Air Compressors

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Graph of Pressure against volume in a reciprocating compressor
Volumetric efficiency Vh = Actual suction volume Vx/
Theoretical suction volume Vs
For greater efficiency air compression should be isothermal as this requires the minimum
work input. In practice Isothermal compression is not possible, an ideal Isothermal cycle
requires sufficient time to allow all the required heat to be transferred out of the cylinder,
practicality dictates that the piston must have a relatively high speed to give a reasonable
output,
Cylinder cooling on a single stage compressor gives better efficiency but there is a
limitation in the surface area to cylinder volume that can be used for cooling effect, but
multistage compressors with an efficient extended surface interstage cooler gives cycle
improved compression efficiency better approaching that of the isothermal. In theory the
greater the number of stages the closer the curve will approach the ideal isothermal
compression curve, however there is an increase in cost, complexity, and the law of
diminishing returns limit the number.
Compression in stages has the following advantages;
The compression ratio at each stage is lower and so the final temperature is lower. This
reduces problems with lubrication
. The machine is smaller and better balanced
water can be drained off at each stage
Compression better approaches the ideal isothermal
It is important that the compressor clearance volume is kept small as possible in order to
improve overall volumetric efficiency as the air trapped in this space must expand to
below suction pressure before new air can enter, this is an effective loss of stroke.
A clearance is required in order to prevent the piston striking the cylinder cover when
starting or stopping off load. The clearance volume is sometimes referred to as the 'Bump
Clearance'.
Crankcase lubrication
Lubrication of the crankcase in a compressor does not pose any specific problems and
normally consist of splash lubrication with pressurised oil being fed to shell bearings.
Where drip cylinder lubrication is used, this should be kept to a minimum conducive with
liner wear. A standard mineral oil similar to that used in the main engine may be used,
although due to carbon deposits, higher quality oils are generally used with the most
effective being specifically designed synthetics which have allow a considerable
reduction in maintenance but are costly.
Mineral oils contain a blend of lighter elements such as paraffin's, and heavier elements
such as asphaltenes. During compression the lighter elements are vaporised leaving the
heavy ends, these coat the piston rings and discharge valves in combination with oxidised
oil deposits. These deposits also coat passage ways and coolers resulting in higher
interstage air temperatures. Deposits on discharge valves cause them to become sticky
and leak resulting in hot air being drawn back into the cylinder for recompression. This
increases the temperature and hence causes greater oxidation and deposits, and so the
condition deteriorates with increasing rapidity.
Temperature can become very high, this may result in oily deposits at the discharge
valves carbonising. Eventually this carbon could glow red and cause detonation. It is
more likely, however, that oily deposits will be carried over to the air receiver and air
start manifold to be ignited by blowpast at the cylinder air start valve.
Deposits at piston rings cause leakage allowing oil to enter the cylinder from the
crankcase thus increasing the danger it is essential that crankcase lubrication be kept to a
minimum compatible with an acceptable wear rate. Regular maintenance will minimise
oily deposits build up and hence the risk of explosion
Materials and design of a reciprocating compressor
The compressor casing, cylinder covers and piston rings are generally of cast iron.
Pistons may be of cast iron, steel of aluminium. Aluminium being the preferred material
for use on the LP piston due to its larger diameter. Valves are usually made so that parts
can be interchanged between the suction and discharge valves. Seats are of mild steel
with small diameter air passages to prevent the fragments of broken valve plate from
entering the cylinder. Valve plates are of vanadium steel heat treated and ground to
provided the required hardness and surface finish. Springs should be arranged such that
they lift and seat squarely. Uneven spring force or deposits on the seat cause valves to
bend resulting in fatigue cracking.
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For compressors designed for starting air requirements a water jacket relief valve is fitted.
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Rotary Compressor
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The rotary compressor may be of the impeller type similar to that used in the
turbocharger , scroll, twin rotating lobes or of the sliding vane type similar to the one
shown above. In practice there would be several more vanes than shown.
Rotary compressors are capable of handling large quantities of low pressure air much
more efficiently than a reciprocating compressor. In order to produce increased pressures
it is possible to stage rotary compressors but leakage problems increase at higher
pressures as well as stress on the vanes.
The sliding vane compressor consists of a slotted rotor with its axis offset from that of the
cylindrical casing. Vanes fit in the slots and have contact with the casing
On the suction side the space contained between the casing, the rotor and an adjacent pair
of vanes is gradually increasing allowing air to be drawn in.
On the compression side this same space is gradually reduced causing the pressure
increase. When the leading vane uncovers the discharge port air will flow to outlet.
Larger compressors of this type are water-cooled, smaller compressors tend to be air
cooled.
The main problems related with sliding vane compressors concern wear at the vane tips
and sealing of the ends
Rotary/reciprocating Compressor
Rotary compressors in general do not require internal lubrication but they are not suitable
alone for providing air at a pressure for starting duties. They can, however, be linked to
reciprocating stages to produce a hybrid compressor.
The compressor is lighter, more compact and better balanced than an equivalent all
reciprocating unit. In basic terms the rotary first stage supplies air to the reciprocating
second and subsequent stages. All stages being driven by the same shaft
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Safety Valve
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Materials

Cast iron-Casing, Liners, Pistons( the LP piston is sometimes made from an

aluminium alloy, Cylinder covers Steel- Crankshaft, Conrods, Pistons, Valve seats
Vanadium Steel- Valve plates

Starting air compressor circuit

Starting and stopping sequence is adjustable, the magnetic valves are open when
the compressor is stopped so any residual pressure is blown off. On starting the
magnetic valve are sometimes delayed to close so as to allow the compressor motor
to reach full speed before the compressor is loaded up.

The non-return valves prevent HP air leaking back from the receiver
on which the filling is also of the non return type.

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Calculation of required cylinder compression for a multistage

reciprocating compressor

r = stage pressure ratio

R = compression pressure ratio
for a two stage
r = R1/2

for a three stage

r = R1/3

for example, a 3 stage compressor requiring a final pressure of 64bar

would have the following interstage pressures 1st stage 1bar compressed to 4bar
2nd stage 4bar compressed to 16bar
3rd stage 16bar compressed to 64bar

It would appear that most of the work is being carried out in the final
stage, this is untrue as with the increase in pressure is a complimentary reduction in
volume, if the temperature conditions remain the same then work will be equally
divided between the stages.

By reducing the suction pressure, the cylinder is required to do more

work on the air before the discharge valve opens. This means that the air will be
delivered at a higher pressure. The higher temperature can lead to problems with
the cylinder lubrication as well as a drop in efficiency as well as carbonising of the
oil and increased deposits on the valves and piston rings and interstage passages. In
the extreme it can lead to seizure and possible diesel detonation of the oil laden air.

The reduction in pressure at the suction can be due to a partially

blocked suction filter or partially choked suction valve. The lower pressure
conditions in the cylinder at the start of compression can cause oil laden air to be
drawn from the crankcase up the liner. This oil can lead to increased deposits in the
compressor as well as further downstream in the distribution system

(P1.V1)/ T1 = (P2. V2)/T2

and

(P1/P2).(T2/T1) = (V2/V1)

P1.V1g = P2.V2g

and

P1/P2 = V2g/V1g From these we get;

T2 = T1. (P2/P1) (g -1)/g
g = 1.4
and if we take for and example
P1 = 0.4 bar
P2 = 1 bar
Pf = 5 bar
Tinitial = 300 K we end with final temperatures for the two compression's of
T1= 617 K and T2 = 475 K
from the graph it can be clearly seen that losses due to the bump clearance has
increased and the period of constant pressure delivery has been reduced.

Coolers

 Plain Tube-
  -easy to clean
 -very effective due to large surface area of large number small
diameter tubes
 -plugging of failed tube allos cooler to continue in service with little
loss in efficiency
 -must allow for thermal expansion by having one tube plate floating
 'U' tube-
 -suitable for higher pressures than plain tube
 -self compensating for thermal expansion
 -efficent due to large nomber small diameter tubes
 -failed tubes may be plugged
 -more expensive than plain tube and diificult to clean
 Coil tube
 -self compensating for expansion
 -suitable for high pressures
 -difficult to clean
 -inefficicent due to large tube diameter
 - not easy to plug
 -expensive

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 Air Start Systems
Regulations
1. There must be at least two starting air receivers, the total capacity of which will
give 12 starts for a reversing engine or 6 starts fo a non-reversing engine with
CPP.
2. There must be at least two compressors
3. In addition to these there must be a compressor which can be started by hand i.e.
with a dead ship. Note: this is not necessary if one of the compressors is run off
the emergency switchboard
4.
i. A relief valve must be fitted to the HP discharge and be sufficient size to
ensure that the pressure rise does not exceed 10% of the w.p. when the
compressor is running and the outlet valves on the bottle are shut.
ii. A relief valve or bursting disc on the hp cooler casing in order to protect the
casing from overpressure in the event of cooler tube failure Note: Bursting
discs are generally preferred because they fail and stay failed giving
complete protection. A relief valve will reseat when the compressor is
stopped allowing water to enter the air side.
iii. A drain must be fitted at each stage

Diesel start air system

The components of the air start system are taken to include compressors and
storage bottles in addition to the engine air start arrangement. The minimum
of tow compressors should be matched to the starting air requirements of the
engine. The compressor after coolers should be protected by a bursting disc.
All high pressure lines in the system to be of solid drawn pipe.

Air Receivers
There must be a means of access to allow cleaning and inspection of internals.
The internal surface should be protected by a coating which is flexible enough
to move when the metal distorts. Copal varnish is generally used because it
has these properties and willnot easily oxidise. Usually precautions are taken
the same as for an enclosed space when entering. Ventilation is required to the
solvent fumes in the varnish

Drains must be fitted in the lowest part of the receiver

Receivers must be protected by means of a relief valve, if the relief

valve can be isolated from the reciever than a fusible plug or plugs must be
fited. These are usually fitted because in the event of a fire near to the bottle
they will fail and release the entire contents of the bottle rapidly. A relief valve
however will only release air down to its closing pressure which is set point less
blowdown. If the structure of the bottle becomes weakened by the heat then
its ability to withstand even the reduced pressure is weakened an possible
rupture could occur.

The inlet and outlet valves are to be arranged to prevent direct

flow through the bottle with insufficient residence time for moisture to
rpecipitate. Valves to be of the slow opening type to prevent excessive
pressure rises. All attachments should be via a support plate

Safety devices
The automatic valve (Main air start block valve) prevents connection between
the air receiver and air start manifold unless actually in the process of starting.

This minimises the risk of an explosion in the air manifold actually

propagating back to the air receiver where a much more severe explosion is
possible. Safety devices are encorporated in the air start manifold in order to
dissapate the energy of an explosion thus keeping its effects local.
 Such devices include flame traps, relief valves and bursting discs

Loss
of air can be kept to a minimum by rotating moveable outer hood to blank off
relief ports. The failed cap should be replaced as soon as possible.

Starting air explosions

Causes-continuous leaking of start valve followed by it sticking open on start.

An oil film may build up on the start air pipe due to oil dscharge
from the compressor. This oil may come from general lubrication or sticky
scraper ring or from the engine room air,

With a continuous leaking valve hot gasses with unburnt fuel will
enter the pipe and turn the oil film into a hot incandescent carbon. When high
pressure air is put on the pipe line an explosion can occur with resultant high
speed high pressure shock wave.

Alternately, air discharged into cylinder during starting may have

an oil mist which can ignite in a hot cylinder. The hot gasses can return
through the start valve. To prevent this the non return valve should be
properly maintained, oil discharge from the compresors should be kept to a
minmum and pipelines inspected nad cleaned when necessary.

To minimise effects a flame gauze should be fitted to the start

valve and ample relief valves, bursting discs or caps fitted. An isolated valve on
the discharge side of the manouervring control valve.

Starting air valve.

Starting Air Regulations

First start requirements
Equipment for starting the main and auxiliary engines is to be provided so that
the necessary initial charge of starting air or initial electric power can be
developed on board ship without external aid. If for this purpose an emergency
air compressor or electric generator is required, these units are to be power
driven by hand starting oil engine or steam engine, except in the case of small
installations where a hand operated compressor of approved capacity may be
accepted. Alternatively, other devices of approved type may be accepted as a
means of providing the initial start
 Air Compressor requirements

Air Compressor number and capacities

Two or more air compressors are to be fitted having a total capacity, together
with a topping-up compressor where fitted, capable of charging the air
receivers within 1 hour from atmospheric pressure, to the pressure sufficient
for the number of starts require At least one of the air compressors is to be
independent of the main propulsion unit and the capacity of the main air
compressors is to be approximately equally divided between them. The
capacity of an emergency compressor which may be installed to satisfy the
requirements of first start is to be ignored.

Maximum discharge air temperature

The compressors are to be so designed that the temperature of the air

discharged to the starting air receivers will not substantially exceed 93'C in
service. A small fusible plug or an alarm device operating at 121°C is to be
provided on each compressor to give warning of excessive air temperature.
The emergency air compressor is excepted from these requirements.

Safety Valves

Each compressor is to be fitted with a safety valve so proportioned and

adjusted that the accumulation with the outlet valve closed will not exceed 10
per cent of the maximum working pressure. The casings of the cooling water
spaces are to be fitted with a safety valve or bursting disc so that ample relief
will be provided in the event of the bursting of an air cooler tube. It is
recommended that compressors be cooled by fresh water.

Air Receiver requirements

Air Receiver capacity

Where the main engine is arranged for air starting the total air receiver
capacity is to be sufficient to provide without replenishment, not less than 12
consecutive starts of the main engine, alternating between ahead and astern if
of the reversible type and not less than six consecutive starts if of the non-
reversible type. At least two air receivers of approximately equal capacity are
to be provided. For scantlings and fittings of air receivers

For multi-engine installations, the number of starts required for

each engine will be specially considered.