservoir=

V=(H/6)*(A1+A3+4A2)

H is the contour intervals. A1, A2, A3 are the three successive contour intervals.

Distribution system characteristics: depend on

Street patterns, topography, degree and type of development of the area, location of treatment and
storage tank.

Pipe specifications: distribution pipes shall not be less than 150mm in diameter in the Indian metropolitan
cities to meet fire fighting.
Other urban areas ----100mm

Purified water is available from water at constant rate, but the demand of water changes with hour and at
peak hour the rate of demand is very high.
The operating storage can be determined from mass diagram or hydro graph (time- discharge graph.)
mass diagram is a plot between cumulative demand of water and time.

g
or
Nomograph can be used in advantage to design the pipe diameter.
b.
Using Hazen Williams equation is as given below:
u
sh

V=1.318 c, R, S
ct

Where v= velocity if ft/sec, s= hydraulic scope, R= hydraulic radius

te
hi

R=A/P
rc

From this information construct a map of pressure contours and or hydraulic gradient line (HGL)
.a
w

2. SANITATION SYSTEM
w
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Main reason in India is urbanization

The conventional sewerage was considered a wonder technology in which all excreta and all pathogens
were transported away from household to the treatment plant.

Conventional sewerage requires continuous water supply.

When adopting conventional sewerage from temperate to tropical country, septic and increased blockage
of excreta in pipes makes this technology less satisfactory. High temperature accelerates biological
degradation in the pipes and so depletes the dissolved oxygen and become anaerobic in tropical
temperature.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SANITATION TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS:

1. Water supply levels
2. Low cost sanitation options
3. Waste treatment Methods
4. Resource recovery
5. Health and socio economic criteria
6. Appropriate sanitation technology for urban districts
a. Conventional-----commercial, industrial, high-class residential
b. Aqua privy or sewerage using waste stabilization------new medium class areas
c. Pit latrines -----temporary occupation
d. Sulabh -----congested resi, areas, slums, squatter settlements, neglected urban villages

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3.URBAN DRAINAGE:

Sewer can be divided into building sewers, lateral sewers, main sewers, interceptors and outfall sewers.
Building---lateral line=min100m and slope 2% size is 4inches
Lateral---a lateral has no other connections sewer tributary except building connections; the minimum
diameter is 200mm (8 in)
Interceptors---large sewer pipelines.

Man holes: manholes are installed at every change of slope, direction of sewer lines, change of sewer
size, and sewer connection.

Maximum spacing is 50-120 m (150-400ft)

Calculations:
Per capita solid waste production: depends upon
Standard of living, water use, climate factor
In arid area 40% water used reaches the sewer. In intensively developed area 90-80%

The run off reaching the sewer is given by the expression:

Q=10 CiA
Where ‘Q’ is run off in cu. M/ hec

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or
C-coefficient
i---intensity of rain fall in mm/hec b.
A is the area of the drainage district in hectares.
u
sh

Data requirement for the lay out of urban drainage system include road map, location of the Building and
ct

other utilities, floor elevation of the building, soil, topography, undeveloped area and future expansion.
te
hi

Commonly slopes are calculated assuming a minimum velocity for a dry weather flow of 0.6m/s (2fps)
rc

when sewers are flowing half full.

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Combined system-----0.9m/s
w
w

Pipe selection—Nomograph (Manning formula).

4.URBAN SOLID WASTE:

MUNCIPAL Corporation, municipality and notified area committees are entrusted with the task of solid
waste disposal (swd).

It comprises of household waste, which includes putrescent and non putrescent wastes, rubbish, and
often bulky waste produced by discarded old furniture, building materials, glasses etc.

Papers, glasses, plastics and iron materials are sorted out from residential colonies and sold out by the
class of rag pickers. Hence all generated does not reach the disposal sites.

The quantity of solid waste per person per day in Indian urban area has been reported ragging between
300 to 600 g.
The per capita daily generation of solid waste by Indian household can be as high as 0.75 kg.
Not more than 0.4 kg/ capita/day for a higher urban density of population less than 20,000 per sq.km.
The calorific value of solid waste is 1500 kcal/kg in most cities.

House---Handcart-------municipal vehicle

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Land filling, composing, recycling, pyrolysis, dry fuel making and incineration are the technology available
for solid waste disposal.
Indian solid waste is characterized by low calorific value, high moisture content and high quantity of non-
combustible materials.

LAND FILLING:
1. Sanitary land filling
2. Controlled tipping in low-lying areas, adjacent to the sea for land reclamation.
3. Uncontrolled tipping on municipal land.
4. Uncontrolled tipping on private land.
5. Uncontrolled tipping into water.

The major problem ----air and water pollution can be associated with land filling.

COMPOSTING: the physical and chemical of Indian city refuse showed that 40-60% of it is compostable
and that it has adequate nutrients (NPK), moisture content of 40-50% and carbon to nitrogen ratio 25:1 to
40:1.

Two methods of composting of urban solid waste is practiced by different, _____

a) Pre-treatment and post treatment windrowing
b) The Indore or Bangalore method.

g
or
Incinerators burn refuses in an excess of oxygen atmosphere to achieve 80-85 volumes and 60 to 65-
b.
weight reduction.
u
sh

In Refuse/Fuel Recovery system, solid waste is first shredded and separated into light combustible and
heavy non-combustible fractions.
ct
te

Pyrolysis is the physical and chemical decomposition of organic matter by the application of 1 to 3000
hi

degree F in the total or partial absence of oxygen. This produces heat, carbon dioxide and reduce the
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volume of refuse.
.a
w

5. FIRE PROTECTION:
w

In planning for protection in a city, it is important to start with the database of all records of occurrence of
w

fires in the last few decades both by number and magnitude as measured by its duration.
Causes: land use, structural condition, and urban networks and services available.
In a city, it is important to identify and scale all zones/ parts by scale for vulnerability for fire.

Location principle for fire station: fire stations shall be easily accessible to all industrial, business, ware
housing, institutional and residential areas.
Range—1.5 km

For district requiring 9000gpm (567.1lit/s) or more these distance shall be 0.75 kms and for 4500 gpm
(283.5 l/s) it should be 2-3kms.

Water for fire demand: the requirement of water for fire fighting in “Q” liters/ day may be calculated by
formula for Indian conditions:

Q=100,000 x p

Where ‘P’ is population in thousands.

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 All major building shall be certified by the service for fire fighting capability and potential
vulnerability for fire. This will take into account the structural condition of the building,
availability of water for fire fighting, standard of electrical wiring and fire extinguisher
systems.

6. ELECTRICITY

Major tasks:

a. Short and long term electrical load estimating

b. Identifying local standards and conforming and working within the standards laid out by local
legislative acts like factory act, town and country planning act and rules and other regulations
c. Laying out the electrical networks for the present and future.

Units: voltage can be considered as a push, which causes electrons to flow in a conductor.

 Volt or Kilo volt is the unit of voltage

 Power (W) = voltage v x current i
 1 KW= 1.34 HP
 1HP=746 W
Power: two types

g
1. Apparent power (Kilo Volt Ampere KVA)
or
b.
2. True power. (Apparent power x power factor)
u
sh

Energy is the measure of work done and it is the therefore a product of power and time.
ct

Kilowatt Hour is the unit commonly used. (KWH).

te
hi

The ratio between average demand and maximum demand is called load factor (L.F)
rc

L.F=average Demand/Maximum Demand

.a

And
w

Maximum Demand=Average Demand/load factor

w

Load estimating: 1-year 415 volt or 11KVA

w

2-3 y---33KV
Methods for forecasting: in small vacant land undergoing development, average household or institutional
demand is used to project the load demand.
Natural growth of load can be tabulated and plotted on a load versus time graph.
In another method units and load factors of units are tabulated for past years.
An understanding of the electrical supply system is the starting point for the design of the lay out of the
network. Electricity is generated in a power station. An 11KV/132KV transformer step-up the voltage
before it leaves the power station to the transmission line. Then it is fed into a primary grid substation,
which step down the voltage from 132k KV to 33 KV. From there it is transported to secondary sub
stations where it is further stepped down from 33 KV to 11 KV and fed into the secondary high voltage
distribution system. In the next stage it is further stepped down from 11 KV to 415V/220V low voltage
distribution system.

As far as relative cost is considered under ground network cost more than the overhead. Street pattern
offers the limitation for laying out the low volt ele. Networks.

Cables are also laid under footpath. Cables laid in P.V.C duct can facilitate replacement but this
arrangement is expensive.

Domestic---Low voltage

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Commercial, industrial---11KV

Major industrial-------33KV

7.COMMUNICATIONS:

It has an integral part of all economic activity.

PSTN-packet switched data networks provides 3 types of facilities
Message transfer
Interactive computer access
Computer-computer access
LAN –local area networks are the systems that are used to link the terminals, computers, word
processors and other devices located within a compact area.
Cellular services first installed in NCR
1. A perspective plan is a long term (20-25 years) written document supported by necessary maps
and diagrams providing the state government the goals, politics, strategies and general programmes of
the urban local authority regarding spatio-economic development of the settlement under its governance.

2. A development plan conceived within the framework of the approved perspective plan, is a
medium term (generally five years) plan. Providing to the people the comprehensive proposals for socio-
economic and spatial development of the urban centre indicating the manner in which the use of land and

g
development therein shall be carried out by the local authority and other agencies.

or
3.
b.
An annual plan, conceived within the framework of development plan, is a plan containing the
u
details of new and ongoing projects that the local authority intends to implement during the respective
sh

financial year and for which necessary fiscal resources shall be mobilized through plan funds and other
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sources.
te

4. Conceived within the framework of approved development plan, projects/ schemes are detailed
hi

working layouts with all supporting infrastructure, and documents including cost of development, source
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of finance and recovery instruments for their execution by a public or private agency.
.a
w

The preparation of ‘development Plan’ is done following the town and country planning legislation of the
w

state concerned.
w

a) Declaration of intention to prepare development plan.

b) Declaration of appropriate authority to whom the responsibility of preparation of the development
plan is given.
c) Provision for survey through a reference with an Existing land use map and existing land use
register.
d) Publication of draft plan.
e) Accommodating the provision of regional plan.
f) Objection and suggestion to the draft plan.
g) Modification of draft plan.
h) Finalization and submission of the plan.
i) Approval of draft plan.

PLANNING SURVEYS:

Planning must be based upon knowledge, knowledge depends upon information and information depends
upon survey.

Physical characteristics: the nature, scale and form of the environment are the canvas upon which the
plan is painted. A knowledge and record of the topography, geology, climate, minerals, areas of special

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interest, location of rich agricultural land and the sources of pollution are prime requirements of the land
use planner.

Utilities: one aspect that is often neglected and much maligned, lacking as it does the charismatic appeal
of so many other more topical elements of town planning, is the ‘digestive process’ of urban areas.

Population: an appreciation of the size, density, characteristics and distribution of the population
is nearly always the starting point in the preparation of all plans and policies.

Employment: the study of population leads naturally on to the need for jobs, demand for labour,
and the consequent level of unemployment in a local, regional and national context.

Housing: From the location of employment springs the need for accommodation. The planner is
occupied with the task of ascertaing the size, condition, age, tenure, distribution, density, rate of
growth and occupancy rates of the existing stock of housing.

Shopping: to ensure the most appropriate location for retail facilities the planner is obliged to
assess the needs and potential of his local authority area.

Education: although often separately dealt with in local authority management, the provision and
location of educational facilities is largely dependent upon population survey, and an analysis of
the trends, changes, and implications in their social context.

g
or
Leisure and recreation: with the growth in available leisure hours and the upsurge in demand for
recreation, this area has rapidly become accepted as a major part of the planning process.
b.
Movement: one of the principal factors contributing to the size and nature of urban development is
u
sh

accessibility, which in turn depends upon the degree of, and propensity for, movement. This
includes the movement of both people and goods, and has given rise to an entirely new discipline,
ct

with its own language, which concerns itself with such tasks as origin and destination, pedestrian
te

and desire line surveys.

hi
rc

Management: with the growing awareness of the need for better organisation and administration,
.a

both in planning and in local government, there has recently been explosion in the development
w

and application of management techniques.

w
w

Evaluation: althogh it is rather unusual to single out one stage of the planning process and afford
it separate attention, it is from this critical area of selection.

In the preparation of any survey or the construction of any technique it is essential to recognize
that they themselves require planning. The cost must be estimated.

Structure plans:

 A plan for a country or large or important urban area, formulating policy and general proposals.
 A structure plan relates to the social, economic, and physical system of an area so far as they are
subject to planning control or influence.
 It is the planning framework for an area, including the distibution populations, the activities and
relationships between them, the patterns of land use, and the developments the activities create,
together with the network of communications and the system of utility services.
 It is prepared by the local planning authority in cooperation with neighbouring authorities and
performs the following functions:
 Interpreting national and regional policies.
 Establishing aims, policies, and general propasals.
 Providing a framework for local plans.
 Indicating action plans.

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 Providing guidance for development control.
 Providing a basis for coordinating decisions between different levels of public authority.
 Bringing the main planning issues before central government and the public.
 The structure plan comprises a written statement, supported by fuller arguments in the report of
survey, giving current policies and proposals together with an examination of resources likely to be
available for carrying out the plan.
 It must contain or be accompained by such diagrams, illustrations, and desriptive matter as the local
planning authority thinks appropriate.
 It is to be submitted to central government after appropriate publicity, and it may be approved,
modified, or rejected after a public inquiry.
 The plan may be altered at any time after approval, but a similar procedure as previously described
must be followed.

SURVEY RESEARCH
Secondary data: the collection of secondary, or published, data is critical in almost all economic and
planning studies.
The types of secondary data most often used in urban and regional planning are:
 Population trends and projections
 Population characteristics, such as age, income, occupation, and race
 Employment trends and projections, especially in different types of employment
 Land-use inventory data, showing square footages devoted to different specific types of uses

g
 Property value data

or
 Retail sales data b.
These items of information reveal what the planner has to work with, what he may have to work with
u
in the future, and what is needed to achieve a workable, livable plan for the town or area under
sh

consideration.
ct
te

Primary data:
 Primary, or original, research is essential to almost every planning study.
hi

 Primary data are more expensive to get than secondary data. The methods of collection affect the
rc
.a

accuracy of the results; poorly structured samples or questionnaires may result in faculty information.
Moreover, it is always tempting to extract mare from a survey than is statistically valid.
w
w
w

There are four chief methods of collecting primary data.

 Field interviews with businessmen, government officials, real estate developers and brokers, tax
assessors, financial institutions, etc. these are often the only sources of current, directly pertinent
information; but they must be watched carefully for bias.

 Other interviews: Personal interviews are the best method, especially for getting in-depth
information; but they are also the most expensive types of interview. Telephone interviews are less
expensive than personal interviews, but the indirectness lowers the certainty of the response and
even deters communications. Mail questionnaires are low in price but subject to bias and plagued by
low response.

 Panel discussions: While panels of interested discussants do not produce statistically reliable data.
They are excellent reflectors of community attitudes and interactions on subjects of concern.
 There are also specialized techniques used in certain kinds of study. License-plate surveys are
useful for retail trade analysis. In appraisals, real estate transactions may be analyzed.

The Research Process:

 Most research assignments have three roughly sequential phases:
1) Data collection
2) Analysis and interpretation, and

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 3) Development of conclusions for presentation.
Interpretation ands conclusions would require far too broad a discussion to fit the scope of this article,
since they involve many intangibles such as judgment, experience, and institution.
 The final purpose of the study should always be kept in mind. Research should always serve the
object of the study.
 Good work should not be duplicated.
 A study should be structured as early as possible.
 Insights and ideas should be shared.

Survey research process: it composed of the following set of tasks (ITPI).

1.Defining information needs and obtaining resources.
2. Collection of data.
 Choosing the technique of observation.
 Defining the questions.
 Determining the sample
 Pretesting and conducting the survey.
3. Analyzing the data.
 Compiling and editing the raw data.
 Analyze of the distribution of response to a single question.
 Analyze of the inter-relation among variables.
 Interpreting the analysis.

g
Bias is what we are always trying to minimize and avoid bias means that some how the data contain a

or
systematic error and thus do not represent what we intended theme to represent.
b.
u
Techniques of observation:
sh

1. Self surveys.
2. Interviews.
ct

3. Direct inspection.
te

4. Participant-observation= the surveyor becomes a resident of the community.

hi
rc

 Defining the questions: - the questions of a survey area also called the variables of the survey.
.a

 Nominal scales: - these are set of names. Nominally scaled variables are those whose various
w

possible answers are categories of different names. A question to which the answer in either
w

‘Yes’ or ‘No’ is a nominally scaled question.

w

o Sex – male, female.

 Ordinal scales: - they put things in a ranked order. In the ranking of goals discussed. We
employed ordinal measurement. Some examples of an ordinal scale.
o Priorities: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd.
o Social class: upper, middle, lower.

 Interval scales: - they provide a yardstick like set of numbers for measuring the intervals
between ordered responses. Dollars, distance, age, temp, years of education.

Example: nominal: is the family poor ______yes_____no.

Ordinal: Which annual income category is the family in
Below 4000_____.
4000—10,000
______Above 10,000.
Interval: what is the family’s annual income_______

Types of sampling: -

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Simple random sampling is the fundamental technique of sampling. It is the kind of sampling we do. If
we pick a card from a well shuffled deck of cards.
To be fair and accurately representive, every person or item from among those to be sampled must have
an equal chance of being picked for the sample, and all combination of individual must have an equal
chance of appearing.
th
Systematic sampling: to take a systematic sample is to take every 6 element from a list, say every
tenth student or systematic sampling satisfied the requirements of a truly random sample as long as there
is no bias in the ordering of the original list. Its great advantage is that it saves times and costs over
simple random sampling.
Stratified sampling: the techniques of stratification are used to insure the representive ness of a sample,
where it might otherwise be unlikely. Stratification would deal with this problem by defining separate
groups or lists, which are homogenous, and then, would take simple random sample or systematic
samples from each group.
The size of the sample taken from each group may be proportional to group size or disproportional
depending on the information needs to the problem being studied.
Cluster sampling: cluster sampling is very similar to stratified sampling, but the groups that are defined
are heterogeneous. It is an alternative means for keeping the sample size small. Thus keeping the costs
down while insuring representive ness in the sample. Suppose, that we are again in need of evaluations
of a community service in a neighborhood, and we wish to insure a balanced view with respect to racial
and ethnic groups.
If these clusters can be identified, than either systematic or simple random sampling can be conducted
within each of a few clusters.

g
or
REMOTE SENSING b.
 Remote sensing means acquiring information about an object or phenomenon from a distance, i.e.
u
sh

with out actually coming in contact with the object.

 Quantity measured in RS-electromagnetic energy.
ct

 The human eye can respond to light in the minute portion of electromagnetic spectrum –0.4 –0.7-
te

micrometer wavelength.
hi

 This technique ranges through the spectrum from the very short wavelengths at which gamma rays
rc

are emitted to the comparatively long wavelengths at which radar operates.

.a

 Aerial photography is limited to visible band of the spectrum.

w

 The oldest application of RS is military operation. Infrared sensing.

w

 Infrared remote sensing is particularly useful in providing data that can be used to locate an enemy’s
w

position. It is useful to detecting and mapping forest fires.

 Using
 Geologists---minerals and deposits.
 Soil scientists---geological and geomorphologic features and vegetation.
 Hydrologists—aquifers, surface flow of water.
 Geographers can analyze land use patterns over large area and can study the effect of climate,
topography, plant life, animal life and human activity in a particular area.
 Civil engineers –planning large construction projects such as highways, airports, railways or
dams can obtain data from on landforms, rock materials, soils, and type of vegetation and
drainage condition in the project area.
 For effecting management of diminishing sources of natural resources and monitoring the quality of
our environment, the remote sensing technique have edge over conventional methods.
 Principle—all objects on the surface of earth have characteristic spectral signatures.
 The knowledge of spectral signatures is essential for exploring the potential of remote sensing
technique.
 Remote sensing techniques through visual interpretation of aerial photographs, satellite imaginary
and digital analysis of computer compatible tapes (CCTs). In conjunction with ground truth have been
proved faster and economic for the appraisal and integration of natural resources.
 IRS satellite resolution—5.8-72.5m
 Aerial photographs

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  1:25,000
 1:30,000 scale
 LANDSAT band 5 (B/W) image showing tonal and spatial characteristics of hills, flat buried
pediments, plains, riverbeds and associate natural resources.
 LANDSAT band 7 forms pattern tonal and spatial characteristics of sand dunes.
 Small-scale multi spectral landsat—coastal geomorphology.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY:
Useful for planners
 True geometry of the ground. (In the form of base map).
 Information about vegetation cover soils geological and geomorphologic features and drainage
pattern.
 Aerial photographs—23cmsX23cms.
 There are three agencies for carrying out aerial photography.
 National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)—Hyderabad.
 Air Survey Company (private)-Calcutta,
 Indian Air Force.
 Overlap with 60% of adjacent photograph.
 This is done to take advantage of 3-dimensional optical model of the terrain for measurement and
interpretation. parallax bar

Disadvantages:

g
 Tilt distortion- their camera axis is not exactly vertical at the time of making an exposure.

or
 Relief distortion- the undulations of the ground cause shift of image point from their true orthogonal
b.
points.
u
 SCALE OF aerial photographs depends upon:
sh

 Height of aircraft (camera platform)

ct

 Focal length of the camera.

te

 Scale=focal length/height (same units).

hi

 Rectification of photography is the simple technique; the titled photograph can be transformed as if
rc

the camera axis had been vertical. Rectified photographs are photographs on a given scale from
.a

which tilt distortion has been taken out.

w
w

 Creation of the same condition as existed at the time of photography between two adjacent
w

exposures is possible by the principle of ‘orientation’.

 Delineation of contours is also possible with these instruments. Some of the stereoploting instruments
called photogrammetric instruments, are:
 The outputs from analytical plotters can be in the form of graphical or digital in the form of a tape.
 It is quite possible to draw contours on a plotter. The contour interval will depend on the scale of the
aerial photography.
 1:50,000 aerial photography may provide contours of 10 mts.
 1:25,000 aerial photography may be provide contours of 5 mts.
 1:10,000 aerial photography may be provide contours of 2 mts.
 A hand-held cover 35 mm. Commercial camera taken in a light aircraft is good enough for picking the
information needed by a planner.
 The cost of flying SFA is 1/10 the cost if conventional photography.

REGIONAL PLANNING AND SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING

 Useful scales of maps employed for regional planning are:

 1:250,000map of survey of India (topo-sheets)
 1:50,000 map of survey of India (topo-sheets).
 India remote sensing satellite IRS-IA bis in space now, having spatial resolution of 73 metres and 37
metres.

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 Transparent positive prints (called diapositives) of aerial photographs are also possible to get.
 Photo Mosaics: mosaics are of three types.
 Uncontrolled—photographs are joined together in some designed way. No use of existing map or field
control is made.
 Semi-controlled-use of map or control points is made
 Controlled—the photographs are rectified and joined together on a projects sheet.

 The ‘plotted section’ out of a photogrammetric machine is most accurate piece of survey work.

 It is recommended for Central Business District where more accuracy and large scales (1:1000-
1:2000) are required for planning.

 Products specially suited for interpretation- in addition to black nad white aerial photography,
multispecial photography is also possible. This can be decided/ designed depending on the
requirements.

 A major demand, all over in India, is to have base-maps of towns, which require physical planning
inputs.

LAND USE (URBAN AND REGIONAL)

g
 Land use (or space use) is a key concept in the town planning proffession.

or
ZONING
b.
u
sh

 Rectified prints on 1:4,000 or 1:50,000 obtained from 1:10,000 aerial photographs are adequate for
ct

the purpose.
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 Small format photography is imminently suitable as on administrative tool for recording a situation/
hi

scenario of

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Urban design

.a

Unauthorized colonies
 Encroachments
w


w

Violation before demolition of structure


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Census of slum dwellings

 Architectural conservation.

VISUAL AND URBAN DESIGN:

 Paths are channels of movement. They include walkways, streets, railroads, expressways, and
mass transit lines. These are typically the perspective from which an observer views the city.

 Edges are linear, not unlike paths, but do not facilitate movement. They are often boundaries
defining a break in continuity between two homogeneous regions. Examples include shores, walls,
rivers, and railroads cuts.

 Districts are the mid-sized sections of a city. They are distinguishable as having some common,
identifying characteristics. Typical identifying traits include a particular architectural style, light posts,
or mailboxes.

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 Nodes are strategic spots in the city where observers can enter. They are typically linked to travel
and may be represented by some type of transportation hub such as a mass transit station, bus stop,
or traffic circle.

 Landmarks are point-references that are external to the observer. They are not entered into but
rather are viewed from a distance. A landmark must be distinct from its surroundings and should have
directional information associated with it. Directional information is essential to the navigator's ability
to remain oriented with the environment.

Landmarks, nodes, and districts divide the city into "places" which are connected by paths and bounded
by edges.

There are certain elements in most cities that shape peoples understanding of how the city is organised.
People use these elements to locate themselves. This provides an important sense of security. In
disorientating places this sense of security is lost, and people feel uncomfortable. We need to understand
what are the appropriate physical forms to produce what Kevin Lynch (in the Image of the City, 1960)
called legibility.

.
Perception and Cognition
It is argued that the mental map is the end product of perception and cognition.
a. Perception:

g
The environment is regarded as a mass of "to whom it may concern" messages through which an

or
individual’s perception selects the messages that are of concern. So perception is an encoding process.
b.
This encoding allows individuals to convert information about the environment into meaningful terms.
u
Perception implies that individuals select specific objects rather than "the whole picture".
sh

b. Cognition:
ct

Cognition refers to the way information, once received, is stored and organized in the brain so that it fits
te

with other already accumulated information. Cognition is therefore developmental, and as it progresses
perception become subordinate. "...One may perceive the street where we live by physically being there,
hi

but knowing the route to work depends on cognitive organization of perceptions." Golledge, L G and
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Stimson R J (1987) Analytical Behavioral Geography, London: Croom Helm Mental mapping or cognitive
.a

mapping is seen as the process which enables individuals to acquire, code, store, recall and manipulate
w

information about the nature of their environment.

w
w

Legibility
a. Legibility is the ease with which the parts of a town or city can be recognized and organised into a
coherent pattern.
b. Lynch argued that the anxiety that accompanies getting lost shows clearly how legibility is linked to our
sense of well being. "A good environmental image gives its possessor an important sense of emotional
security. He can establish a harmonious relationship between himself and the outside world. This is the
obverse of the fear that comes with disorientation." Lynch (1960)
c. Lynch, in his studies, found that people's images of a place overlap. That despite differing meanings
that they gave to places, people identified similar elements as important to being able to orientate
themselves. It is from the analysis of mental maps that Lynch identified the physical elements that aid
legibility.

What is the problem with today's cities?

Many people comment on the confusion that contemporary cities produce because of a lack of spatial
distinction resulting from:

Thematic/Non Thematic:
i. Thematic buildings appear indistinct an normal ie they are of a theme. Non-Thematic buildings are
distinct and stand out.

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ii. Today non-thematic buildings are often located in important positions, and usually mean little to the
majority of people
iii. Public and private buildings also start to look alike.

The separation of pedestrians from vehicles:

I. Frequently roads are bordered by mounds of earth and vegetation to separate roads from paths and
housing (speed and efficiency). It is disorientating and requires reliance on signs only.
ii. Footpaths frequently require pedestrians to walk between the private backs of houses, or along-side
faceless fences and privacy screens, underground or between fast moving roads. In these places there is
disorientation and lack of surveillance.

Lack of spatial definition:

It is also argued that emphasis on the design of individual buildings in a landscape/car park setting does
not provide the spatial definition that the traditional close grain city can provide. Such environments do
not enhance orientation because they do not contain identifiable elements forming clearly identifiable
relationships.

Things to do in design to enhance legibility

a. Reinforcing paths: by providing physical characteristics, which mark them from surrounding channels.
b. Reinforcing the network: a deformed grid can sharpen the relationship between places, and reinforce
the pattern between elements. Gradual curves and winding cul-de-sacs disorientate and deny an
appreciation of actual physical vicinity.

g
or
c. Edges should contain continuity in form and use to be clearly legible and defined.
d. Landmarks should contrast with their context, and should be used in sequence in relation to the extent
b.
of progress along a path, or forming unifying relationships between paths (i.e. at junction).
u
sh

e. Nodes should be reinforced and characterized by a singular and continuous quality of e.g. walls, floor,
building style, massing. A physically enclosed node is more notable than a suburban roundabout with no
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closed boundaries.
te
hi

Of course you may not choose to use the elements to provide legibility. You may use your understanding
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to produce deliberately illegible places. Security, it is argued, is sometimes best achieved where people
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are disorientated, and sense that they do not belong. Arguments state that, for example, many housing
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layouts should be designed to intimidate and alienate the public. Clearly this is linked to our earlier
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discussions about accessibility.

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Conclusion
a. If people are going to use the physical environment and understand the relationships between its parts,
then it must be legible.
b. You can understand how legible a place is by asking people to draw a mental map or by analysing the
area and looking for paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks.
c. Places that are not legible result in disorientation and are not usually used or crossed. In addition some
places might be perceived as dangerous.

A to Z
Accessibility The ability of people to move round an area and to reach places and facilities, including
elderly and disabled people, those with young children and those encumbered with luggage or shopping.

Action planning Participation techniques, including community planning weekends and Urban Design

Action Teams (UDATs): which enable local people and invited teams of professionals to explore design
ideas for particular areas over one or several days.

Activity spine Street or streets along which activity is concentrated.

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Activity node Concentration of activity at a particular point.

Adaptability The capacity of a building or space to be changed so as to respond to changing social,

technological and economic conditions.

Area appraisal An assessment of an area’s land uses, built and natural environment, and social and
physical characteristics.

Architecture and planning center An institution, which provides a focus for a range of activities and
services (such as discussions, information, exhibitions, collaboration and professional services) relating to
architecture and planning.

Brief This guide refers to site-specific briefs as development briefs. Site-specific briefs are also called a
variety of other names, including design briefs, planning briefs and development frameworks.

Building elements Doors, windows, cornices and other features, which contribute to the overall design of
a building.

Building envelope guidelines Diagram(s) with dimensions showing the possible site and massing of a
building.

Building exploratory A center for explaining, interpreting and providing information on the built

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environment.
b.
Building line The line formed by the frontages of buildings along a street. The building line can be shown
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on a plan or section.
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Bulk The combined effect of the arrangement, volume and shape of a building or group of buildings. Also
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called massing.
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Character assessment An area appraisal identifying distinguishing physical features and emphasizing
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historical and cultural associations.

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Charrette An event (ranging from a couple of hours to several days), which brings together a range of
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people to discuss design issues. A charrette may or may not use techniques of collaborative design. Also
known as a design workshop.

Conservation area character appraisal A published document defining the special architectural or
historic interest which warranted the area being designated.

Context The setting of a site or area, including factors such as traffic, activities and land uses as
Well as landscape and built form.

Context (or site and area) appraisal A detailed analysis of the features of a site or area (including land
uses, built and natural environment, and social and physical characteristics) which serves as the basis for
an urban design framework, development brief, design guide or other policy or guidance.

Countryside design summary Supplementary-planning guidance prepared by a local authority to

encourage a more regionally and locally based approach to design and planning.

Crime Pattern Analysis Carried out by the Police and is available through liaison with the Architectural
Liaison Officer/Crime Prevention Design Adviser. It comprises four components: crime series
identification, trend identification, ‘hot-spot’ analysis and general profile analysis. This last aspect includes
an examination of demographic and social change and its impact on criminality and law enforcement.

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Defensible space Public and semi-public space that is ‘defensible’ in the sense that it is surveyed,
demarcated or maintained by somebody. Derived from Oscar Newman’s 1973 study of the same name,
and an important concept in securing public safety in urban areas, defensible space is also dependent
upon the existence of escape routes and the level of anonymity, which can be anticipated by the users of
the space.

Density The floor space of a building or buildings or some other unit measure in relation to a given area
of land. Built density can be expressed in terms of plot ratio (for commercial development); number of
units or habitable rooms per hectare (for residential development); site coverage plus the number of floors
or a maximum building height; or a combination of these.

Design advisory panel A group of people (often architects) with specialist knowledge, which advises a
local authority on the design merits of planning applications or other design issues. Also known as an
architect’s panel.

Design assessment An independent assessment of a design usually carried out for a local authority by
consultants, another local authority or some other agency.

Design guide A document providing guidance on how development can be carried out in accordance
with the design policies of a local authority or other organization often with a view to retaining local
distinctiveness.

Design principle An expression of one of the basic design ideas at the heart of an urban design

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or
framework, design guide, development brief or a development.
b.
Design standards Specific, usually quantifiable measures of amenity and safety in residential areas.
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Design statement (a) A pre-application design statement is made by a developer to indicate the design
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principles on which a development proposal in progress is based. It enables the local authority to give an
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initial response to the main issues raised by the proposal. (b) A planning application design statement
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sets out the design principles that the planning applicant has adopted in relation to the site and its wider
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context, as required by PPG1.

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Desire line An imaginary line linking facilities or places, which people would find it convenient to travel
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between easily.
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Development brief A document, prepared by a local planning authority, a developer, or jointly, providing
guidance on how a site of significant size or sensitivity should be developed. Site-specific briefs are
sometimes known as planning briefs, design briefs and development frameworks.

Elevation The facade of a building, or the drawing of a facade.

Enclosure The use of buildings to create a sense of defined space.

Energy efficiency The extent to which the use of energy is reduced through the way in which buildings
are constructed and arranged on site.

Feasibility The viability of development in relation to economic and market conditions.

Fenestration The arrangement of windows on a facade.

Figure and ground (or figure/ground, or Nolli) diagram A plan showing the relationship between built
form and publicly accessible space (including streets) by presenting the former in black and the latter as a
white background (or the other way round).

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Form The layout (structure and urban grain), density, scale (height and massing), appearance (materials
and details) and landscape of development.

Fruin analysis A method of analyzing pedestrian movement devised by Bernard Fruin. It applies a ‘level
of service’ concept to pedestrian flows. Fruin defined capacity and speeds of movement in various forms
of corridors, pavements and other pedestrian routes.

Future Search A participation technique enabling groups of people to identify common interests, discuss
ideas and share information and experience. ‘Open space’ is a similar technique. Grain See ‘urban grain’.

Height The height of a building can be expressed in terms of a maximum number of floors; a maximum
height of parapet or ridge; a maximum overall height; any of these maximum heights in combination with
a maximum number of floors; a ratio of building height to street or space width; height relative to particular
landmarks or background buildings; or strategic views.

Human scale The use within development of elements, which relate well in size to an individual human
being and their assembly in a way, which makes people, feel comfortable rather than overwhelmed. In-
curtilage parking Parking within a building’s site boundary, rather than on a public street or space.
Independent design audit an assessment of a design, carried out for a local authority by consultants,
another local authority or some other agency.

Indicative sketch A drawing of building forms and spaces, which is intended to convey the basic
elements of a possible design.

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Landmark A building or structure that stands out from its background by virtue of height, size or some
b.
other aspect of design.
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Landscape The character and appearance of land, including its shape, form, ecology, natural features,
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colors and elements and the way these components combine. Landscape character can be expressed
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through landscape appraisal, and maps or plans. In towns ‘townscape’ describes the same concept.
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Layout The way buildings, routes and open spaces are placed in relation to each other.
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Layout structure The framework or hierarchy of routes that connect in the local area and at wider scales.
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Legibility The degree to which a place can be easily understood and traversed.

Live edge Provided by a building or other feature whose use is directly accessible from the street or
space, which it faces; the opposite effect to a blank wall.

Local distinctiveness The positive features of a place and its communities, which contribute to its
special character and sense of place.

Lynchian analysis The widely used method of context appraisal devised by the urban designer Kevin
Lynch. It focuses on gateways to an area, nodes, landmarks, views and vistas, and edges and barriers.

Massing the combined effect of the height, bulk and silhouette of a building or group of buildings.

Mixed uses A mix of uses within a building, on a site or within a particular area. ‘Horizontal’ mixed uses
are side by side, usually in different buildings. ‘Vertical’ mixed uses are on different floors of the same
building.

Modal split How the total number of journeys in an area or to a destination is split between different
means of transport, such as train, bus, car, walking and cycling.

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Movement People and vehicles going to and passing through buildings, places and spaces. The
movement network can be shown on plans, by space syntax analysis, by highway designations, by figure
and ground diagrams, through data on origins and destinations or pedestrian flows, by desire lines, by
details of public transport services, by walk bands or by details of cycle routes.

Natural surveillance (or supervision) The discouragement to wrong-doing by the presence of passers-by
or the ability of people to be seen out of surrounding windows. Also known as passive surveillance (or
supervision).

Node A place where activity and routes are concentrated often used as a synonym for junction.

Performance criterion (pl. criteria) A means of assessing the extent to which a development achieves a
particular functional requirement (such as maintaining privacy). This contrasts with a standard, which
specifies how a development is to be designed (by setting out minimum distances between buildings, for
example). The art of urban design lies in balancing principles which may conflict. Standards may be too
inflexible to be of use in achieving a balance. Performance criteria, on the other hand, make no prior
assumptions about the means of achieving a balance.

Permeability The degree to which an area has a variety of pleasant, convenient and safe routes through
it.

Perspective Illustration showing the view from a particular point, as the human eye would see it.

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Place check A type of urban design audit advocated by the Urban Design Alliance, based on the
Connected City approach. A local collaborative alliance or partnership uses checklists to investigate the
b.
connections in the built environment, in its movement network and among the people who shape it. The
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Place check becomes the first step in a continuing collaborative process of urban design.
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Planning brief This guide refers to site-specific briefs as development briefs. Other names, including
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planning briefs, design briefs and development frameworks are also used.
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Planning for Real A participation technique (pioneered by the Neighbourhood Initiatives

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Foundation) that involves residents and others with an interest coming together to make a model
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of their area and using it to help them determine their priorities for the future.
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Planning Policy Guidance notes (PPGs) Documents embodying Government guidance on general and
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specific aspects of planning policy to be taken into account in formulating development plan policies and
in making planning decisions.

Plot ratio A measurement of density generally expressed as gross floor area divided by the net site area.
Proactive development control Any process by which a local authority works with potential planning
applicants to improve the quality of development proposals as early as possible before a planning
application is submitted.
Public art Permanent or temporary physical works of art visible to the general public, whether part of the
building or free-standing: can include sculpture, lighting effects, street furniture, paving, railings and signs.

Public domain The parts of a village, town or city (whether publicly or privately owned) that are available,
without charge, for everyone to use or see, including streets, squares and parks. Also called public realm.

Public/private interface The point at which public areas and buildings meet private ones.

Public realm See ‘public domain’ Quality audit A review of its management of the design and planning
process by a local authority or other organization.

Scale The impression of a building when seen in relation to its surroundings, or the size of parts of a
building or its details, particularly as experienced in relation to the size of a person. Sometimes it is the
total dimensions of a building, which give it its sense of scale: at other times it is the size of the elements

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and the way they are combined. The concept is a difficult and ambiguous one: often the word is used
simply as a synonym for ‘size’. See ‘Human scale’. Section Drawing showing a slice through a building or
site.

Settlement pattern The distinctive way that the roads, paths and buildings are laid out in a particular
place.

Sight lines the line of sight from a traveling vehicle or person. Sight lines will help to determine how fast
vehicles are likely to move and how safe other road users are likely to be.

Space syntax analysis A technique for analyzing movement through urban space and predicting the
amount of activity likely to result from that movement.

Spine Street or streets along which activity is concentrated.

Strategic view The line of sight from a particular point to an important landmark or skyline.

Street furniture Structures in and adjacent to the highway which contribute to the street scene, such as
bus shelters, litter bins, seating, lighting, railings and signs.

Success factor One of the characteristics of a place (or places in general) that tends to make it attractive
to live in, work in, or visit. Success factors can be expressed as design principles.
Surveillance The discouragement to wrong-doing by the presence of passers-by or the ability of people

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or
to be seen from surrounding windows.
b.
Sustainable development Defined by the Brundtland Commission (1987, and quoted in PPG1) as
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‘Development which meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to
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achieve their own needs and aspirations’. The UK's strategy for sustainable development “A better quality
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of life” was published in May 1999 and highlights the need for environmental improvement, social justice
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and economic success to go hand-in-hand.

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Tissue study Comparison of scale and layout of different settlements. This technique makes use of
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overprinting or tracing maps of successful places over the proposed development site or area, at the
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same scale. Its gives the designer a clue to the capacity of a place and how it may be structured.
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Topography A description or representation of artificial or natural features on or of the ground.

Urban design The art of making places. Urban design involves the design of buildings, groups of
buildings, spaces and landscapes, in villages, towns and cities, and the establishment of frameworks and
processes, which facilitate successful development.

Urban design framework A document which informs the preparation of development plan policies, or
sets out in detail how they are to be implemented in a particular area where there is a need to control,
guide and promote change. Area development frameworks are also called a variety of other names,
including urban design strategies, area development frameworks, spatial master plans, and planning and
urban design frameworks.

Urban grain The pattern of the arrangement and size of buildings and their plots in a settlement; and the
degree to which an area’s pattern of street-blocks and street junctions is respectively small and frequent,
or large and infrequent.

Vernacular the way, in which ordinary buildings were built in a particular place, making use of local
styles, techniques and materials and responding to local economic and social conditions.

View What is visible from a particular point.

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Vista An enclosed view, usually a long and narrow one.

Visual clutter The uncoordinated arrangement of street furniture, signs and other features.

Village appraisal A study identifying a local community’s needs and priorities.

Village design statement An advisory document, usually produced by a village community, suggesting
how development might be carried out in harmony with the village and its setting. A village design
statement can be given weight by being approved as supplementary planning guidance. The use of
village design statements is promoted by the Countryside Agency.

Walk band A line on a map or plan showing the furthest distance that can be walked from a particular
point at an average pace in a certain time (usually five or ten minutes).

Advocacy planning: the preparations of plans or planning proposals and their advocacy by
professionals planners on behalf of an organization, interest group, or community as an alternative or in
opposition to plans, or planning proposals prepared by an official agency.

Agora: the principal public space of a Greek city, which was the commercial and social center of the city.
Meaning-assembly. Earlier the Acropolis had been the center.

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or
Air conditioning: the control of air in a building to a desired temperature and humidity, and its cleaning
and circulation, obtained by means of plants designed and installed for the purpose.
b.
Air pollution: pollution of the air by smoke is caused mainly by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel,
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which emit carbon monoxide, fine carbonaceous particles, and tarry droplets.
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Apartment: a building, generally of several stories, contains a number of separate dwellings with a
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common entrance from the street and often with services like heating and lighting in common.
hi

Activity analysis: activity analysis is studies concerned with patterned ways in which households, firms,
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and various other institutional entities pursue their affairs in time and space. These studies classify entity
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systems into subsystems, and they identify pattern in the flow of activities or transactions of each system
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as it evolves in time and space.

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Aqueduct: - a duct or conduit for conveying water from place to place but commonly regarded as an
elevated structure carrying the duct.
Arcade: - a series of arches- as distinct from lintels- supported on columns such as is seen in medieval
cloisters, the interiors of basilicas and churches and in Renaissance piazzas.

BIOTECHNIC: - This and other similar terms (paleotechnic) were coined by Patric Geddes. All the terms
apply to modern technology and its effect on economic and social life.
Lewis Mum ford------------techniques and civilization.
The culture of cities.

BLIGHT: some times called ‘PLANNING BLIGHT’ but among planner often referred to simply as blight. It
stems from depreciation in the value of land and buildings as the result of planning proposals or planned
development. This happens when
Alternative planning proposals for public discussion.
Where a specific, confirmed proposal.
Blight can be regarded as the opposite of ‘betterment’.
Pavements: 1:50 minimum slope of is desirable for most paved surfaces.
Path=0.9m, two abreast-2.2m, three abreast-3.2m
Ramp: an inclined plane-footway or roadway—connecting two levels.

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Reclamation: in connection with land use, reclamation means in its widest sense, the recovery or
conversion of land mainly agricultural purposed but occasionally also for construction purposes.
Recreation: is the process where by individuals and communities renew and refresh themselves by
pleasant occupants, amusements and entertains both physical and mental after work or study.

Ribbon development: urban spread along main roads, especially those leading to a city. The practice of
building on either side of a main transport route has been common since the Middle Ages, and many
Villages and towns have arises on this way.

Building along transport routes is related to one form of the linear city.
Radial plan: a development of radiating roads from a city centres, with urban accretions along the roads.
It is a plan that results from natural uncontrolled haphazard growth. But it often forms the bias of good
planning of combined with concentric ring roads, in which the spider-web plan evolves.

Scale: the term scale as applied to the appearance of a building describes a quality of the relationship
between dimensional of the building. And its components and the modest range of dimensions and
distances implied by the size of a human being and by his physical limitations, that is, the ‘ human scale’.
Building must also be in scale with their surroundings and other buildings.
At 1200m heights human form is just detectable.
25m a person are recognizable.
15m his face is fully discernable.
1-3m,direct and significant human relationship.
When the height: distance ratio is

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or
1:4, 14 relatively small
1:3 with an 18 cone of vision object is visible. b.
1:2, 30--comprehensible.
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1:1, 40--strong experience.

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Sculpture: in addition to public monuments in appropriate places in cities and towns, sculpture is often
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introduced to provide decorative items of interest so, as can be seen in some of the new urban areas in
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Germany…
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Semeiology: the modern science of Semeiology is concerned with the meaning of signs and forms that
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appear and are employed in all social activities.

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Space: urban design, like architecture, is partly an art of enclosing space; and the proportion or area of
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space in relation to building, the relationship of voids to solids, often greatly contributes to the success or
failure of an urban development.
Piazza san petro--------Rome.
Place de concorde Paris
Champ de mars Paris.
They are kept, as valuable urban space because they have been traditionally used for various
recreational civic and religious purposes, because the aesthetic result is pleasurable and become it is
satisfactory to keep them so despite the fact that their practical usefulness has decreased.

Suburbs and suburban growth: suburbs are the compactly developed and developing areas
surrounding the central city in a metropolitan area. These areas are distinguished from the central city by
their more homogeneous socioeconomic and physical character, although they are seldom as unvaried
as they are pictured in much current literature.

Twilight area: an area, commonly adjacent to or even surrounding a city center, which the need for
redevelopment is considerable where buildings are in poor condition and decrepit in appearance and
where the whole environment is run down and deteriorate.
These areas are areas of transition.
Ziggurat: an ancient Babylonian and Assyrian structure like a stepped pyramid, with a temple at the top
and approached by a processional way.

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