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MODULE 2
Sub Module 2.3
THERMODYNAMICS
Contents
Fig. 2.58
Temperature
There are formulas that allow us the conversion among the
temperature scales. These are:
Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness or coldness of
a body.
o
F = 1.8 × oC + 32
Fig. 2.59
In some situations a thermometer must respond quickly to Figure 2.61 shows a typical thermocouple.
changes of temperature, and it may be necessary to read the
thermometer with remotely placed measuring equipment. For
example, the temperature inside a nuclear reactor is read from Thermistor
instruments in one building connected to the temperature probe
in the reactor in a different building.
The electrical conductivity of materials varies with temperature.
A thermistor is an electronic component where the change in
There are various types of thermometer used for measuring resistance with temperature is used to measure temperature.
temperature.
Fig. 2.60
Fig. 2.62
Fig. 2.61
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PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 2 – PHYSICS
Category “B2” Basic Sub Module 2.3 – Thermodynamics
Mercury-in-glass Thermometer
So, what would be the most suitable instrument for measuring
temperatures in a gas turbine aircraft engine?
The commonest type of thermometer is the mercury in glass
thermometer. The change in the volume of mercury, due to
change in temperature, results in a proportional change in Firstly, the instrument needs to produce an electrical signal so
length of the mercury column. This is measured on a scale that the information can be fed into the aircraft’s electronic
marked in units of temperature, as shown in the figure 2.63. systems. Secondly, the instrument has to be capable of working
across a wide range of temperatures. For these reasons
thermocouples are used.
Since the freezing point of mercury is about -39C, and the
boiling point +357C at standard pressure, this thermometer is
not used for temperatures much above 300C or below -30C.
For temperatures below -39C, thermometers containing alcohol
may be used.
Pyrometer
Fig. 2.63
Fig. 2.64
Convection
Fig. 2.65
G – 2.1
Problem 2.5
∆L = Lo × α × ∆T
Lo = Original length
benzene 40.33
methanol 15.63
Fig. 2.65
Perfect gas
The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic properties
of a gas (pressure, density, temperature etc.) to the microscopic
behaviour of its particles (speed, mass, kinetic energy etc.). A “perfect” gas is one that behaves in an idealised way. For
Certain assumptions are made about gas molecules. These example, if a perfect gas is cooled at constant pressure, its
assumptions lead to a model of a perfect (idealised) gas that volume is proportional to its absolute temperature. For many
helps us to understand the behaviour of real gases like air. The purposes air and other common gases can be regarded as a
assumptions include: perfect gases. Vapours such as steam cannot.
There are no bonds between gas molecules. The only force For a fixed mass of perfect gas:
exerted by one gas molecule on another occurs when two
molecules collide.
pV = mRT
Even in a small volume of gas there is very large number of Note that temperatures MUST be written in the Kelvin scale.
molecules. Even in a very short period of time a great many Likewise, all other quantities should be written in SI units.
collisions occur between molecules.
Notes:
Problem 2.6
Constant volume process
Thermodynamic Processes As there is no change in the volume, the net work done in a
constant volume process is equal to zero.
Fig. 2.66
In this case the gas has been heated. It might be useful to think Constant temperature
of the gas as being trapped in a cylinder by a moveable piston.
Work may be done in a constant pressure process. This is sometimes called “Boyle’s Law”.
In a constant pressure heating process, is work done ON or BY The P-v diagram below in the figure 2.68 shows the same gas
the gas? compressed (or expanded) at different temperatures. The lines
are called isotherms.
When the gas is heated its molecules gain kinetic energy. They
move around more quickly causing incremental increases in the
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Category “B2” Basic Sub Module 2.3 – Thermodynamics
Fig. 2.67
Fig. 2.68
Adiabatic
In an adiabatic process, no heat is transferred between the Thus, the comparison of all the discussed thermodynamic
working fluid and its surroundings. process can be seen in a single P-v diagram in the figure 2.70.
On the other hand, perhaps the piston is moved slowly and the
piston and cylinder are very good conductors of heat, allowing
thermal equilibrium to be maintained between and the gas and
its surroundings. They will then remain at the same
temperature. The interaction between the working fluid and its
environment is different. This is an isothermal process.
Fig. 2.69
Fig. 2.70
Fig. 2.71
First Law: The first law is often called the Law of Conservation
of Energy. This law suggests that energy can be transferred
from one system to another; however it cannot be created nor
destroyed. Therefore the total amount of energy available in the
universe is constant.
Notes: