Ap R249 04 PDF

AP-R249
REVIEW OF AIR QUALITY

MODELS FOR ROADS
AUSTROADS
REVIEW OF AIR QUALITY MODELS FOR ROADS
Review of Air Quality Models for Roads
First Published 2011
© Austroads Inc. 2011
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968,
no part may be reproduced by any process without the prior written permission of Austroads.
National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

ISBN 0 85588 697 8
Austroads Project No.T&E.E.N.531
Austroads Publication No. AP-R249/04
Project Manager
Steve Isles, RTA NSW
Prepared by
Evan Styles, Neil Houghton, Craig Lester – ARRB TR
Kerry Holmes – Holmes Air Sciences
William Physick, Martin Cope – CSIRO Atmospheric Research
Working Group
Steve Isles, RTA NSW
Geoff Cook, DIPE NT
Jed Gillian, DIER Tas
Robert Howard, MR WA
Matthew Kinch, DUS ACT
Sharon MacDonnell, VicRoads
Peter Makeham, NTC
Lisa Rossiter, TNZ
Kieran Sharp, ARRB TR
Robin Stone, DMR Qld
Anne Welsh, DTUP SA
Published by Austroads Incorporated

Level 9, Robell House
287 Elizabeth Street
Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 9264 7088
Fax: +61 2 9264 1657
Email: austroads@austroads.com.au
www.austroads.com.au
Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept responsibility for
any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
REVIEW OF AIR QUALITY MODELS FOR ROADS
Sydney 2004
AUSTROADS PROFILE
Austroads is the association of Australian and New Zealand road transport and traffic authorities whose
purpose is to contribute to the achievement of improved Australian and New Zealand transport related
outcomes by:
 developing and promoting best practice for the safe and effective management and use of the road
system
 providing professional support and advice to member organisations and national and international
bodies
 acting as a common vehicle for national and international action
 fulfilling the role of the Australian Transport Council’s Road Modal Group
 undertaking performance assessment and development of Australian and New Zealand standards
 developing and managing the National Strategic Research Program for roads and their use.
Within this ambit, Austroads aims to provide strategic direction for the integrated development, management
and operation of the Australian and New Zealand road system — through the promotion of national
uniformity and harmony, elimination of unnecessary duplication, and the identification and application of
world best practice.
AUSTROADS MEMBERSHIP
Austroads membership comprises the six State and two Territory road transport and traffic authorities and
the Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services in Australia, the Australian Local
Government Association and Transit New Zealand. It is governed by a council consisting of the chief
executive officer (or an alternative senior executive officer) of each of its eleven member organisations:
 Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales

 Roads Corporation Victoria
 Department of Main Roads Queensland
 Main Roads Western Australia
 Department of Transport and Urban Planning South Australia
 Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources Tasmania
 Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment Northern Territory
 Department of Urban Services Australian Capital Territory
 Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services
 Australian Local Government Association
 Transit New Zealand
The success of Austroads is derived from the synergies of interest and participation of member organisations
and others in the road industry.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ARRB Transport Research, in conjunction with Holmes Air Sciences and CSIRO Division of Atmospheric
Research, have been engaged by Austroads to report on the use of air quality models in Australia. The
purpose of Austroads project T&E.E.N.531 is to determine the state of the art in regional and local air quality
modelling within Australia as applied to road transport projects, and to provide recommendations for the way
forward to address future modelling requirements. This report discusses the strengths and limitations of
different models; assesses the effectiveness and applicability of different models for Road Authority use; and
examines the requirements for regional and roadside air quality modelling.
The report introduces the generic types of air quality models available for modelling the local and regional
scale impacts of transport projects. The uncertainties associated with air quality models are also discussed.
A number of air quality models have been identified as currently available, applicable to road projects, and in
use in Australia. The report includes a brief literature review of the following air quality models:
 GM Line Model
 HIWAY-2
 CALINE-4
 AUSROADS
 AUSPLUME and ISC
 AUSPUFF / CALPUFF
 TAPM and LWM
A review of the state of the art in air quality modelling in Australia has been undertaken and is included in
this report. This review was carried out using information derived from a survey of road authorities and
practitioners in the field, including consultants and regulating bodies. The responses are considered a
reasonable representation of the state of knowledge and the manner in which these models are currently
applied in Australia.
A number of conclusions have emerged from this study, including an understanding of which models are
most commonly in use in Australia, their limitations and suitability. These are discussed in the conclusions
section of the report.
The final section of the report includes a number of recommendations for future research and developments
that have been identified during the course of this study as a means of moving the roadside air quality
modelling field forward.
Appendices are included providing the following:
 Detailed technical description of air quality models at CSIRO Atmospheric Research;
 Questionnaires and responses from industry survey;
 Contact details for air quality personnel in Road Authorities;
 A selection of useful information sources;
 A brief proposed specification for upgrade of the CALPUFF model.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................ 1
2. AIR QUALITY MODELLING ..................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Types Of Air Pollution Models ............................................................................................................................................. 2
2.2.1 Gaussian Models ................................................................................................................ 2
2.2.2 Lagrangian Models ............................................................................................................. 3
2.2.3 Advanced Eulerian Models ................................................................................................. 3
3. REVIEW OF EXISTING MODELS APPLICABLE TO ROAD PROJECTS .............................................. 5
3.1 Introduction to Selected Models ......................................................................................................................................... 5
3.1.1 GM Line Model.................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.2 HIWAY-2 ............................................................................................................................. 6
3.1.3 CALINE-4 ............................................................................................................................ 6
3.1.4 Austroads ............................................................................................................................ 7
3.1.5 AUSPLUME and ISC .......................................................................................................... 7
3.1.6 AUSPUFF / CALPUFF ........................................................................................................ 8
3.1.7 Air Quality Models at CSIRO Atmospheric Research ........................................................ 8
3.2 Other Models ......................................................................................................................................................................... 9
3.3 MODEL UNCERTAINTIES ............................................................................................................................................................ 9
3.3.1 CSIRO model validation study .......................................................................................... 10
3.4 NSW RTA model validation study ..................................................................................................................................... 10
3.4.1 Freeways and arterial roads ............................................................................................. 13
3.4.2 Toll plazas and noise barriers ........................................................................................... 13
3.4.3 Valley studies .................................................................................................................... 14
3.4.4 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 14
4. REVIEW OF CURRENT PRACTICE IN THE USE OF AIR QUALITY MODELS IN AUSTRALIA........ 15
4.1 RESULTS OF CONSULTANTS QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Results of Road Authorities Questionnaire ..................................................................................................................... 16
5. CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 17
6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS ..................................... 19
7. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 20
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................................. 22
APPENDIX A NEAR ROAD AIR QUALITY MODELS AT CSIRO ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH .............. 23
APPENDIX B CONSULTANTS AND ROAD AUTHORITIES QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................ 34
APPENDIX C RESULTS OF CONSULTANTS QUESTIONNAIRE .............................................................. 37
APPENDIX D ROAD AUTHORITIES QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................. 43
APPENDIX E ROAD AUTHORITY AIR QUALITY CONTACTS ................................................................... 47
APPENDIX F USEFUL INFORMATION SOURCES ..................................................................................... 48
APPENDIX G PROPOSED CHANGES TO CALPUFF ................................................................................. 49
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TABLES
Table 3-1:. Summary of Air Quality Models .................................................................................................... 5
Table 3-2: Comparison of Maximum Measured Concentrations with Predicted Values as in
EIS Approach .............................................................................................................................. 12
Table 4-1: Road Authority Use of Air Quality Models .................................................................................. 16
Table 5-1: Summary of Recommended Models........................................................................................... 18
FIGURES
Figure A1: Contours of hourly-averaged ground-level concentrations of ozone at midday from a TAPM
simulation in northwestern Australia. Wind vectors at 10 m are also shown. Land is shaded
green and sea is blue. NOx and VOC emissions from a source on the coastline are
responsible for the ozone. The domain is 60 x 60 km2. ............................................................. 26
Figure A2: Observed (o) and TAPM modelled (+) wind speed, wind direction, and screen temperature
observed at the Port Hedland coastal site, 28 March to 2 April 2000. ....................................... 27
Figure A3: Contours of second highest hourly-averaged concentration of NOx (ppb) modelled by
TAPM for 1999 in the Burrup Peninsula region. Coastline and islands are indicated by
the blue curves. ........................................................................................................................... 27
Figure A4: Schematic diagram illustrating the application of the Lagrangian Wall Model (LWM).
The model moves with the wind across a grid square(s) of a larger-scale model,
taking account of emissions from small-scale sources such as roads and point sources. ........ 29
Figure A5: Screen dump of the LWM graphical user interface. ................................................................... 30
Figure A6: LWM predicted concentration distribution (scalar release- relative concentration units)
downwind of a simple road network. The dotted line indicates the wall trajectory.
Wall transit times are also listed. ................................................................................................ 31
Figure A7: Left- Trajectory taken by the Lagrangian Wall Model as it is advected inland over urban
Sydney for a photochemical smog event in 1997. Right - observed (error bars) and predicted
(solid lines) ozone concentrations for the air parcel trajectory defined in the previous plot. ...... 31
Figure A8: Schematic diagram of a near-road modelling system using TAPM and the Lagrangian Wall
Model........................................................................................................................................... 33
AUSTROADS 2004
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1. BACKGROUND
ARRB Transport Research, in conjunction with Holmes Air Sciences and CSIRO Division of Atmospheric
Research, have been engaged by Austroads to report on the use of air quality models in Australia. The
purpose of Austroads project T&E.E.N.531 is to determine the state of the art in regional and local air quality
modelling within Australia as applied to road transport projects, and to provide recommendations for the way
forward to address future modelling requirements. This report discusses the strengths and limitations of
The report includes a brief review of currently available air quality models, and a review of the state of the
art using information derived from a survey of road authorities and practitioners in the field.
The project has addressed the following questions:
 Do currently used line dispersion models adequately assess air quality impacts of road projects on
sensitive receptors not immediately adjacent, but close to, major road projects?
 Are currently used regional models adequate to determine the air quality due to major road network or
traffic changes at sensitive receptors throughout an urban area?
 What local air quality assessment models are in use in Australia and what new developments are in
progress or planned to improve their sensitivity of analysis?
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2. AIR QUALITY MODELLING
2.1 Introduction
Air quality is an environmental issue at the global, regional and local level. At the global level the increase
in greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector continues to contribute to the potential for climate
change. At the regional level, air quality within a metropolitan airshed is an important public health issue. At
the local level, air quality at sensitive receptors (such as schools, hospitals and residential areas) adjacent to
roadsides is also an important public health issue.
The health effects of pollutants include short term (acute) and long term (chronic) effects. The Australian
Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering inquiry into urban air pollution found that transport
activities are the most significant contributor to ambient air pollution in urban areas, with cars and light
commercial vehicles as the dominant source of transport pollutants (AATSE, 1997). At the local level, air
pollutants of most concern include carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, lead, particulate matter,
hydrocarbons and sulphur dioxide. The Australian Automobile Association (AAA) notes that motor vehicles
account for ‘well over half’ the emissions of oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide, and almost half the
emissions of hydrocarbons (AAA, 1996).
For these reasons, air quality modelling is an important aspect of the environmental management of road
transport projects. Road Authorities being asked to assess the air quality impacts of projects typically restrict
such assessment to the vicinity of the road link, via widely used and credible line dispersion models. Such
models usually do not take into account the additive affect of surrounding road links on sensitive receptors
away from the roadside, but rather are limited to assessing impacts in the near vicinity of the roadway.
2.2 Types of air pollution models

In air pollution modelling there are five major physical processes that require simulation. These are pollutant
transport (referred to as advection), diffusion, deposition, chemical reactions and emissions. Different
models simulate these processes with varied degrees of realism. This section provides some broad
background on the different approaches to modelling which will be discussed in this report. All models
require inputs on vehicle emission rates.
2.2.1 Gaussian Models

The most common type of regulatory models are the Gaussian plume models. These models assume that
pollutants disperse from the source in the horizontal and vertical directions, and that the plume increases in
cross section with distance from the source, with the shape of the plume conforming to a Gaussian, or normal
distribution. Gaussian plume models include a plume rise module and a dispersion module which estimates
how a plume spreads as a function of wind speed and atmospheric stability. Pollutants are generally assumed
to be carried on average in a straight line with the prevailing winds. Models may or may not incorporate
factors such as building wakes and terrain effects.
Steady state Gaussian point source models include AUSPLUME (see Section 3.1.5) which is a standard
regulatory plume dispersion model first developed in 1986 in Australia.
Specifically designed Gaussian line source dispersion models, such as CALINE-4 (see Section 3.1.3) and
AUSROADS (see Section 3.1.4) are also called ‘near road’ models since they are limited to assessment areas
close to the roadway. They have limited application for regional air quality assessments as they do not take
account of complex topography, building wakes and complex meteorology. The data needs of these models
include emission rates (measured in g/km), wind speed and direction, vertical dispersion parameter, plume
height, site geometry and atmospheric stability factors.
The advantages of Gaussian plume models are that they are inherently simple, easy to use, require only a
small number of parameters, and generally have a short execution time and robustness from "numerical
error" since they compute an exact solution of a simplified mass conservation equation. However, Gaussian
AUSTROADS 2004
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plume models are limited by the underlying assumptions which typically restrict the application to assume
constant wind (over time and space), and constant turbulence (over time and space). Under low wind speed
conditions, the predictions are poorly defined and they are not equipped to handle secondary or reactive
pollutants, except in a very simplistic way.
Non steady state Gaussian dispersion models (or ‘puff’ models) are also available. Examples include
AUSPUFF, CALPUFF and CITPUFF (see Section 3.1.6). The advantages of ‘puff’ models over plume
models is that they take account of the history of an emission and allow for varying wind and turbulent
conditions over time and space. These models simulate calm conditions more realistically than plume
models. These models may also include wet and dry deposition and simple chemical transformation.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) generally recommends that steady state
Gaussian dispersion models only be used within a 50km radius. Beyond 50km the US EPA recommends the
use of non steady state Gaussian dispersion models because the steady state models are overly conservative.
2.2.2 Lagrangian Models

The definition of a three dimensional system requires a reference frame and this can be either moving or
fixed. A moving reference frame is referred to as Lagrangian and models which treat transport in this way
are referred to as Lagrangian models. Models that use a fixed reference frame are referred to as Eulerian and
while this is used for the simpler models, it is also used in advanced models which will be discussed in more
detail below.
Lagrangian models are based on the calculation of wind trajectories and on the transportation of air parcels
along these trajectories. They are useful in describing dispersion in complex topography. These models may
include first order chemistry (e.g. photochemical smog formation). The Lagrangian Wall Model developed
by CSIRO is an example of a Lagrangian model.
A powerful type of model is the Lagrangian particle model. This class of model computes trajectories of
fluid particles (small volumes of fluid) in a turbulent flow. The flow speed permits the computation of
particles displacement via a differential equation. The advantages of the Lagrangian model include good
precision, small numerical errors, and the ability to include wind and turbulence fields. These models are not
overly computational-intensive (if the number of pollutant sources is limited). The disadvantages include an
inability to take into account the interactions between particles (which means that it is not possible to
represent the chemical reactions between pollutants), and, when many sources are involved the number of
trajectories to compute increases rapidly and the computing time and resources required increases.
For more information on Lagrangian models refer to the following URL: http://reports.eea.eu.int/92-9167-
028-6/en/page001.html.
2.2.3 Advanced Eulerian Models

The advanced Eulerian model uses numerical methods to take account of not only transport of emissions but
the full range of phenomena associated with air pollution, including atmospheric chemistry, dry deposition
and solar radiation. A grid decomposition of the three dimensional spatial domain is undertaken to separate
the domain into elementary volumes. In each elementary volume corresponding to a grid cell, a mass
conservation equation is solved, with an approximate evaluation of the partial derivatives. The advantages of
the model include the ability to take into account all the phenomena involved in air pollution (chemistry, dry
deposition, solar radiation). The disadvantages include a high level of complexity, susceptibility to
numerical errors and long computing times.
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The US EPA Urban Airshed Model (UAM) is a Eulerian 3-dimensional grid photochemical model (see the
following URL: http://www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/urban.html ). TAPM (The Air Pollution Model) developed by
CSIRO is another example of a Eulerian model. TAPM is able to undertake sophisticated 3D modelling of
behaviours in the atmosphere. A series of input databases are used to provide detail relating to meteorology,
terrain, and vegetation. TAPM is an urban scale model that may be applied to local, city and regional areas.
However, it is best suited to larger regional applications. TAPM is discussed in more detail in Appendix A
of this report.
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3. REVIEW OF EXISTING MODELS APPLICABLE TO ROAD PROJECTS

This section reviews a range of existing air quality models which may be applied to roadway projects. These
models take account of the way in which traffic emissions disperse under a range of meteorological
conditions including wind speed and direction, and atmospheric stability class1. As discussed above, the
Gaussian models assume that the profile of pollutant concentration, in cross-wind sections through the
plume, can be described by a Gaussian equation. Table 3-1 provides a summary of each of the air quality
models reviewed.
Table 3-1. Summary of Air Quality Models
Model Type Name of Model Application

Gaussian (Steady State) Suitable for use in open, flat terrain.
GM Line
Line Source Model Within 100m of roadway.
Gaussian (Steady State), At grade and cut section highways in simple terrain
HIWAY-2
Point Source Model (no buildings or large trees).
Designed for predicting dispersion of road
CALINE Series traffic emissions. Intersections, parking lots,
Gaussian (Steady State)
(eg. CALINE-4), multi-link roads. At grade, fill, cut sections and bridges. Realistic
Line Source Model
AUSROADS Assessment are generally restricted to within 100
metres of the road (approximately).
Small study areas (typical area 10-40 km
Gaussian (Steady State)
AUSPLUME, ISC square). Not currently suitable for simulating roadway
Point Source Model
emissions.
Not currently suitable for simulating roadway
emissions without modification. The line source
Gaussian algorithms are not specifically tailored to roadway
AUSPUFF, CALPUFF
(Non Steady State) emissions. Modelling as a series of volume sources
is an option but experience shows that the predicted
near-road impacts are not realistic.
LWM suitable for modelling at both near-road (local)

Lagrangian Model LWM
and urban scales when nested within TAPM.
Advanced Eulerian Model

TAPM Urban scale
(Point, Line, Area, Volume sources)
3.1 Introduction to Selected Models

The GM Line, HIWAY and CALINE models have all been used in Australia to assess dispersion in the
vicinity of roadways.
1
In dispersion modelling stability class is used to categorise the rate at which a plume will disperse. In the Pasquill-Gifford stability
class assignment scheme (as used by most models referred to in this study) there are six stability classes, A through to F. Class A relates
to unstable conditions, such as might be found on a sunny day with light winds. In such conditions plumes will spread rapidly. Class F
relates to stable conditions, such as occur at night when the sky is clear, the winds are light and an inversion is present. Plume spreading
is slow in these circumstances. The intermediate classes B, C, D and E relate to intermediate dispersion conditions.
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3.1.1 GM Line model

The GM Line model, (also referred to as “Chock” after the name of its developer) was developed by the
CSIRO according to the prescription of Chock (1978). It is a simple line source model suitable for use in
open terrain. The GM Line model is a steady state Gaussian model which can be used to determine half
hourly or hourly average exhaust concentration within a hundred metres from a road on relatively flat terrain.
The model allows for plume rise due to heated exhaust emissions which can be important when the cross
wind speed is very low. It also uses a set of dispersion curves which reflect the influence of traffic induced
turbulence.
Data requirements include the emission rate per unit length of each lane, the number of lanes on each road,
the location of receptors and receptor heights. Other parameters required are emission buoyancy flux,
ambient stability conditions, ambient wind and its direction relative to the road.
3.1.2 HIWAY-2
The HIWAY-2 model is a steady state Gaussian point source model which can be used to determine
concentrations at receptor locations down wind of “at grade” and “cut section” highways located in relatively
uncomplicated terrain. The model is applicable for any wind direction, highway orientation and receptor
location. The model was developed for situations where horizontal wind flow dominates the dispersion
process. The model cannot be used for situations involving complex terrain or large obstructions to air flow
such as buildings or large trees.
The data input requirements include uniform emission rates by lane, roadway end points, height of emission,
width and number of lanes, and width of the centre strip. Also required are a set of hourly meteorological
data on wind speed (at two metres), wind direction (at two metres), mixing height and Pasquill-Gifford
stability class.
3.1.3 CALINE-4
CALINE-4 (CAlifornia LINE source dispersion model version 4) is a Gaussian line source model developed
by the Californian Department of Transport and is the latest in a series of models. See the following URL:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/air/index.htm. CALINE-4 is designed for predicting dispersion of road traffic
emissions and for assessing air quality impacts near transportation facilities. It can determine concentrations
at receptor locations downwind of “at grade”, “fill”, “bridges” and “cut section” highways located in
relatively uncomplicated terrain.
The model is applicable for any wind direction, highway orientation and receptor location. It has
adjustments for averaging time and surface roughness and can handle up to 20 links and 20 receptors. It also
contains an algorithm for deposition of particle settling so that particle concentrations can be estimated. It is
able to simulate street canyons, intersections, parking lots, multi-link roads and the reaction of nitrogen
oxides with ambient ozone.
The data input requirements are: user supplied information on up to 20 links classed as “at grade”, “fill”,
“bridge” or “depressed section”. The user specifies the coordinates of the end points of each link, the traffic
volume, emission factor, source height and mixing zone width. Also required are meteorological data on
wind speed, wind angle measured in degrees clockwise from the y axis, stability class, mixing height,
ambient concentration of pollution (background to the highway). Output includes prediction of the
concentration at each receptor for the specified meteorological condition.
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CALINE-4 employs a mixing zone concept to characterise pollutant dispersion over the roadway. Typically,
vehicle emission rates are determined using a model such as Mobile5a (see, for example,
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/mobile.htm) which uses 8 vehicle classes and generates fleet-average emission
factors for a calendar year for each pollutant and process (eg. exhaust, evaporation). Correction factors are
applied in Mobile5a to adjust for temperature and speed. A version of the CALINE series of models,
CAL3QHCR, (CALINE3 with queuing and hot spot calculations) is used to model delays and queues at
signalised intersections and requires local meteorological data. CALINE-4 does not use “real”
meteorological data but models single hours with meteorological conditions specified by the user (usually
“worst-case”). This raises difficulties with the assessment of impacts of pollutants with long-term goals.
3.1.4 AUSROADS
AUSROADS is a simple line source Gaussian plume dispersion model developed by the Victorian EPA that
predicts the near road impact of vehicle emissions in relatively uncomplicated terrain. The methodology is
based on the US CALINE-4 model. Austroads has increased the number of links and receptor locations that
can be modelling. Meteorological information can be read into the program from an external file. Road
geometry, traffic density and emission rates and receptor location information can now be entered either
directly from the graphical user interface or read from external files. Predicted concentrations are available as
text output, as data files suitable for graphical contouring packages or as a file containing hourly estimates
which can be processed to provide further statistical information.
3.1.5 AUSPLUME and ISC

AUSPLUME (EPA, 1986) is a Gaussian dispersion model developed for the Victorian EPA based on the
United States Industrial Source Complex (ISC) model (see http://www.epa.gov/scram001/tt22.htm#isc ).
AUSPLUME is widely used in Australia and is a good “all round” model which has been the subject of
validation studies with pure chemicals, and found to predict to within a factor of two. AUSPLUME is a
standard Gaussian plume regulatory dispersion model in Australia.
AUSPLUME is a simple model and has simplified data needs. It is readily available and is low cost.
AUSPLUME is generally used for small study areas (typical area 10-40 km square). AUSPLUME assumes
simple steady state meteorology (ie. wind the same at every point in the region) and is not able to model
chemical transformations. The model works by calculating the ground-level concentration at a grid of
receptors for each hour of data in the meteorological file, taking into account wind speed, wind direction,
stability class, temperature and mixing height. The highest level predicted at each receptor is then used for
contour plots which represent the maximum predicted levels over the whole area and for the whole of the
meteorological data set.
The data requirements of AUSPLUME include characteristics of the source (location, height and diameter of
the stack, width of an area source, temperature, emission rates and exit velocities), meteorological data
(temperature, wind direction & speed, atmospheric stability and mixing heights), receptor locations, and
topographical data (ground elevations of both the source and receptors).
AUSPLUME estimates particle deposition onto the ground and can consider the effects of terrain on the
plume. Since buildings influence the dispersion of the majority of industrial emissions to the air,
AUSPLUME simulates the effects of building wakes on the dispersion of elevated plumes.
The latest version of AUSPLUME, Version 5, includes the capability to read hourly varying emission rates
or source characteristics from an external text file, capability to read hourly varying background
concentrations, estimation of the impact of building wakes, and improved particle deposition and area source
algorithms. The default regulatory mode has been modified to include upgraded algorithms including the
PRIME building downwash algorithm (which replaces the current Schulman-Scire option), a dry deposition
algorithm used in the US EPA ISC3 model (which replaces the particle deposition method used in
AUSPLUME Version 4), and an area source algorithm used in the US EPA ISC3 model (which replaces the
current area source algorithm).
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While AUSPLUME incorporates a line source algorithm it is not specifically designed to simulate roadway
emissions. As discussed, AUSPLUME was originally based on the ISC model and both models have been
upgraded over the years. They perform similar functions and have similar limitations.
3.1.6 AUSPUFF / CALPUFF

AUSPUFF and CALPUFF are non-steady state Gaussian ‘puff’ models. See the following URL:
http://www.src.com/calpuff/calpuff1.htm. These models simulate the dispersion of emissions by
representing emissions as a series of ‘puffs’ emitted sequentially. Provided the rate at which the ‘puffs’ are
emitted is sufficiently rapid the ‘puffs’ will overlap and the serial release will represent a continuous release.
Total emissions (typically measured in kg/hour) are ‘puffed’ into the model and then dispersed by wind
conditions into adjacent cells. These models handle complex meteorology but require 3D meteorology data
sets. In addition, these models can handle recirculation of pollutants by releasing and following ‘puffs’.
The pollutant emission rates can be time varying and simple chemical transformations may also be included.
In general these models do not predict meteorological conditions but require high quality input
meteorological data.
The advantage of the CALPUFF modelling approach over the steady state Gaussian models such as
AUSPLUME and ISC, which have also been widely used in vent stack dispersion assessments, is that the
progress and dispersion of each individual ‘puff’ can be treated separately and can be made to account for
local wind conditions and the way in which wind conditions at a particular place vary with time. In order to
do this satisfactorily it is necessary to know how the wind speed and direction and other dispersion
parameters vary at each location at which the dispersion is being studied and over the entire time that the
dispersion is being simulated. This information is provided to the model by a second model known as
CALMET.
CALMET takes meteorological observations at individual stations and interpolates the data to create a wind
field, which specifies the wind direction and wind speed at a grid of points covering the area of interest. The
wind field determines the direction and speed that a ‘puff’ at a particular position will be transported at a
particular time. Other grid-based information determines the behaviour of the ‘puffs’ as they disperse.
CALPUFF incorporates a line source algorithm, however as in the case of AUSPLUME, it is not specifically
designed to simulate roadway emissions. It has been developed rather to simulate buoyant line sources such
as aluminium smelters. The addition of an appropriate algorithm would improve the performance of this
model in assessing roadway projects and would provide the additional benefits associated with ‘puff’
models.
3.1.7 Air Quality Models at CSIRO Atmospheric Research

CSIRO Atmospheric Research has three air quality models:
 TAPM, which is a PC-based three-dimensional grid model that solves the fundamental fluid-dynamics
equations to predict meteorology and concentrations of pollutants;
 An airshed chemistry model, known as CTM, which has more detailed chemistry than TAPM and is
usually coupled to the meteorological model in TAPM; and
 The Lagrangian Wall Model (LWM), developed with CSIRO Energy Technology, which runs at fine
resolution within TAPM or the CTM.
Each of these models is described in detail in Appendix A of this report.
AUSTROADS 2004
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3.2 Other Models

 NUATMOS is a 3 dimensional diagnostic wind field model used in complex terrain applications. It
includes a three dimensional wind field model and two dimensional terrain data.
 BREEZE ROADS is a mobile source modelling package incorporating CALINE-4. It has the advantage
of containing a Geographical Information System (GIS) component for displaying analysis and results. It
is designed to model impacts on the nearest receptors, out to about 100 metres from road or intersection.
It’s use in Australia is limited by the inclusion of US fleet characteristics.
 AUSMET is a meteorological modelling system including NUATMOS that is a part of the
AUSPUFF/CALPUFF air pollution modelling system.
 SAQM (SARMAP Air Quality Model) is a state-of-science three-dimensional regional scale air quality
model. See the following URL: http://arbis.arb.ca.gov/html/sarmap.htm. The SARMAP Modelling
System consists of the SARMAP Meteorological Model (SMM), Emissions Modelling System (EMS),
and the SARMAP Air Quality Model (SAQM). The SMM is a non-hydrostatic version of the Penn State
University/National Centre for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model, also known as MM5. (See the
following URL: http://www.mmm.ucar.edu/mm5/ ).
 UAM-IV is the US EPA’s guideline model for conducting urban ozone assessments. It is an urban scale
model that divides the airshed into an array of grided cells of spacing between 1 – 5km.
 MEASURE (US EPA). The Mobile Emission Assessment System for Urban and Regional Evaluation
(MEASURE) estimates vehicle production of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds and oxides
of nitrogen in space and time. See the following URL: http://www.epa.gov/appcdwww/apb/mobile.htm.
MEASURE estimates vehicle emissions as a function of vehicle operating modes (eg. cruise,
acceleration, deceleration, idle) rather than average vehicle speeds. Data inputs include characteristics of
the vehicle fleet (age profile), traffic flow data; and external conditions, such as weather.
3.3 Model uncertainties

All models have inherent uncertainties and in the case of the available dispersion models for roadways the
main uncertainty arises because of the closeness of the receptor to the source. The uncertainty in emission
strength contributes to this as well as the motion of the vehicles and the location of the exhausts. Moving
vehicles create a turbulent wake and this serves to dilute the exhaust plume. However for large trucks with
vertical exhausts the exhaust gases may or may not be entrained by the wake. In addition the extent to which
the exhaust is affected by the wake depends on the speed of the vehicle and the wind speed and direction.
A New South Wales Road and Traffic Authority (RTA) Research and Development project to address this
issue was conducted in 1996/1997. The specific aim of the project was to quantify the impact of vehicle
wake turbulence on the dispersion and concentration of traffic-generated air pollution on and near roadways
using computational fluid dynamic models. The work was carried out by CSIRO Division of Energy
Technology and the University of New South Wales Centre for Advanced Numerical Computation in
Engineering and Science. This study is discussed in more detail in section 3.4.
A further significant uncertainty in the models is the input data on vehicle emissions. These can be drawn
from a number of sources including:
 Emissions studies for urban centres, such as the Metropolitan Air Quality Study for Sydney (MAQS).
These may provide data on the local fleet but do not take account of grade, speed or other factors
affecting emissions.
 Overseas data bases such as PIARC (European) and MOBILE (US) which take into account these factors
but are not tailored for the Australian fleet and operating conditions.
 Locally developed databases/models which take account of the Australian fleet and the variables which
affect emissions. CSIRO has developed such a model referred to as the CSIRO Vehicle Emissions
Model (CVEM) (Nguyen et. al., 2000).
AUSTROADS 2004
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At this stage no comprehensive comparison has been made between these databases and their relative
applicability to the Australian fleet. This would be a useful exercise. It is also important to note that they
have been developed to some extent for different purposes. The MAQS style of inventory is useful for
airshed emissions inventories, while the PIARC and MOBILE emission factors have practical use in surface
roadway and tunnel design and near road impact assessment. CVEM is specifically targeted to impact
assessment but is not yet available in the public domain.
3.3.1 CSIRO model validation study

A CSIRO study (Carras et. al., 1993) was commissioned by the RTA to investigate pollution levels in the
vicinity of arterial roads. The main aims of the study were to:
 Determine the concentrations of pollutants from motor vehicles for a range of traffic conditions;
 Relate these measurements to the flow and type of traffic and prevailing meteorology; and,
 Use these data to evaluate the performance of air dispersion models.
Concentrations of the pollutants CO, CO2, NOx and non-methane hydrocarbons (HC) were measured under a
range of traffic and meteorological conditions up to 60 meters downwind from the road and to heights of 10
meters above the ground.
A power-based emission model was developed which provided estimates of fuel consumption and the
exhaust emission rates of CO2, CO, HC and NOx from spark ignition (both leaded and unleaded-fuelled) and
diesel vehicles. This provided emission rates which took complicating factors such as road grade and vehicle
acceleration into account. The emissions model was validated against ADR27 and ADR37 drive cycle
emission data and against a Victorian methodology based on high time resolution analysis of ADR27 test
results.
The study used the excess concentration of CO2 above the natural background to standardise the emissions
input into each of the traffic pollution models used in the study.
The study compared the predicted pollutant concentrations from HIWAY-2, CALINE-4 and GM Line with
measured concentrations. HIWAY-2 and CALINE-4 performed reasonably well in terms of predictive
capability. Because of its greater versatility, CALINE-4 was recommended for use in conjunction with more
realistic emission rates for specific roadway conditions, than those provided by the MAQS style of estimates.
3.4 NSW RTA model validation study

The NSW RTA has also undertaken a series of generic air quality monitoring studies in the vicinity of
roadways. The purpose of the studies was to collect high quality meteorological and ambient air quality
monitoring data that could be used to provide field data on the concentrations of emissions from roadways
for a range of circumstances. The data generated by these studies were used to assess the performance of
roadway dispersion models and for determining the most appropriate options to select in the model settings
when applying the models in different circumstances. The scenarios were selected to represent typical
conditions which are encountered frequently in roadway projects. The studies undertaken were as follows:
 Air quality monitoring adjacent to freeways/motorways in the open country, conducted on the Hume
Highway, Ingleburn.
 Air quality monitoring adjacent to arterial roads, conducted on Victoria Road, Rydalmere.
 Air quality monitoring adjacent to toll plazas, conducted on the M5 Motorway, Hammondville.
AUSTROADS 2004
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 Air quality monitoring in the vicinity of noise barriers, conducted on the M5 Motorway, Prestons.
 Air quality monitoring in sheltered valleys, conducted on the Comenarra Parkway,
Thornleigh/Wahroonga.
 Air quality assessment in open valleys, conducted on Mona Vale Road, Mona Vale.
 Air quality monitoring in the Sydney Harbour Tunnel (SHT).
The studies were selected, either because they represented commonly encountered dispersion problems that
would enable air dispersion models, developed in the United States to be tested and validated in the
NSW/Australian context, or because they represented unusual, but nevertheless important dispersion
situations, which may not be accurately represented by currently available dispersion models. Examples of
the common dispersion problems were those examining dispersion from freeways/motorways, arterial roads
and roads in open valleys. Examples of the second class of problems were the studies examining dispersion
from traffic in sheltered valleys, from toll plazas, the effect of noise control barriers on dispersion and air
pollution levels in the Sydney Harbour Tunnel.
It was believed that carefully conducted measurements of meteorological conditions and air pollution levels
made concurrently with reliable data on traffic speeds and volumes would be very useful in checking the
theoretically based assessment procedures widely used in Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) studies for
roads in NSW. It would also provide a data base that would be available for future model developers to
improve models and develop new assessment approaches.
The studies were summarised in a report (RTA, 1997) which presented an analysis of the data drawing out
the most significant features in the data and comparing those with commonly held beliefs about local air
pollution levels expected from road traffic. At the time of writing a project is currently being undertaken to
incorporate the final studies into a consolidated report.
Table 3-2 presents the results of modelling the roadways in question as if the study were part of an EIS. The
recorded maximum peak hour traffic numbers have been used in conjunction with “worst-case”
meteorological conditions using CALINE-4. Predictions are for 1-hour averaging periods.
Examples were selected from each of the studies to represent a “worst-case” poor dispersion scenario and a
“typical” day-time scenario with good dispersion conditions. MAQS emissions data, which were based on a
1992 fleet, were adjusted to fit the traffic mix determined during the period that the studies were undertaken
(1994-1996). These emission rates were used in conjunction with traffic and meteorological data, to assess
the predictive ability of CALINE-4.
A background level of 1 ppm for CO and 0.02 ppm for NO2 was assumed. The table compares the predicted
worst-case impacts with the measured highest concentrations. The purpose of the exercise was to determine
whether the EIS approach is sufficiently conservative to capture “worst-case” pollutant levels near roadways
for a range of roadway types. It was assumed that the conversion of NO to NO2 was 15% for all distances
from the road.
AUSTROADS 2004
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Table 3-2: Comparison of maximum measured concentrations with predicted values as in EIS approach
STUDY WIND SPEED (m/s) HOURLY LOCATION OF COMPARISON OF 1-HOUR CO CONCENTRATIONS COMPARISON OF 1-HOUR NO2 CONCENTRATIONS
DIRECTION (degrees) TRAFFIC MONITOR (ppm) (ppm)
(SIGMA-THETA) (background assumed to be 1 ppm) (background assumed to be 0.02 ppm)
Assumed in EIS type study Maximum 1- Maximum Predicted Predicted plus Maximum Predicted Predicted plus
hour level in measured background measured background
dataset
Freeway 1 m/s 3954 10 m 5.0 5.3 6.3 0.07 0.16 0.18
worst-case 1894 30 m 3.5 3.3 4.3 0.075 0.10 0.12
10 60 m 3.4 2.4 3.4 0.07 0.07 0.09
Arterial Road 1 m/s 4104 10 m 4.4 7.1 8.1 0.066 0.14 0.16
worst-case 2219 30 m 4.2 4.4 5.4 0.067 0.09 0.11
10 60 m 3.9 3.2 4.2 0.065 0.06 0.08
Toll plaza 1 m/s 3084 10 m 5.8 5.4 6.4 0.067 0.11 0.13
worst-case 1267 25 m 5.1 3.6 4.6 0.063 0.07 0.09
10
Noise Barrier 1 m/s 2884 10 m 3.0 3.7 4.7
Spring worst-case 722 30 m 3.1 2.3 3.3
10
Noise Barrier 1 m/s 3209 10 m 5.3 4.2 5.2
Summer worst-case 1094 30 m 4.9 2.6 3.6
10
Sheltered 1 m/s 1355 Bottom of valley 3.8 9.0 10.0 0.03 0.15 0.17
Valley 10 853 Top of valley 3.5 4.8 5.8 0.03 0.08 0.10
Open Valley 1 m/s, worst case 1350 10 m 5.4 2.5 3.5
10 753 30 m 5.3 1.1 2.1
AUSTROADS 2004
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3.4.1 Freeways and arterial roads

It is considered that the current method of assessment for these types of roadways provides an adequate and
conservative approach. However, some modifications to the approach would lead to improvements, for
example, the inclusion of road grade for modelling traffic emissions.
These are the most common type of roadways and the most simple to model. An approach commonly
adopted in an EIS is to use CALINE-4 to model the roadway as a series of parallel links representing lanes,
assuming a 1 m/s wind speed, stable atmospheric conditions, sigma-theta of 10 and to allow the model to
work though all wind directions to determine a worst-case wind angle. The data analysis and modelling
simulations indicated that this approach is quite adequate to assess impacts in the vicinity of these types of
roads. The most significant uncertainties were the appropriate background concentration to add to the model
predictions and the appropriate factor to take account of conversion from NO to NO2.
It is mandatory in an EIS assessment to consider a “worst-case” scenario and it is appropriate to err on the
conservative side in the interest of protecting public health. The analysis indicated that in fact most roadway
EIS assessments have been conservative. It is common in EIS’s to assume a higher background of CO than 1
ppm and most predictions of NO2 have been overestimated, at least close to the roadway.
It is therefore recommended that the current method of assessment for these types of roadways remain with
some modifications. A background CO concentration of 1-2 ppm would appear to be adequate to cover the
worst-case as would a background NO2 of 0.02 ppm. Further, at 10 meters from the roadway it appears that
it is reasonable and still conservative to assume that 10% by volume of the total NOx is in the form of NO2 .
This is less than the 15% which at that time had been commonly assumed in EIS studies in NSW. It appears
that it is still appropriate to use the 15% factor for distances of 30 and 60 meters from the roadway. For
predictions closer to the source (0-5 meters) a value of 5% is probably more realistic but there were no data
collected in this study to support this. The following summarises the distance from the road and the proposed
conversion from NO to NO2.
Distance from kerb (meters) Conversion from NO to NO2 (% by volume)
0 5
10 10
30 15
There are however some situations where it may be appropriate to retain the 15% factor at 10 meters from
the roadway. This would be if the peak hour traffic occurred late in the morning as sometimes happens on
country roads in NSW. However, under these circumstances it is also reasonable to assume better dispersion
conditions than say morning peak hour.
3.4.2 Toll plazas and noise barriers

These studies were chosen to represent reasonably common situations where either the emissions estimates
or modelling approach does not fully take account of what is happening in the real world.
In the case of the toll plaza, the emission estimates provided by MAQS do not take account fully of increased
emissions due to the acceleration and deceleration generally associated with paying tolls. Nevertheless, the
EIS approach, using MAQS congested road data which does take some account of increased emission under
stop/start conditions appears to be a reasonable approximation, although it under-predicts somewhat at
distances of more than 10 meters from the road. Increasing the CO emission by a factor of about 30%, as has
been done in other toll plaza assessments (for example in the north-west transport Link (M2 Motorway) EIS)
would cover this adequately. This is also consistent with the fact that average CO concentrations at 10
meters south of the toll plaza are about 10% higher than average concentrations 10 meters south of the
arterial road although the traffic on the arterial road is about 20% more than the traffic through the toll plaza.
Concentrations of NO2 are still overpredicted at 10 meters from the roadway in the toll plaza study and it
appears that the assumed NOx emission rates are appropriate for the toll plaza as are NO2 conversion factors
of 10% and 15% for predictions at 10 meters and 30 meters from the roadway respectively.
AUSTROADS 2004
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The noise barrier study was undertaken to investigate the effect of such a structure on atmospheric
dispersion. The conclusions from the study were that these barriers introduce only a minor complication to
modelling assessments and the common EIS approach is sufficiently conservative to accommodate this2.
3.4.3 Valley studies

The purpose of both the open and sheltered valley studies was to assess the potential for build-up which was
not taken into account in the modelling. It appears that in fact modelling a sheltered valley as a street canyon
will tend to overestimate concentrations close to the roadway. Predicted concentrations at the top of the
valley are closer to those experienced in reality. Model predictions very close to the roadway have been
identified in other reports (Carras et al, 1993) as having inherently large uncertainties and so it is not
surprising that there would not be particularly good agreement between model predictions and measured
values within the valley at essentially 2 meters from the roadway. Nevertheless it is reassuring that in these
circumstances the model overpredicts rather than underpredicts.
3.4.4 Conclusions
The conclusions of this study were that while there remained some unresolved issues, the CALINE-4 model
combined with MAQS style emission factors provided a reasonable and conservative representation of real-
world impacts close to roadways. Refinement of the emission factors to take account of grade and speed is
likely to improve the predictive ability of CALINE-4.
2
It should be noted that recent experience in Victoria indicates that 6+ metre barriers have a significant effect on near-
road air pollution dispersion. This experience indicates that residents behind moderately tall barriers are afforded an air
pollutant reduction due to barriers.
AUSTROADS 2004
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4. REVIEW OF CURRENT PRACTICE IN THE USE OF AIR QUALITY

MODELS IN AUSTRALIA
This section summarises the key results from a survey of road authorities, consultants and regulatory
authorities.
4.1 Results of consultants questionnaire

The questionnaire sent out to modellers is attached in Appendix B. The questionnaire was sent out to a total
of 15 modellers in both regulatory authorities and private consulting firms. There were a total of 6
responses. The authors discussed the lack of response with all parties and in all cases apart from two, the
lack of response was due to limited experience in the application of these models to roadway projects.
Therefore, apart from the use of these models by CSIRO, which are dealt with in another section of this
report, the responses are considered a reasonable representation of the state of knowledge and the manner in
which these models are currently applied in Australia.
The responses to the questionnaire indicated a general interest in and recognition of the need for a regional
scale traffic model which would include both surface roads and, if necessary, stacks. This was seen to be
important by a management/planning point of view although from dispersion modelling point of view was
probably not as useful as looking at roadside impacts.
It was recognised that any model of this sort would only be as useful as its input data and that there was a
real limitation from both the input model from the traffic modelling and the emissions modelling. The
models are likely to work best in comparative mode, nevertheless the input data will be one of the major
sources of variability in the assessment.
Taking account of existing background levels was also identified as a major issue and how the background
would change with the re-structuring of the road network. This is usually very difficult to take into account
as there is always limited information available.
From experience it is clear that the questions asked by the planning authorities are often substantially beyond
the capabilities of existing models and would push the limits of any of the proposed models that are
discussed in this report.
The responses to the survey are presented in table form in Appendix C, however, some points are presented
below which summarise the results of the findings.
 The CALINE series of models are widely used throughout Australia and have been shown to perform
satisfactorily for near road applications. Their limitations are that they are able to demonstrate localised
impacts but not regional impacts. They are also limited by emissions input and do not incorporate
factors such as grade, although these can be provided by emissions models.
 Gaussian dispersion models such as AUSPLUME are currently not suitable for roadway assessments
without modification. Although they do include line source algorithms, they are not designed to take
account of plume rise associated with motor vehicle emissions.
 CALPUFF has advantages over AUSPLUME in that it is able to more realistically represent plume
behaviour, however its line source algorithm does not simulate roadway emissions behaviour.
 There is clearly a need for models which are able to incorporate both regional and local assessment of air
quality associated with roadway projects. This is particularly true of projects where road tunnels are
involved where it is ideal to incorporate stack emissions into a model which also assesses changes in
roadway emissions, thus providing an overall estimate of the net effect of the project. These assessments
have been undertaken with ‘puff’ models but they need to be supplemented with line source models such
as CALINE to determine near road effects.
AUSTROADS 2004
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4.2 Results of Road Authorities questionnaire

The questionnaire sent out to Road Authorities is attached in Appendix B. The questionnaire was sent out to
each of the State Road Authorities in Australia and New Zealand. There were a total of 7 responses received
from the Roads and Traffic Authority NSW, VicRoads, Transport SA, Main Roads WA, Main Roads
Queensland, Department of Infrastructure Energy and Resources Tasmania, and the Department of Transport
and Works in Northern Territory. No response was received from Transit New Zealand or ACT Department
of Urban Services.
The key responses are summarised in Table 4-1.
Table 4-1. Road Authority Use of Air Quality Models

State Road Internal / Models Used Other Models Air Quality Issues
Authority External Comments
Expertise
Models used in M5 East project and Cross Town
RTA NSW Consultants Not specified -
Tunnel projects.
GM Line, CALINE-3 and CALINE-4 used for
AUSPUFF, AUSPLUME,
near road modelling.
VicRoads Consultants TAPM, GM Line, -
AUSPUFF, AUSPLUME and TAPM used for
CALINE-3, CALINE-4
regional modelling.
No air quality Air quality study of Darwin area available at
DIPE NT modelling - - http://www.lpe.nt.gov.au/enviro/Wmpcreg/AirQ/A
undertaken QStudy/AQStudy.htm.
No use of air AUSPLUME, Department of Planning is developing a regional
DIER Tas quality dispersion - NUATMOS, CITPUFF, Air Quality Model. PM10 is a more important
models LADM issue.
DTUP SA In house Breeze Roads Development of local emission factors.
DMR Qld Consultants CALINE-4, AUSPLUME -
Nuatmos, AUSPUFF,
MR WA Consultants CALINE-4 -
GM Line, MEASURE
The complete responses to the survey are presented in tabular form in Appendix D, however, some points
are presented below which summarise the results of the findings.
 With the exception of Transport South Australia, none of the respondents undertook air quality
modelling in house. Two of the respondents undertook no air quality modelling and four relied on
external consultants to carry out air quality modelling exercises.
 The spread of air quality models in use by road agencies and their consultants is large with over 10
models of differing sophistication reported. This is significant as it makes it very difficult to achieve
consistency between states, and even within states.
 Road agencies utilise air quality modelling as a means of comparing alternative road developments, as
well as a means of assessing the impact of a given development on local receptors and the regional
airshed.
 CALINE-4 is the most widely recognised air quality modelling application among road agencies,
followed by AUSPLUME.
 Development of appropriate local emission factors for use in air quality modelling appears to be an issue
of concern for road agencies.
 MR WA indicated that their consultants have developed a method of screening road projects to
determine the need for more extensive studies.
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5. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions have emerged from this study.
 It has been identified that currently only the CSIRO LWM nested with TAPM model is able to deal with
both near road and regional impacts. The validation of this integrated model at near road scales is
currently being undertaken. As it is critical to a number of Authorities that an assessment of regional and
near road air quality impacts be undertaken for road projects, it is concluded that initiatives should be
undertaken to upgrade existing models to allow for this simultaneous assessment. Having alternate
models available would provide continuing impetus for improvements and upgrades. Competition is
needed to keep the industry at the forefront.
 The CALINE series of models, particularly CALINE-4 (the latest in the series), are widely used
throughout Australia and have been shown to perform satisfactorily for near road applications. Their
limitations are that they are able to demonstrate localised impacts but not regional impacts. They are
also limited by emissions input and do not incorporate factors such as grade, although these can be
provided by emissions models.
 Gaussian dispersion models such as AUSPLUME are currently not suitable for roadway assessments
without modification. Although they do include line source algorithms, they are not designed to take
account of plume rise associated with motor vehicle emissions.
 The Victorian EPA has commissioned a project (recently completed) to modify the CALINE-4 model to
better suit Australian conditions. This model is known as AUSROADS. This is a useful upgrade but is
still constrained by the limitations associated with Gaussian plume models (see Section 2.2.1).
 The CALPUFF model is gaining increasing usage in Australia in the regulatory environment for
assessing complex projects. CALPUFF has advantages over AUSPLUME in that it is able to more
realistically represent plume behaviour, however its line source algorithm does not simulate roadway
emissions behaviour.
 CSIRO has undertaken work to nest within the urban scale TAPM model, the Lagrangian Wall Model
(LWM) which can assess near road impacts and which also incorporates an emissions model (CVEM).
At present, this is the only model identified as potentially able to model both near road and urban scale
impacts of road projects effectively, without modification. TAPM has been extensively validated. Work
is currently being undertaken to validate the LWM. At this stage no comprehensive comparison has been
made between the LWM and other roadway models.
 It has been found that there is a real limitation from both the input data for modelling traffic emissions,
and the input data for the dispersion modelling. Limitations include accounting for grade, acceleration,
and representative traffic mix on individual roads, particularly the age of vehicles and the contributions
from sports utility vehicles where information on emission factors are very limited. In addition,
adequately accounting for spatially and temporally variable background concentrations of pollutants is
always a vexed issue for modelling studies, and roadways are no exception. There is no easy solution to
this. The monitoring studies undertaken by the RTA, have provided useful information in that the
combination of model and assumed emissions and background provide realistic estimates of near road
pollution concentrations. Nevertheless while the ball-park estimates are good, further refinement of
emissions is desirable, particularly as the models are improved. The NSW EPA have undertaken a major
review of motor vehicle emissions, which provide good information on emissions from generic roadway
types. A useful addition to this would be a review of the PIARC, US EPA and CSIRO grade and speed
factors for incorporation into an emission model with the Australian fleet emissions as the base.
Evaluation of current traffic mix data on major roadways would provide a useful update of information
required for modelling traffic emissions.
AUSTROADS 2004
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Table 5-1 provides a summary of the models recommended for assessment of roadway projects. It includes
information on their capabilities, limitations and data requirements.
Table 5-1. Summary of Recommended Models
AUSTROADS TAPM with LWM CALPUFF

PC
PC PC
The minimum hardware
100 MHz 486 processor (minimum 32 MB RAM (no other hardware
configuration for TAPM is a 450 MHz
Hardware requirement). requirements specified)
Pentium III processor, 128 MB RAM,
Execution time will depend on
20 GB HDD, CDROM, and a tape or
processor speed.
CDRW file storage facility.
Best run with wind field data
Data requirements Local meteorological data Included with License. generated by CALMET, a
for optimum use Traffic and emissions data. Traffic and emissions data. meteorological model
associated with CALPUFF .
Free but usually requires
TAPM $3,000 + GST for a single
training.
license3. LWM is currently an in-
Costs $900 + GST CALPUFF developers (Earth
house CSIRO application used in
Tech Inc.) estimate US$20k to
consultancy and research mode.
upgrade line source algorithm.
Advanced scientific basis for all
components. Verified performance. Has the potential to incorporate
Simple to use, straightforward model for
Strengths GIS for visualisation of results. regional and near road impacts
near-road emissions.
Predicts all meteorological if modified.
parameters - no local data needed.
Maximum domain size around
At present the line source
Relatively uncomplicated terrain. 1000km.
Limitations algorithm is not suitable for
Gaussian plume model limitations. Significant run-times for large
roads.
analysis.
TAPM well established and
Status Available validated. LWM currently being No known plans to modify.
validated.
Lane Cove Tunnel
Examples of use Roadway projects in Victoria. See Sections A.3.2 and A.5.2
project in Sydney.
Near road and regional impacts,
Suitable Near road impacts (within 500m) in
Near road and regional impacts. but only if modified to include a
Applications relatively uncomplicated terrain.
suitable line source algorithm.
3
Refer to http://www.dar.csiro.au/tapm/docs/tapm_price_list_April2002.pdf for pricing details.
AUSTROADS 2004
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6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENTS
The following recommendations for future research and developments have been identified during the course
of this study.
 It is recommended that this report is updated at determined time intervals, say every 3 - 5 years, to
include:
 advances in the capability of existing models;
 new models, their capability and applicability to our business;
 new validation studies;
 current best practice in the use of the models.
 It would be valuable for the CALPUFF model to be upgraded to incorporate a CALINE type of module
to allow simultaneous assessment of regional and near road impacts. This option is highly recommended.
The developers of the CALPUFF model, Earth Tech Inc. Atmospheric Studies Group, have been
approached and invited to provide a cost estimate for such an upgrade. The estimated cost of this
upgrade is in the order of US$20k. A summary of proposed changes to CALPUFF is included in
Appendix G.
 A comprehensive comparison of CSIRO’s TAPM/LWM models, EPA Victoria’s AusRoads models and,
once developed, the modified CALPUFF model should be undertaken. This would follow on from this
project and could involve running each of the models for a section or sections of road, preferably at least
one section incorporating cut sections and a tunnel. The results from each model would then be
compared with each other and also actual measurements of certain contaminants to gain a better
understanding of the relative reliability of each of the models.
 It is recommended that further research be undertaken into the development of emissions data as inputs
to dispersion modelling for Australian conditions. This could involve a review of the NSW EPA and
other jurisdictions emissions inventories for generic roadways to determine their applicability Australia
wide. In additions, a review should be undertaken of PIARC, US EPA and CSIRO emission factors
which take account of grade and speed. These additional factors could then be used to modulate the base
emissions data (EPA-style data) to take account of different roadway configurations.
The research and development activities indicated in the above recommendations should be undertaken
through the Austroads Research program. The Austroads Strategic Plan for the period 2004 – 2007 has
identified a set of five strategic priorities (improving road safety; addressing the future freight task;
optimising utilisation of the road network; minimising whole of life road asset cost; and enhancing the
security and integrity of information) underpinned by community engagement, improving environmental
sustainability, exploring financing and funding options and addressing data availability issues. The proposed
model enhancement is clearly consistent with the underlying ‘environmental sustainability’ principle.
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7. REFERENCES
Adelman Z. E., 1999. A re-evaluation of the Carbon Bond-IV photochemical mechanism. Master of Science
Thesis, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of
North Carolina, U.S.A.
Azzi M., Hyde R., Hurley P. and Nelson P. (1999). Evaluation of The Air Pollution Model (TAPM):
Comparison of meteorological predictions with observations in Sydney. Proceedings of the International
Congress on Modelling and Simulation, Hamilton, New Zealand, 6-9 December 1999.
Azzi M., Johnson, G.M., and M.E. Cope (1992). An introduction to the generic reaction set photochemical
smog mechanism. Proceedings of the 11th International Clean Air and Environment Conference of
CASANZ, Brisbane 1992.
Azzi, M., Cope, M. E., Hyde, R., Nelson, P. F., and Trieu, T. (2000). Reactive NOx emissions management
for energy efficiency and air pollution control: final report to the State Energy Research and Development
Fund (SERDF). (Investigation Report (CSIRO Energy Technology); ET/IR280) North Ryde, N.S.W.:
CSIRO Energy Technology. 166 p
Bureau of Meteorology. See http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/
California Department of Transportation (1989), “CALINE-4 - a dispersion model for predicting air
pollutant concentrations near roadways”.
Carras J N, Williams, D J, Drummond M S, Lange A L and Schenouda (1993) - Report to the RTA on Air
Pollution Near Roads and Highways, Report prepared by CSIRO North Ryde, PO Box 136, North Ryde,
NSW 2113.
CASANZ, Clean Air Society for Australia and New Zealand. See www.casanz.org.au
Chock D P (1978), “A simple line-source model for dispersion near roadways”, Atmospheric Environment
12, 823-829.
Cox M., Hurley P., Fraser P., and W. Physick (2000). Investigation of Melbourne region pollution events
using Cape Grim data, a regional transport model (TAPM) and the EPA Victoria carbon monoxide
inventory. Clean Air, 33, 35-40.
Environment Australia (2001). Air Quality Forecasting for Australia’s Major Cities. Final Report.
EPA (1986). "The AUSPLUME Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model", Environment Protection Authority,
Melbourne Victoria 3000, Publication Number 264.
European Environment Agency (1999). Ambient air quality, pollutant dispersion and transport models.
Topic report No 19/1996. http://reports.eea.eu.int/92-9167-028-6/en/page004.html/tab_abstract_RLR
Gery W.M., Whitten G.Z., Killus J. P., and M.C. Dodge (1989). A photochemical kinetics mechanism for
urban and regional scale computer modelling. Journal of Geophysical Research, 94 (10), 12925-12956.
Hurley P., Blockley A., and K. Rayner (2001). Verification of a prognostic meteorological and air pollution
model for year-long predictions in the Kwinana region of Western Australia. Atmos. Environ., 35, 1871-
1880.
Hurley P.J. (1997). An evaluation of several turbulence schemes for the prediction of mean and turbulent
fields in complex terrain. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 83, 43-73.
Hurley P.J. (2000). Verification of TAPM meteorological predictions in the Melbourne region for a winter
and summer month. Australian Meteorol. Mag., 49, 97-107.
Hurley P.J. and A.K. Luhar (2000). The Kwinana Coastal Fumigation Study: III. Meteorological and
turbulence modelling on selected days. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 94, 115-138.
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Hurley, P.J. (1999). The Air Pollution Model (TAPM) Version 1 : Technical description and examples,
CSIRO Atmospheric Research Technical Paper No. 43. Available at http://www.dar.csiro.au/res/aq/TAPM.
Lurmann, F.W., Carter, W.P. and L.A. Coyner (1987). A surrogate species chemical mechanism for urban
scale air quality simulation models. Final Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-
02-4104.
Northwest Transport Linmk - Pennant Hills Road to Epping Road. Prepared by Maunsell for the RTA (1992)
National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) See http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/npi/
National State of the Environment Reporting Indicators. See the following URL:
http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/envindicators/index.html
Nguyen, V.N., Lilley, W.E. and D.J. Williams (2000). Development of a technique for estimating traffic
emission and fuel consumption from SCATS road networks. Proceedings of 15th International Clean Air
and Environment Conference of CASANZ, Sydney, 26-30 November 2000. Volume 1 page 596.
Physick, W.L., K. Rayner and P. Mountford (2000). Dispersion meteorology of the Pilbara region.
Proceedings of 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference of CASANZ, Sydney, 26-30
November 2000.
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APPENDICES
A Near Road Air Quality Models at CSIRO Atmospheric Research
B Consultants and Road Authorities Questionnaire
C Results of Consultants Questionnaire
D Results of Road Authorities Questionnaire
E Air Quality Modelling Contacts within Road Authorities
F Information Sources
G Proposed Changes to CALPUFF
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APPENDIX A NEAR ROAD AIR QUALITY MODELS AT CSIRO

ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH
This section was written by William Physick and Martin Cope of CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research.
It provides a self-contained review of the CSIRO models applicable to roadway projects. The conclusions of
this CSIRO report are that the Lagrangian Wall Model nested within TAPM is the most appropriate of the
CSIRO models for roadway studies which need to incorporate regional effects, such as a roadway tunnel
with ventilation stacks.
A.1 Introduction
There are three scales at which motor vehicle emissions are important. The urban scale (1–100 km),
providing an overall background concentration of pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, ozone, carbon
monoxide, and particulate matter, the suburb-scale (100–1000 m) at which cross-suburb structure is evident
in concentration fields, and the near-road scale (1–100 m) where relatively high concentrations of primary
pollutants are found. CSIRO Atmospheric Research (CAR) has three air quality models covering these
scales:
 TAPM, which is a PC-based three-dimensional grid model that solves the fundamental fluid-dynamics
equations to predict meteorology and concentrations of pollutants;
 An airshed chemistry model, known as CTM, which has more detailed chemistry than TAPM and is
usually coupled to the meteorological model in TAPM; and
 The Lagrangian Wall Model (LWM), developed with CSIRO Energy Technology (CET), which runs at
fine resolution within TAPM or the CTM.
As the object of this review is CAR’s near-road modelling capability, we shall concentrate on the LWM,
with a brief description of the other models.
A.2 The Air Quality Models

For many years, the models used to assess the impact of emissions on air quality have been the relatively
simple Gaussian plume-based models, such as AUSPLUME, CALINE and the ISC model. This practice has
its origins in the late 1970s when computing power was considerably less than now, and simulations of the
full set of equations governing atmospheric dispersion were not feasible. Regulatory authorities often
require concentration statistics (for example the 99.9th percentile and the second-highest concentration) over
a 12-month period and, until recently, running a complex model for this time period has only been
realistically possible on a super-computer. However, the recent huge advances in computer technology have
made it possible for models that are considerably more sophisticated than those based on a Gaussian-plume
approach, to run on a PC. The three CAR models are in this category.
The meteorological predictions provided by this approach can also be used to drive existing regulatory air
pollution models, by either eliminating the need for site-specific meteorological observations, or by
providing extra or missing information to complement the available meteorological observations in the
region of interest. This aspect is central to the near-road modelling system discussed in the following
sections.
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A.3 TAPM
TAPM is a three-dimensional grid model that solves the equations governing the behaviour of the
atmosphere and the dispersion of emissions to predict meteorological fields and ground-level concentrations
at local and regional scales. TAPM makes use of archived larger (synoptic) scale meteorological analyses to
predict the wind, temperature and humidity fields at smaller scales. The latter are associated with coastlines
(sea and land breezes), up- and down-slope flows in valleys and the blocking and steering of winds by
terrain, and are important when assessing the impact of emissions. TAPM predicts concentrations for
nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide (as a tracer), and primary and secondary particulate matter
(PM10), as well as the reactive pollutants nitrogen dioxide and ozone. TAPM is able to estimate near-source
ground-level concentrations from point sources, as well as concentrations arising from transport of emissions
over hundreds of kilometres. The role of TAPM in near-road modelling is to provide boundary and
background meteorology and concentrations for the finer-scale Lagrangian Wall Model.
TAPM solves the full set of equations governing meteorology and dispersion, and is as accurate as any
model available. An annual run with 4 nests going down to a spacing of 0.5 km on the smallest air quality
grid takes about 8 days on a 2 GHz PC. Of course the simulation can be broken down into smaller runs of a
few months and run on several computers simultaneously.
The Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand run one-day training courses for TAPM. Many users
are able to “pick it up” from reading the manual and teaching themselves. All initial data requirements
(terrain, landuse, synoptic-scale meteorological analyses) are supplied with TAPM and automatically put
onto the grids of the modelled region by a graphical user interface. Naturally, emissions are supplied by the
user, but can be entered through the Graphical User Interface (GUI).
A.3.1 TAPM Technical Description

TAPM is a PC-based, nestable, prognostic meteorological and air quality model driven by a user-friendly
Graphical User Interface (GUI). Meteorological and concentration fields are both updated each time step of
a simulation (referred to as an on-line approach), in contrast to many models where the meteorology and air
quality simulations are run consecutively (off-line approach). The GUI allows the user to configure inputs,
run the model, and analyse outputs generated by the model. The GUI is linked to databases of terrain height,
land use, synoptic-scale meteorology and sea-surface temperature information. Analysis of outputs includes
software for visualisation and extraction of time series and summary statistics for meteorology and ground-
level pollution concentrations. TAPM has been used previously to evaluate various turbulence closures
(Hurley, 1997), to model meteorological case studies in Kwinana (Hurley and Luhar, 2000, Hurley et al.,
2001), in the Pilbara region (Physick et al., 2000), and in Sydney (Azzi et al., 1999), to model 44 events of
transport of pollutants from Melbourne to Cape Grim (Cox et al., 2000), to model a winter and a summer
month of meteorology in Melbourne (Hurley, 2000), and to model more than 30 year-long scenarios of EPA
Victoria for the Port Phillip Air Quality Improvement Plan.
The following three sub-sections provide a brief overview of TAPM - more technical detail on TAPM
including the numerical methods used to solve the model equations can be found in Hurley (1999).
A.3.1.1 Meteorology module
The mean horizontal wind components are determined from the momentum equations and the terrain-
following vertical velocity from the continuity equation. Potential virtual temperature is determined from an
equation combining the conservation of heat and water vapour. Pressure is determined from the sum of
hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic components, with a Poisson equation optionally solved for the non-
hydrostatic component. Conservation equations are solved for the specific humidity of water vapour, cloud
water, and rain water.
Turbulence closure in the mean equations uses a gradient diffusion approach with diffusivity K, and includes
a counter-gradient correction for temperature. An E- turbulence scheme is used to calculate K using
prognostic equations for the turbulence kinetic energy (E) and its dissipation rate ().
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Radiation at the surface is used for the computation of surface boundary conditions and for scaling variables,
and includes the clear-sky shortwave and longwave components with modifications for the effects of cloud
liquid water.
Surface temperature and moisture are calculated from a weighted average of soil and vegetation values. A
force-restore approach is used for soil temperature and moisture, and a surface energy balance approach is
used for the vegetation temperature. Boundary conditions for the turbulent fluxes are determined by Monin-
Obukhov surface-layer scaling variables and parameterisations for stomatal resistance.
Although the meteorological fields are predicted from the model equations, observations of wind speed and
direction are able to influence the final fields by a process known as four-dimensional data assimilation.
During a simulation, the model solution is nudged towards observations that are inserted at the appropriate
times and locations.
A.3.1.2 Air quality module
The air-quality component of TAPM consists of an Eulerian grid-based set of prognostic equations for
pollutant concentration, with optional pollutant cross-correlation equations to represent counter-gradient
fluxes, and an optional Lagrangian particle mode for near-source concentrations. The model can be run in
either a tracer mode, or in a chemistry mode that includes a semi-empirical photochemistry mechanism and
deposition processes for major species of interest including nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and
particles. Dry and wet deposition processes are also included, and a plume-rise module, taking account of
buoyancy and momentum effects, is used for point sources.
The gas-phase photochemical mechanism is the Generic Reaction Set (GRS) of equations for smog
formation (Azzi et al., 1992), and is a simplification of more-complete formulations such as Carbon Bond IV
(CB-IV; Gery et al., 1989), Carbon Bond (CB-99; Adelman, 1999) or Lurmann, Carter and Coyner (LCC;
Lurmann et al., 1987). Gas- and aqueous-phase reactions of sulfur dioxide and particles are also included.
The particle formulation consists of transport, diffusion, dry and wet deposition processes, and simple
mechanisms for secondary formation of sulphates, nitrates and organic carbon.
A.3.1.3 Emission sources
TAPM is able to model emissions from point sources, line sources, volume sources, area sources and
biogenic sources. Emissions from the latter must be specified for a particular temperature (30oC) and
photosynthetically-active radiation (PAR) level (1000 mol m-2 s-1). TAPM then modifies them according to
ambient conditions throughout the simulation.
Motor vehicle emissions are input separately for petrol vehicles, diesel vehicles and LPG vehicles. There is
also a file for evaporative emissions and all must be specified for a temperature of 25oC. Once again, TAPM
adjusts the emissions according to ambient conditions.
A.3.1.4 Scales of application including near-road
It is recommended that TAPM be run in a nested mode, with an outer grid spacing for the meteorology
component of typically 30 km, and inner grids ranging perhaps from 10 km spacing down through 3 km and
1 km. TAPM can run with smaller grid spacings, but due to time considerations, 1 km is usually the smallest
value used. The grid spacings for the air quality component can be the same as, or fractions of, those for the
meteorological grid (e.g. 1.0, 0.5, 0.25 etc.). A typical configuration (applied to all grids) in the horizontal
would be 40 x 40 grid points with about 20 levels in the vertical, beginning at 10 m and ranging to typically
8000 m. It is not recommended that TAPM be applied over an area much larger than 1200 km x 1200 km as
its equations do not contain map factors that take account of the earth’s curvature. The outer grid obtains its
boundary values from the Bureau of Meteorology’s global analysis data set (GASP) at 6-hourly intervals and
grid interval of 1o x 1o. Initial values for a simulation are also obtained from these grided analyses.
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A.3.2 TAPM Examples of use

TAPM has been used extensively in Australia and New Zealand. For example, by EPA Victoria to produce
air quality maps for Melbourne under future emissions scenarios (EPA’s AQIP Project); for the National
Environment Protection Measure (NEPM) Peer Review committee to investigate the relation between
population size and ozone and nitrogen dioxide concentrations (for monitoring purposes); for the Department
of Environmental Protection - Western Australia (DEPWA) as an aid in developing an air quality
management plan for the Pilbara region; and for EPA Queensland as part of a modelling system for
Gladstone to guide future development. It has also been applied in parts of Asia and recently has seen use in
Europe and America. Examples of TAPM applications are given in
http://www.dar.csiro.au/TAPM/docs/tapm_list_of_publications.pdf.
A.3.3 TAPM Outputs

TAPM generates 3-dimensional time-varying fields of meteorology and air quality. The output may be
expressed as 2-dimensional time-varying near-surface fields overlayed on topographic relief maps (Figure
A1). It’s also possible to display 1-dimensional time series plots of observed and modelled, hourly-varying
meteorological and pollutant fields (Figure A2). Contour maps of various percentiles over specified time
periods are also available for pollutants (Figure A3).
Figure A1: Contours of hourly-averaged ground-level concentrations of ozone at midday from a TAPM simulation in northwestern
Australia. Wind vectors at 10 m are also shown. Land is shaded green and sea is blue. NOx and VOC emissions from a source on the
coastline are responsible for the ozone. The domain is 60 x 60 km2.
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Figure A2: Observed (o) and TAPM modelled (+) wind speed, wind direction, and screen temperature observed at the Port Hedland
coastal site, 28 March to 2 April 2000.
12
Wind Speed (m s )
-1
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Day
360
Wind Direction ( )
o
270
180
90
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Day
40
Screen Temp. ( C)
o
35
30
25
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Day
Figure A3: Contours of second highest hourly-averaged concentration of NOx (ppb) modelled by TAPM for 1999 in the Burrup Peninsula
region. Coastline and islands are indicated by the blue curves.
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A.4 Chemical Transport Model (CTM)

The chemical transport model, which can be run for an arbitrary number of chemically reacting gaseous and
aerosol species, is a by-product of the Australian Air Quality Forecasting System (AAQFS). It has been
designed to run online or offline from numerical weather prediction models such as the Bureau of
Meteorology’s LAPS (i.e. as the AAQFS), TAPM or CAR’s larger-scale model DARLAM. This model
would typically be used for simulations of the production and dispersion of urban and regional
photochemical smog and aerosols.
As with other Eulerian grid models, it is not currently feasible to routinely run the CTM (e.g. as the AAQFS)
for studies assessing near-road emissions (scales of 10–100 m), as the very small grid spacing required
means that the computing effort would be prohibitive. Like TAPM, its role in this area would be to provide
the background conditions into which the near-road emissions in the LWM are emitted.
A.4.1 CTM Technical Description

The CTM solves the semi-empirical advection-diffusion equation for an arbitrary number of chemically
reacting gaseous and aerosol species, and has been designed to enable chemical transformation modules to be
easily interchanged. For example, the CTM is currently configured to use GRS; GRS2 (Environment
Australia, 2001) and CB-99. The latter is a considerably more complex photochemical mechanism than GRS
(34 species and 90 reactions compared to 10 species and 12 reactions for TAPM’s GRS mechanism), and
thus has the potential for performing well in a wider parameter space of chemical conditions. The CTM has
also been designed to treat aerosols in detail, considering the processes of emission, transport and chemical
transformation for eight sub-ten micron size categories. Development of a PC-based, parallel-processing
version of the CTM is currently underway at CAR. When complete, this will enable the CTM to be run
online/offline with TAPM or DARLAM, at urban scale resolution, with comprehensive chemistry, for multi-
week to multi-month periods.
A.5 The Lagrangian Wall Model (LWM)

The status of the Lagrangian Wall Model at the time of writing is an in-house CSIRO model. Currently,
CSIRO don't have plans to licence it, but rather to use it in a consultancy and research mode. This may
change after verification against data and other models is complete.
The Lagrangian Wall Model solves a similar set of chemistry equations to those in the CTM. The two-
dimensional wall is moved at the speed of the vertically-averaged wind, allowing considerable speed-up of
the solution of the model equations. This allows the model to be operated at very high resolution, (around 10
meters), making it suitable for modelling near-road air quality impacts. Initial concentrations in the ‘wall’
(upwind of the road or sources of interest), and boundary conditions at the edges of the wall, are obtained
from the CTM or TAPM, albeit at a larger scale. Alternatively, the boundary conditions can be merely
specified as a typical background concentration. Implementation of the model is displayed schematically in
Figure A4, which shows a quasi-two-dimensional ‘wall’ of computational cells moving across grid squares
of a larger Eulerian model (e.g. TAPM). As it moves across the grid squares, the LWM’s fine resolution is
able to resolve emissions from such small-scale features as point sources and roads.
Of interest for modelling emissions from roads is a module that can be run in combination with the LWM. It
is an emissions model, developed at CSIRO Energy Technology Sydney, in which motor vehicle emissions
are determined according to how much power a vehicle is consuming at any particular time (Nguyen et al.,
2000). Power consumed may be due to the processes such as vehicle acceleration, rolling resistance, drive-
train resistance, aerodynamic drag and air conditioner usage. In this way, a more accurate portrayal of
driving behaviour associated with different road types, including terrain gradients and traffic-light
intersections, can be incorporated into the emission calculations. This methodology has the potential to
provide far more detail and accuracy than is available from the more traditional approach that is based on
vehicle kilometres travelled and travel modes.
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A.5.1 LWM Technical Description

The Lagrangian Wall Model solves a similar set of equations to those applied in the CTM. However, a
critical change is that the equations have been couched in a Lagrangian or moving framework. This leads to
considerable speed-up of the solution at the expense of some simplifications in the treatment of the
meteorology. Because the governing equations of the LWM are relatively inexpensive to solve, the model
can be operated at very high resolution, (around 10 m), and thus is suitable for modelling near-road air
quality impacts. When configured in this mode, it is preferable to run the LWM offline, nested within one of
the larger-scale Eulerian models (i.e. TAPM or the CTM). This is displayed schematically in Figure A4,
which shows a quasi-two-dimensional ‘wall’ of computational cells moving across grid squares of a larger
Eulerian model. The wall, moving in the same direction as the wind (speed V) and a distance Vt each time
step (t), has a grid spacing of typically 10 m in the direction normal to the wind and vertical levels that
begin at 2 m above the ground and increase in spacing with height. As it moves across the grid squares, the
LWM’s fine resolution is able to resolve emissions from such small-scale features as point sources and
roads. The distances from a road at which concentrations are calculated (Vt or less) are controlled through
the size of the specified time step, which is usually varied throughout a simulation in order to maintain a
constant distance per timestep. Initial concentrations in the ‘wall’ (upwind of the road or sources of interest),
and boundary conditions at the edges of the wall, are obtained from the CTM or TAPM, albeit at a larger
scale. Alternatively, the boundary conditions can be merely specified as a typical background concentration.
When run under conditions of highly-simplified chemistry and uniform flows suitable for the well-known
CALINE model, the LWM is able to produce similar results to that model. However, LWM’s strengths lie in
its ability to be coupled to a larger-scale model, and in being able to treat non-uniform flows (in the
horizontal) and non-linear chemistry.
Figure A4: Schematic diagram illustrating the application of the Lagrangian Wall Model (LWM).
The model moves with the wind across a grid square(s) of a larger-scale model,
taking account of emissions from small-scale sources such as roads and point sources.
A.5.2 LWM Examples of use

The LWM has only recently been enhanced for near-road applications, and has only been used in-house.
Previous applications of the LWM focused on the consideration of photochemical smog development
downwind of large industrial sources (for example, see Azzi et al., 2000).
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A.5.3 LWM Outputs

Similar to TAPM, the LWM is also a PC-based product which is operated by a graphical user interface. A
screen dump of the interface is shown in Figure A5. In this example, two air parcel trajectories have been
selected which intercept a main road in Sydney at two points. It can also be seen that the model has been
coupled to TAPM and is being operated with a fixed distance step of 10 meters.
Figure A5: Screen dump of the LWM graphical user interface.
An example of the predicted concentration distribution across the wall of the LWM is shown in Figure A6.
In this example the wall was advected from north to south, traversing the most northerly segment of the road
shortly after 7.30 a.m. Vehicular emissions were generated using the CSIRO Energy Technology power-
based emissions model (Nguyen et al., 2000).
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Figure A6: LWM predicted concentration distribution (scalar release- relative concentration units) downwind of a simple road network.
The dotted line indicates the wall trajectory. Wall transit times are also listed.
6250.0
7.44
WALL
6249.5 7.54
Trajectory
7.64
6249.0
Road
200 7.74
6248.5
190
180 7.84
6248.0 170
160
7.94
150
6247.5 140
130 8.04
120
6247.0
100
8.14
80
6246.5 60
8.24
40
20
6246.0
326.0 326.5 327.0 327.5 328.0 328.5 329.0 329.5 330.0
An example of output from the LWM when operating in urban-scale mode is given in Figure A7. The
example demonstrates that the LWM performed well when predicting the generation of ozone (a secondary
photochemical pollutant) within an air mass which moved inland within the Sydney sea-breeze.
Figure A7: Left- Trajectory taken by the Lagrangian Wall Model as it is advected inland over urban Sydney for a
photochemical smog event in 1997. Right - observed (error bars) and predicted (solid lines) ozone concentrations for the air parcel
trajectory defined in the previous plot.
6300
6290
6280 RICHMOND
0.14
Concentration (ppm)
VINEYARD
O3 OBS
6270 0.12 O3_min

12 O3_max
0.10 O3-mid
NORTHING (km)
6260 STMARYS
BLACKTOWN
WESTMEAD
13
0.08
6250 SMITHFIELD ROZELLE
16 15
14 LIDCOMBE 0.06
EARLWOOD MASCOT
17 BRINGELLY LIVERPOOL
6240 22 18
BOTANY 0.04
21
201923
24 WOOLOOWARE
0.02
6230 OAKDALE CAMDEN CAMPBELLTOWN
0.00
6220 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
APPIN
6210
Time (hours)
6200 BARGO
260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360
EASTING (km)
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A.6 Validation of CSIRO Models

Sixty-eight organisations have purchased user licences for TAPM. Of these, 22 are based overseas. All state
EPAs have bought TAPM and it is regularly used by a large number of major environmental consultants in
Australia and New Zealand. The LWM is currently restricted to in-house use.
TAPM has been verified for regions in Australia and overseas. CSIRO has verified the model in Kwinana,
Perth and the Pilbara (WA), Cape Grim (TAS), Melbourne (VIC), Newcastle and Sydney (NSW), Mt Isa
(QLD), Port Pirie (SA), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), as well as for Kincaid and Indianapolis (USA). The latter
included verification against several well-known international air quality models, with TAPM ranked at the
top.
TAPM has been extensively validated by comparison against meteorological and air quality observations. A
list of recent validation studies can be found in http://www.dar.csiro.au/publications/hurley_2002b.pdf.
The CTM has been verified against observational data in Melbourne, Sydney and Cape Grim. Extensive
discussions (including comparisons with other models) may be found at
http://www.dar.csiro.au/information/aaqfs.html.
The LWM has been validated on an urban scale (i.e. Azzi et al., 2000). Validation consists of comparing
pollutant predictions with air quality observations which are interpolated to the time and location of the
advecting wall. Validation of the LWM at near-road scales is currently underway.
A.7 Limitations of CSIRO Models

TAPM
- Maximum domain size is limited to about 1000 km;
- Deep soil moisture content is assumed to be constant across the domain;
- The atmosphere is assumed to be incompressible. This is only relevant if modelling situations with
deep circulations such as thunderstorms;
- Simplified chemistry for predicting secondary reaction products;
- Computational practicalities currently limit maximum grid resolution for air quality simulations to
about 0.5 km for year–long model simulations. Such a run takes about 8 days on a 2 GHz PC. Of
course the simulation can be broken down into smaller runs of a few months and run on several
computers simultaneously.
CTM
- Same limitations as TAPM for meteorological fields (via TAPM-CTM coupling);
- More complex chemistry than TAPM but still includes many simplifying assumptions;
- Maximum grid resolution of about 1 km;
- Computational practicalities currently limit maximum integration periods to about a week.
LWM
- Wind field is assumed to be spatially uniform across the computational wall. This is usually a fair
assumption;
- Cannot treat wind field reversal or near-zero wind fields;
- More complex chemistry than TAPM but still many simplifying assumptions;
- Maximum horizontal resolution of about 10 meters.
A.8 Summary
This review has shown that CSIRO’s most suitable modelling system for estimating near-road (< 100 m)
dispersion is the Lagrangian Wall Model nested within TAPM. With this multi-scale approach, the
AUSTROADS 2004
— 32 —
combined impact of (1) fleet-wide emission changes, (2) suburb-level changes in traffic patterns and (3)
near-road impacts for new and altered carriageways, can be seamlessly modelled. A schematic diagram
(Figure A8) sets out the inputs and outputs of the system, as well as the role of each component. Added
advantages over models such as CALINE are that emissions from non-vehicle sources (point and area) are
accounted for (within TAPM or the LWM) and that non-linear chemical reactions are modelled. The whole
system can be run on a PC. Emission estimates at the scale of individual road intersections are also available
through the power-based vehicle emissions model.
Figure A8: Schematic diagram of a near-road modelling system using TAPM and the Lagrangian Wall Model.
EMISSIONS
Meteorological Topographic
Analysis and Landuse
data AREA AREA
AGGREGATED AGGREGATED
Commercial MOTOR VEHICLE
Domestic Petrol exhaust
Industrial Petrol evaporative
Natural Diesel exhaust
TRANSPORT, DISPERSION AND

CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION
MODEL (urban–suburb scale)
EXPLICIT POINT EXPLICIT LINE
SOURCE SOURCE
TAPM
Industry Industry
Tunnel stack vents Roads
Meteorological Air pollutant

fields (suburb scale fields (suburb
100–1000 m)
scale
100–1000 m)
DISPERSION AND CHEMICAL

TRANSFORMATION MODEL
Air pollutant fields
(near-road scale) (near-road scale;
10–100m)
LWM
AUSTROADS 2004
— 33 —
APPENDIX B CONSULTANTS AND ROAD AUTHORITIES

QUESTIONNAIRE
Use of Air Quality Models
Survey by
ARRB Transport Research & Holmes Air Sciences
on behalf of
Austroads
 Holmes Air Sciences

2b/14 Glen Street
Eastwood
NSW 2122
Alternatively, completed submissions may be

faxed or e-mailed to Kerry Holmes at
 Kerry.Holmes@holmair.com.au
 Fax: (02) 9874 8904

.
If required, additional material may be attached and returned by mail.
Thank you for your time in completing this questionnaire.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 34 —
Project Background
ARRB Transport Research, in conjunction with Holmes Air Sciences and CSIRO Atmospheric Research,
have been engaged by Austroads to report on the use of Air Quality Models in Australia. The purpose of
Austroads project T&E E.NP1 is to determine the state of the art in regional and local air quality modelling
within Australia as applied to road transport projects. This report discusses the strengths and limitations of
The report includes a brief literature review of currently available air quality models, and a review of the
state of the art using information derived from a survey of road authorities and practitioners in the field.
The project has addressed the following questions:
 Do currently used line dispersion models adequately assess air quality impacts of road projects on
sensitive receptors not immediately adjacent, but close to, major road projects?
 Are currently used regional models adequate to determine the air quality due to major road network
or traffic changes at sensitive receptors throughout an urban area?
 What local air quality assessment models are in use in Australia and what new developments are in
progress or planned to improve their sensitivity of analysis?
Questionnaire
Your assistance is sought in characterising the use of air quality models in your organisation. Could you
please supply brief answers to the following questions.
1. Do you undertake air quality modelling for roadway projects?
 What air quality models do you use for this purpose?
 What other air quality models are you aware of?
2. If you use air quality models, please list the models used and past examples of their application in your
jurisdiction. As we are separately documenting models and their functionality, there is no need for a
detailed description here.
 Model name;
 Projects the model has been applied to;
 Extent of use, e.g. modelling of ground level concentrations to within 200 m of the roadway, CO,
NOx, particulate;
 Perceived limitations of the model;
 Areas where you think model improvements are required.
3. What is your response to the question, “Is there a need for a local air quality model which can adequately
predict air quality impacts at sensitive receptors throughout an urban area due to changes in the road
network or traffic patterns using it?”
 For example, do the models you use consider other pollutant sources, other roadways, or ambient
pollutant levels generally?
 Does modelling of a new freeway consider reduced traffic on the arterial roads that the freeway will
be drawing traffic from?
AUSTROADS 2004
— 35 —
4. Are you aware of, or have you commissioned any developments in air pollution models for evaluation of
road projects?
 e.g. We are investigating the application of the CSIRO model TAPM to major road projects.
 List other model developments you know about (either in Australia or International).
Again, thank you for your time in completing this questionnaire.
Please indicate a contact person or persons within your organisation should elaboration or clarification of
questionnaire responses be required.
Name of organisation:
Name of person:
Phone number: E-mail:
AUSTROADS 2004
— 36 —
Appendix C Results of Consultants Questionnaire
Table C 1. Consultants Responses to Question 1

Responses
Question 1.
 Do you undertake air quality modelling for roadway projects?
Respondent 1 CALINE-4, CALQHC, ISC3.
 Rarely in house. Normally we would evaluate the report provided by an external consultant.
However, we have used near road models to look at emissions from roads such as the Westgate
Freeway, feeder roads to the CityLink tunnels, the Kwinana Freeway in WA and NSW freeway’s.
 CALINE-4 modified to increase the possible number of links and receptors, and to read an
Respondent 2 AUSPLUME .MET (meteorological data) file and generate additional statistics. EPA has also
used a modified version of the CIT urban airshed model to look at potential changes to ozone
and NO2 levels.
 While we have looked at a number of other models, the Chock model is the only one with which
we have had any first hand experience.
 Yes, CALINE-4, AUSPLUME, customised version of CALINE-4 that interfaces with part of
AUSPLUME, a regional model developed for Consulting Environmental Engineers, SCREEN3 for
Respondent 3 tunnel vent downwash modelling; wind field modelling by NUATMOS.
 Chock (for roadways); various models for background concentrations and tunnel vents; wind
fields by Ausmet, Calmet, TAPM, WINDS (2D drainage model).
 Indirectly through sources and emissions inventories.

Respondent 4  TAPM, CALPUFF, AUSPLUME (the latter 2 only a small use).
 For roadways, CALINE and a couple of others, mainly developed in the 1970s.
 Yes.
Respondent 5  ISC3, AUSPLUME.
 CALINE-4, CALPUFF.
 Yes.
Respondent 6  GMLINE, CALINE-4.
 HIWAY, UK MODEL.
 Yes.
Respondent 7  CALINE-4, CAL3QHRC.
 CALPUFF.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 37 —

Question 2. If you use air quality models, please list the models used and past examples of their application in your
jurisdiction.
 Model name
 Projects the model has been applied to
 Extent of use, e.g. modelling of ground level concentrations to within 200 m of the roadway, CO, NOx, particulate (?)
 Perceived limitations of the model
 Areas where you think model improvements are required
Model Uses Limitations Improvements
Range of road schemes, range of
Limited consideration of grade, Increased number of segments,
pollutants according to molecular
depressions, terrain etc. improved meteorological data inputs
weights. Particulates more
CALINE-4 Restricted meteorological and consideration, needs significant
problematic as conversion factor
functions. Only useful for improvement of terrain, gradient and
from PPM required. Local
localised modelling. roadside barriers/depressions.
modelling only.
Respondent 1
Possibly allow interpolation of some of

Very specific data inputs are
Intersection models. Local the parameters required rather than
CAL3QHC required that generally are only
modelling only. requiring full intersection modelling by
available from traffic modelling.
Traffic Engineers.
Tendency to overestimate
concentrations from volume
Not entirely appropriate for the
Specific applications where sources over short distances
applications mentioned. Specific
volume sources are required, such downwind. Unable to input source
ISC3 models for superimposed line sources
as portal interactions with off- parameters that vary with local
would be more appropriate, or use of
ramps. conditions such as wind direction.
computational fluid dynamics.
Inability to consider depressions,
sections in cutting etc.
Model can only be used in
relatively uncomplicated terrain.
Roads are sometimes located
Respondent 2
Westgate Freeway, feeder roads

along valleys. We modified
to the CityLink tunnels, the
CALINE-4 CALINE to increase the possible
Kwinana Freeway in WA; CO,
number of links and receptors,
NOx, PM10.
read an AUSPLUME met file, read
in hourly background data and
generate additional statistics.
Awkward to use but I’ve modified

Yarra Glen Bypass Rd, within a It would be good to update the emission
it for larger numbers of receptors,
CALINE few hundred metres of the road, models for the current Australian vehicle
and the modules for intersections
CO, NO2, PM. fleet.
and car parks are quite valuable.
Not developed to be easy to use

Roadways and aircraft around
Customised by others, but is uniquely (I think)
Melbourne Airport, CO, SO2, NO2
CALINE suited to cases where roadways,
using the modified CALINE code
integrated with car parks, chimneys etc are all
for roads and aircraft and the
parts of important and contours are
AUSPLUME code for other
AUSPLUME desired at distance scales of
sources.
Respondent 3
several km.
City Link tunnel vent stacks, for
impacts of CO, NO2, PM at
distances up to several km of the
AUSPLUME
stacks as well as in the
aerodynamic wake of the vent
stacks.
City Link Burnley tunnel and
Probably obsolete now that
Northbridge tunnel, for CO (and
SCREEN3 AUSPLUME includes the PRIME
perhaps other pollutants) in the
algorithm.
wake of the vent structures.
Most major road assessments in

CEE Regional Victoria since about 1985 – see
model Consulting Environmental
Engineers.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 38 —
Cumulative dispersion of Current limitations are the inability

pollutants from sources and to run TAPM "real time" due to the
emissions inventories in need for electronic versions of
Newcastle and dispersion of synoptic meteorology and the
PM10 from open-cut mines in the inability to use local
TAPM
Upper Hunter - we incorporate meteorological measurements to
road use within the overall help establish the wind fields - I
cumulative impacts, but there is understand these limitations will
no attempt to specify individual be minimised in 2002 - another
Respondent 4
roads, so use in very general. limitation is run time.

Used to assess dispersion of
Limitations include the time
PM10 from open-cut operations in
needed to set up the input files for
the Upper Hunter - road use is
the model (sources, emissions,
CALPUFF incorporated in the overall
meteorology) - the PUFF
emissions inventory and therefore
approach seems to work fairly well
use for this purpose in very
for our purposes.
general.
The Gaussian assumption
provides limitations in realistic
Same purpose and use as
AUSPLUME output over 24-hours periods, but
CALPUFF.
the results seem to be "in the ball
park".
Ability to: model combined impacts of
surface roadway plus emissions from
tunnel exhaust stacks; account for other
Eastern Distributor, M5 East.
emission sources either explicitly or
Unable to model cumulative
implicitly through the use of time varying
NOx, PM10, CO, benzene, 1-3 impacts of both surface roadway
ISC3 background air quality monitoring data;
butadiene, acetaldehyde and plus emissions from tunnel
adequately deal with building wake
formaldehyde impacts of stacks exhaust stacks.
effects, flagpole receptors and wind
only.
Respondent 5
flows in building canyons; account for

nitrogen dioxide and ozone formation
chemistry.
Cross City Tunnel.
AUSPLUME background air quality monitoring data;
only.
chemistry.
Used for most Victorian freeway Problems in representing

Respondent 6
GMLINE
projects. intersections.
Problems with cuttings and US

Used for some Victorian freeway
CALINE-4 units, and we have some doubts
projects. Good for intersections.
about accuracy.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 39 —
Limited consideration of grade, Increased number of segments,

Numerous roadway projects in depressions, terrain etc. improved meteorological data inputs
CALINE-4 NSW. including model validation Restricted meteorological and consideration, needs significant
Local modelling only. functions. Only useful for improvement of terrain, gradient and
localised modelling. roadside barriers/depressions.
Very specific data inputs are Increased number of segments,

Intersection models but can also required that generally are only improved meteorological data inputs
CAL3QHC be used fro straight section of available from traffic modelling. and consideration, needs significant
road. Local modelling only. Useful for straight sections with improvement of terrain, gradient and
real meteorological data. roadside barriers/depressions.
Eastern Distributor.
Respondent 7
ISC3 background air quality monitoring data;

only.
chemistry.
Cross City Tunnel.
AUSPLUME background air quality monitoring data;
only.
chemistry.
Useful fro regional modelling.
Line-source algorithm not Incorporation of roadway line-source
CALPUFF Lane Cove tunnel. applicable to roadways. Needs to module would significantly improve the
be augmented with CALIINE model.
modelling.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 40 —

QUESTION 3. What is your response to the question, “Is there a need for a local air quality model which can adequately
predict air quality impacts at sensitive receptors throughout an urban area due to changes in the road network or traffic
patterns using it?”
 For example, do the models you use consider other pollutant sources, other roadways, or ambient pollutant levels
generally?
 Does modelling of a new freeway consider reduced traffic on the arterial roads that the freeway will be drawing traffic
from?
 It is generally difficult with the currently available tools to demonstrate the cost-benefits from an air quality perspective
associated with a particular road scheme. To undertake such a task would involve detailed modelling of all existing, do-
nothing and future with scheme for a fairly wide area around the project. An even larger area would need to be considered
where emissions from tunnels are involved. Such modelling would be both complex and onerous to complete with the
Respondent 1
currently available tools. For this reason many road projects have a poor public profile as the focus tends always to be on
the negatives rather than the positives of, for example, more equitable sharing of the risks associated with pollution and the
reduction of emissions in some areas.
 From the perspective of airshed emissions from vehicles and existing background, the available tools are also very limited.
Fairly simplistic approaches to incorporation of background concentrations are available, generally with a constant assumed
background for a particular compound. This is entirely inappropriate given the cyclic nature of background concentrations in
many cities and the inter-relationship with meteorological conditions.
 Whether or not a regional road network model is required is an interesting question. From a planning perspective, the
answer would be yes. From a pollution impact perspective possibly no – improvements to some of the existing tools for local
road source modelling would probably be more advantageous at present.
Respondent 2
 Agree.
 We have modified these models to include hourly background data recorded at nearby monitoring sites.
 This in not a model function. Its an assumption used when determining the emission rates from nearby roads. Usually, EPA
leans toward the conservative assumption that while traffic densities may fall initially on other nearby roads, flow will slowly
build up to previous levels over time.
 If you mean, is there a need for a new model of this kind to replace what we’ve been using, I think that would be very
Respondent 3
desirable. By ‘throughout and urban area’, I presume you don’t mean the whole of the Sydney or Melbourne urban areas, but
something of the order of ten km or so across. I’ve often found that the magnitude and hour-by-hour variation of network
traffic and background concentrations are hard to quantify with the reliability I’d like. For example, the City Link project
resulted in substantially different shifts in traffic patterns than were predicted. A model can only be as good as the
information on which it is based, and I expect that there will be plenty of uncertainty in the emission inputs for the indefinite
future.

Respondent 4
I would support this idea, but I cannot see how you can have a number of different local models. For comparative purposes
in terms of results, the model core should be the same for all locations, with the local inputs then included for the specific
meso-conditions.
 Yes, for our purposes.
 N/a.
Respondent 5
 Yes.
 ISC3 and AUSPLUME can consider other pollutant sources but this is not the best utility of these tools. Other pollutant
sources are often best considered in these models by adding time varying ambient air quality monitoring data.
 No.
Respondent 6
 Only by superposition.
 Yes, included in a regional model, but cannot realistically be included in a vent-road model.
Respondent 7
 Yes.
 The way in which CALPUFF was used for the Lane Cove Tunnel attempted to address the issue of other roadway sources
and “background”.
 As above, changes on surface road traffic were included in the CALPUFF modelling for the Lane Cove Tunnel projects.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 41 —

QUESTION 4. Are you aware of, or have you commissioned any developments in air pollution models for evaluation of road
projects?
 List other model developments you know about (either in Australia or International)
Respondent
No but we have undertaken fairly complex database programming and analyses to allow cumulative impact assessment and
determination of ozone limitation using the outputs of common modelling approaches such as ISC and CALINE-4.
1
Respondent 2
EPAV will add a near road model within AUSPLUME next year. This will probably be similar to our modified version of CALINE-4.
I understand TAPM is to be modified o include a near road model.
Respondent 3
Yes – see previous answer.

Respondent 4
No, but TAPM has good potential.

Respondent 5
Addition of CALINE-4 to AUSPLUME v6.0.

Respondent 6
 We have used TAPM to generate wind fields. It is good for high wind speeds but does not see "micro" topography and
overestimates low wind speeds.
 Tunnel portal model (by CEE).
 Have tried AUSPUFF (is it still continuing?).
Respondent 7
 Addition of CALINE-4 to AUSPLUME.

 CALPUFF with a CALINE module would be useful.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 42 —
Appendix D Road Authorities Questionnaire
Table D 1. Road Agency Responses to Question 1

Responses
Question 1.
 Do you undertake air quality modelling for roadway projects?
RTA NSW  No, agency uses external consultants including Air Noise Environment and Holmes Air Sciences.
 No, agency generally uses external consultants including Consulting Environmental Engineers,
VicRoads
Graeme Lorimer, CSIRO Atmospheric Research.
DMR Qld  No, agency does not perform air pollution modelling in-house.
 Yes, Air quality modelling is generally done in-house. Until very recently air quality impacts of
DTUP SA road projects were usually not required to be modelling.
 Breeze Roads (with a pre-processor supplied by Holmes Air Sciences).
 Main Roads assess local air quality impacts using Caline-4, and regional air quality impacts using
MR WA the WA Department of Environmental Protection regional air quality model. No air quality
modelling is completed in-house.
 The Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources (DIER) performs air quality modelling
DIER Tas through external consultants. To date no DIER road infrastructure project has required an air
quality impact study involving the use of an emission dispersion model.
 The Department of Transport and Works does not directly undertake air quality modelling on
specific projects. The only time when air quality has been a consideration was for a project
DIPE NT
involved planning for a short tunnel - an assessment was carried out by consultants and a
4
determination made that extractor fans were not warranted .
4
The Department of Lands, Planning and Environment (DLPE) would normally manage 'air quality' issues. DLPE's interest to date has
been confined to environment assessment of proposed development projects - eg LNG plants. There has been no work done in relation
to vehicle emissions and air quality.
As a pre-cursor to the NEPM on air quality, the DLPE commissioned CSIRO to undertake an air quality study in the Darwin urban area.
This study was completed in Dec 2000 and the Study Report can be found at the following URL
http://www.lpe.nt.gov.au/enviro/Wmpcreg/AirQ/AQStudy/AQStudy.htm
From the NT perspective, and based on the results of the Air Quality Study (see reference above), air quality monitoring appears to be
unwarranted at this stage of Darwin's development.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 43 —

Question 2. If you use air quality models, please list the models used and past examples of their application in your
jurisdiction.
 Model name;
 Projects the model has been applied to;
 Extent of use, e.g. modelling of ground level concentrations to within 200 m of the roadway, CO, NOx, particulate (?)
 Perceived limitations of the model;
 Areas where you think model improvements are required.
Model Uses Limitations Improvements
Used to model the South Eastern
Arterial from Tooronga Rd to
Warrigal Rd, with a model area of
Limited at the time to the extent
64 square kilometres. This
GM LINE that model area boundary -
modelling changes to regional air
conditions could not be included.
pollution levels (CO, NO2) due to
the construction of the Eastern
Freeway.
Used to model the Eastern
Freeway Stage 1+2, Doncaster
Rd to Ringwood c.1987, with a
AUSPUFF model area of 91 square Limited at the time because the
AND GM LINE kilometres. This modelling model did not accurately predict -
(CHOCK) changes to the regional air valley air pollution concentrations.
the construction of the Eastern
Freeway.
These models were used on the

VicRoads consultants
Western and Southern Bypass

Study (City Link) circa.1994. The
model area was 162 square
AUSPUFF, Limited to the extent that the
kilometres. This Modelling
NUATMOS, vertical profile was limited by the -
changes of the regional air
CHOCK. meteorological data.
the construction of the Western
and Southern Bypass. PM10 was
also considered.
CALINE-4 was used for
assessment of a Park and Ride
facility in Doncaster. This Limitations due to effective terrain
CALINE-4 modelling local impact of extra -
interpretation.
vehicle movements created by this
facility.
AUSPUFF,
AUSPLUME, Regional Modelling. - -
TAPM
GM LINE,
CALINE-3, Near Road Modelling. - -
CALINE-4
Queensland Main Roads
AUSPLUME - - -
Consultants
CALINE-4 - - -
AUSTROADS 2004
— 44 —
The model assumes free flow and

Improvements to overcome these
uses US fleet characteristic (fleet
Breeze Roads has not been limitations, eg by being able to input
Transport SA
composition & age) and fuel

employed on any projects yet. It is specific fleet characteristics; capacity to
quality data. Emission factors
BREEZE designed to model impacts on the deal with background levels of
used are generally derived from
ROADS nearest sensitive receptors, out to pollutants; capacity to model
average fleet emission values for
about 100 metres from a road or greenhouse gas emissions. Also, better
the whole of the SA Fleet, not
intersection. estimates of Fuel Emission factors are
emission factors of vehicles
needed.
driving in Adelaide conditions.
Consultants have used Caline-4 to
assess local air quality. The 1993
UK Design Manual for Roads and
CALINE-4
Bridges (Vol 11, Section 3:1) has - -
been used to model near-road
side air quality and determine the
need for further assessment.
NUATMOS,
AUSPUFF,
- - -
GM LINE,
MEASURE
Main Roads WA Consultants
The Western Australian

Department of Environmental
DEP Model - -
Protection has developed a
regional air quality model.
In 1996-99 Main roads contracted
HGM to produce a local air quality
model for the Perth Metro Region.
This model was called AAQuIRE
and aimed to model local air
quality over the whole Perth Metro
region on a 100m grid. AAQuIRE
used CALINE-4 as its line
dispersion element. In the event
AAQuIRE this proved to be beyond the - -
resources we could allocate to it
and therefore was abandoned in
its draft form. HGM used the UK
Firm CES for the technical
development of this model. Main
Roads now intends to use the
DEP regional air quality model in
assessments where this practical,
available and appropriate.
AUSPLUME - - -
DIER Consultants
LADM - - -
NUATMOS /
- - -
CITPUFF
AUSTROADS 2004
— 45 —

QUESTION 3.
 What is your response to the question, “Is there a need for a local air quality model which can adequately predict air
quality impacts at sensitive receptors throughout an urban area due to changes in the road network or traffic patterns
using it?”
 For example, do the models you use consider other pollutant sources, other roadways, or ambient pollutant levels
generally?
 Does modelling of a new freeway consider reduced traffic on the arterial roads that the freeway will be drawing traffic
from?
 VicRoads sees a definite need for a local air quality model which can adequately predict air quality impacts at sensitive
VicRoads
receptors throughout an urban area due to changes in the road network or traffic patterns.
 The modelling work undertaken for VicRoads by contractors generally includes industrial, commercial, domestic and other
road sources.
 Yes.
 Yes. Community stakeholders generally wish to see the contribution from road network or intersection changes separated
DTUP SA
from other source impacts.

 No.
 No. Nor does it consider induced traffic. However we would run scenarios for those roads concerned and use several
scenarios (one per road) to derive the comparisons we may require.
 Main Roads believes there is a need for a local air quality model that can predict impacts at sensitive receptors.
MR WA
 Main Roads uses the DoE regional air quality model, which considers other pollutant sources, roadways and ambient
pollutant levels.
 Air quality modelling of a new freeway would consider reduced traffic on other arterial roads.
 There is no need for a model that can predict air quality impacts due to changes in Tasmania's urban areas or road network.
Tasmania has a static population and a mature road network, so DIER does not anticipate significant changes in the road
network or in traffic patterns. For this reason, our civil works arm became a separate business enterprise in the 1990s, and
DIER Tas
we no longer have a significant in-house infrastructure design capability.

Air quality is a recognised problem in Tasmania's urban centres, but the main concern is particulate (PM10) emissions from
domestic wood heaters. Other airborne contaminants, with the possible exception of carbon monoxide, are not a major
concern. Initiatives have been established to reduce wood heater emissions.
The State government's Department of Primary Industries, Water, and Environment (DPIWE) carries the primary
responsibility for monitoring air quality issues and models.

QUESTION 4. Are you aware of, or have you commissioned any developments in air pollution models for evaluation of road
projects?
 List other model developments you know about (either in Australia or International).
RTA
The RTA also identified the Norwegian Institute for Air Research which has developed a Gaussian plume model (based on a
Japanese model). See the following URL: http://www.nilu.no/niluweb/index.cfm?lang=3
VicRoads
No, not directly. However a contractor may modify a model during a modelling exercise specifically for the project, eg CALINE-4
variants.
MR WA DTUP SA
Transport SA has commissioned work on developing emission factors for the Adelaide in-service fleet. It is also undertaking
roadside monitoring for verification of model being developed by the Transport Systems Centre, Uni SA, for predicting emissions
from road links.
Main Roads is not aware of any developments in air pollution models for the evaluation of road projects.
No, DIER hasn't commissioned any model developments. We are aware of airshed modelling initiatives in Australia, such as the
DIER
Sydney basin airshed study, and we also have a demonstration version of the U.S. CALroads View traffic air dispersion modelling
package. However, the State government's Department of Primary Industries, Water, and Environment (DPIWE) carries the
primary responsibility for monitoring air quality issues and models.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 46 —
APPENDIX E ROAD AUTHORITY AIR QUALITY CONTACTS

Roads and Traffic Authority – NSW
Name: Steve Isles
Phone: (02) 9218 6420
Email: Steve_ISLES@rta.nsw.gov.au
Name: Maria Camamo

Phone: (02) 9218 6722
Email: Maria_CAMAMO@rta.nsw.gov.au
VicRoads – Vic
Name: Phil West
Phone: (03) 9854 2681
Email: Phil.West@roads.vic.gov.au
Department of Main Roads – Qld

Name: Robin Stone
Phone: (07) 3834 2513
Email: Robin.j.stone@mainroads.qld.gov.au
Department of Transport and Urban Planning – SA

Name: John Yates
Phone: (08) 8343 2631
Email: john.yates@transport.sa.gov.au
Name: Phil Morgan

Phone: (08) 8343 2827
Email: phil.morgan@transport.sa.gov.au
Name: Rodney May

Phone: (08) 8343 2936
Email: rodney.may@transport.sa.gov.au
Main Roads – WA
Name: Murray Limb
Phone: (08) 9323 4254
Email: murray.limb@mainroads.wa.gov.au
Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources - Tas

Name: Jed Gillian
Phone: (03) 6233 3174
Email: Jed.Gillian@dier.tas.gov.au
Department of Infrastructure Planning and Environment - NT

Name: Reg Walters
Email: Reg.Walters@aarc.com.au
AUSTROADS 2004
— 47 —
APPENDIX F USEFUL INFORMATION SOURCES

CSIRO Atmospheric Research
http://www.dar.csiro.au/information/airpollution.html
Victorian EPA
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/Air/
NSW EPA
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/publications/air.htm
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/air/index.htm
Clean Air Society for Australia and New Zealand (CASANZ)
www.casanz.org.au
National Pollutant Inventory (NPI)
http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/npi/
National State of the Environment Reporting Indicators
http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/envindicators/index.html
Bureau of Meteorology
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/
Natural Heritage Trust
Clear the Air: Natural Heritage Trust projects to improve urban air quality
http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/airquality/clear_the_air.html
Air pollution in Major Cities Program
http://www.nht.gov.au/programs/airqual.html
Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering
http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/airquality/urban-air/index.html
National Environment Protection Council (NEPC)
National Environment Protection Council , http://www.ephc.gov.au/
Measure for Ambient Air Quality, http://www.ephc.gov.au/nepms/air/air_nepm.html
Measure for the National Pollutant Inventory, http://www.ephc.gov.au/nepms/npi/npirev2002_intro.html
Environment Australia
http://www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/index.html
AUSTROADS 2004
— 48 —
APPENDIX G PROPOSED CHANGES TO CALPUFF

In light of the findings of this report it is considered that an upgrade to CALPUFF is desirable. The following
changes are proposed:
Incorporate into CALPUFF CALINE-style algorithms which would allow for near-roadway impacts to be
assessed simultaneously with other sources such as ventilation stacks.
The upgrade should allow for the following:
 use of long term meteorological data;

 incorporation of at least 60 roadway links;
 allowance for time-varying emissions;
 allowance for non-steady state conditions resulting in realistic near-road predictions;
 “CALINE default mode” to give similar results to the CALINE models.
Other options would be to allow the program to take account of local terrain (this is currently not available in
the CALINE series) and to take account of all the CALINE options such as elevated roadways, depressed
grades and urban canyons. At distances beyond say 100 metres from the road the model should still be able
to predict the roadway contributions.
Earth Tech Inc., the developers of the CALPUFF software, have provided an indicative estimate of US$20K
to carry out these changes. The authors are awaiting a detailed proposal, including timing requirements, to
undertake these works at the time of writing.
AUSTROADS 2004
— 49 —
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
Austroads (2004), Review of Air Quality Models for Roads, Sydney, A4, 59pp,
AP-R249/04
KEYWORDS:
Air Quality, Modelling, Pollution
ABSTRACT:
The Austroads project T&E.E.531 was undertaken to determine to the state of the art
in regional and local air quality modelling within Australia as applied to road transport
projects and to provide recommendations for the way forward to address future
modelling requirements. This report discusses the strengths and limitations of different
models; assesses the effectiveness and applicability of different models for Road
Authority use; and examines requirements for regional and roadside air quality
modelling. A major finding was that currently only the CSIRO LWM nested with
TAPM model is able to deal with both near road and regional impacts. It was
concluded that initiatives should be undertaken to upgrade existing models to allow
for the simultaneous assessment of impacts. Having alternate models available would
provide continuing impetus for improvements and upgrades.
AUSTROADS PUBLICATIONS
Austroads publishes a large number of guides and reports. Some of its publications are:
AP-G1/03 Rural Road Design: A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads
AP-8/87 Visual Assessment of Pavement Condition
Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice
AP-11.1/88 Traffic Flow AP-11.9/88 Arterial Road Traffic Management
AP-11.2/88 Roadway Capacity AP-11.10/88 Local Area Traffic Management
AP-11.3/88 Traffic Studies AP-11.11/88 Parking
AP-G11.4/04 Treatment of Crash Locations AP-11.12/88 Roadway Lighting
AP-11.5/88 Intersections at Grade AP-11.13/95 Pedestrians
AP-11.6/93 Roundabouts AP-11.14/99 Bicycles
AP-G11.7/03 Traffic Signals AP-11.15/99 Motorcycle Safety
AP-11.8/88 Traffic Control Devices
AP-12/91 Road Maintenance Practice
AP-13/91 Bridge Management Practice
AP-14/91 Guide to Bridge Construction Practice
AP-15/96 Australian Bridge Design Code (Box set)
AP-17/92 Pavement Design Guide
AP-18/00 RoadFacts 2000
AP-S22/02 Austroads Pavement Strategy 2001–2004
AP-23/94 Waterway Design: A Guide to the Hydraulic Design of Bridges, Culverts & Floodways
AP-26/94 Strategy for Structures Research and Development
nd
AP-G30/02 Road Safety Audit – 2 Edition
AP-34/95 Design Vehicles and Turning Path Templates
AP-36/95 Adaptions and Innovations in Road & Pavement Engineering
AP-38/95 Guide to Field Surveillance of Quality Assurance Contracts
AP-40/95 Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development
AP-41/96 Bitumen Sealing Safety Guide
AP-42/96 Benefit Cost Analysis Manual
AP-44/97 Asphalt Recycling Guide
AP-45/96 Strategy for Productivity Improvements for the Road Transport Industry
AP-46/97 Strategy for Concrete Research and Development
AP-47/97 Strategy for Road User Costs
AP-48/97 Australia at the Crossroads, Roads in the Community — A Summary
AP-49/97 Roads in the Community — Part 1: Are they doing their job?
AP-50/97 Roads in the Community — Part 2: Towards better practice
AP-51/98 Electronic Toll Collection Standards Study
AP-52/97 Strategy for Traffic Management Research and Development
AP-53/97 Strategy for Improving Asset Management Practice
AP-54/97 Austroads 1997 Bridge Conference Proceedings — Bridging the Millennia
AP-55/98 Principles for Strategic Planning
AP-G56/03 Assessing Fitness to Drive – Commercial and Private Vehicle Drivers
(Medical standards for licensing and clinical management guidelines) [September 2003]
AP-57 & 58/98 Cities for Tomorrow — Better Practice Guide & Resource Document
AP-59/98 Cities for Tomorrow — CD
AP-60/98 Guide to Stabilisation in Roadworks
AP-61/99 Australia Cycling 1999-2004 — The National Strategy
AP-62/99 e-transport — The National Strategy for Intelligent Transport Systems
th
AP-64/00 Austroads 4 Bridge Conference Proceedings — Bridges for the New Millenium
AP-G65.1/01 Road Condition Monitoring Guidelines: Part 1 — Pavement Roughness
AP-G66/02 Asphalt Guide
AP-G67/02 Travel Demand Management: A Resource Book
AP-G68/01 Guide to Heritage Bridge Management
AP-G69/02 Urban Road Design: A Guide to the Design of Major Urban Roads
AP-G70/02 Austroads Guidelines for Environmental Reporting
AP-G71/02 A Guide for Traffic Engineers — Roads-Based Public Transport and High Occupancy Vehicles
AP-G72/02 Telecommunications in Road Reserves: Operational Guidelines for Installations
AP-G73/02 Guide to the Selection and Use of Bitumen Emulsions
AP-G75/03 Guide to Best Practice for the Construction of Insitu Stabilised Pavements
AP-G76/04 Spayed Seal Guide
AP-S77/03 Austroads Strategy for Design of Roads and Roadsides
These and other Austroads publications may be obtained from:

ARRB Transport Research Ltd Telephone: +61 3 9881 1547
500 Burwood Highway Fax: +61 3 9887 8144
VERMONT SOUTH VIC 3133 Email: BookSales@arrb.com.au
Australia Website: www.arrb.com.au
or from road authorities, or their agent in all States and Territories; Standards New Zealand; Standards Australia & Bicycle New South
Wales.

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AP-R249

REVIEW OF AIR QUALITY

© Austroads Inc. 2011

National Library of Australia

Review of Air Quality Models for Roads

Austroads Project No.T&E.E.N.531

Austroads Publication No. AP-R249/04

Published by Austroads Incorporated

 Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales

2. AIR QUALITY MODELLING

2.2 Types of air pollution models

2.2.1 Gaussian Models

2.2.2 Lagrangian Models

2.2.3 Advanced Eulerian Models

3. REVIEW OF EXISTING MODELS APPLICABLE TO ROAD PROJECTS

Table 3-1. Summary of Air Quality Models

Model Type Name of Model Application

LWM suitable for modelling at both near-road (local)

Advanced Eulerian Model

3.1 Introduction to Selected Models

3.1.1 GM Line model

3.1.5 AUSPLUME and ISC

3.1.6 AUSPUFF / CALPUFF

3.1.7 Air Quality Models at CSIRO Atmospheric Research

3.2 Other Models

3.3 Model uncertainties

3.3.1 CSIRO model validation study

3.4 NSW RTA model validation study

3.4.1 Freeways and arterial roads

3.4.2 Toll plazas and noise barriers

3.4.3 Valley studies

4. REVIEW OF CURRENT PRACTICE IN THE USE OF AIR QUALITY

4.1 Results of consultants questionnaire

4.2 Results of Road Authorities questionnaire

Table 4-1. Road Authority Use of Air Quality Models

Table 5-1. Summary of Recommended Models

AUSTROADS TAPM with LWM CALPUFF

6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND

A Near Road Air Quality Models at CSIRO Atmospheric Research

B Consultants and Road Authorities Questionnaire

C Results of Consultants Questionnaire

D Results of Road Authorities Questionnaire

E Air Quality Modelling Contacts within Road Authorities

G Proposed Changes to CALPUFF

APPENDIX A NEAR ROAD AIR QUALITY MODELS AT CSIRO

A.2 The Air Quality Models

A.3.1 TAPM Technical Description

A.3.2 TAPM Examples of use

A.3.3 TAPM Outputs

A.4 Chemical Transport Model (CTM)

A.4.1 CTM Technical Description

A.5 The Lagrangian Wall Model (LWM)

A.5.1 LWM Technical Description

A.5.2 LWM Examples of use

A.5.3 LWM Outputs

Figure A5: Screen dump of the LWM graphical user interface.

6270 0.12 O3_min

A.6 Validation of CSIRO Models

A.7 Limitations of CSIRO Models

TRANSPORT, DISPERSION AND

Meteorological Air pollutant

DISPERSION AND CHEMICAL

APPENDIX B CONSULTANTS AND ROAD AUTHORITIES