A Review of Power Electronics Based Microgrids

Josep M. Guerrero*, Xiongfei Wang**, Zhe Chen***, and Frede Blaabjerg*

*Denmark Department of Automatic Control Systems and Computer Engineering *Department. of Energy Technology, Aalborg
University ***Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona

Abstract—This paper discusses the fast growing usage of Dis- • A number of designs of semiconductor based electrical unit
tributed Energy Resources (DER) in the whole structure and design of DER and also interfaced DER units in AC microgrids are
of traditional electrical power systems. Microgrid paradigm, which is given in Section III
adaptable and dependability, now becomes the perfect replacement
for the power grids in future. The paper also discusses some options • It is followed by the description of control schemes for DER
in structures, montoring and control methods of DER units. It is units.
followed by the details of the functioning, characteristics, uses and • Finally, the results and further prospects of microgrids are
scope in alternating current microgrids. In the end, we discuss what discussed in the last part.
lies ahead in the field of microgrids and how the concepts mentioned
above may be used to achieve more advanced power systems. II. C ONFIGURATIONS OF A M ICROGRID
In Fig. 1, we can see a basic power electronics based on micro-
I. I NTRODUCTION grids configuration. Usually, a microgrid comprises of a switch
named as STS, diffused critical and non-critical loads, many
units of DER. These DER units are combined with a number of
The loosening of restrictions in electricity market, concerns
protecting devices to form a complex structure. Conventionally,
regarding the environment with emission of toxic gases, efficient
we can divide the microgrid configurations/designs into three
use of energy, and energy sources form the base for the increase
categories based on their usage in the real world, these are: i)
in number of Distributed Energy Resources (DER) in the power
remote microgrids, ii) commercial and industrial microgrids, and
systems of electricity. With an increase in usage of DER units,
iii) utility microgrids. Although, after some latest research we
mainly used in the small scale CHP plants, they are also used in
now have more options available for design and production at
RES, which are extracted from the DG units, we cannot consider
cheaper rates of microgrid configuration for different kinds of
distribution systems as passive networks any more. The whole of
consumers. Another categorization may be done on the basis of
architecture and background of electrical power systems has to be
the way these units deliver and distribute the power, as shown in
restructured to deal with the increase in multiplex operations. As
second figure. This categorization is done as follows: DC- and
a result, three possible concept models are proposed. Microgrid
AC- coupled hybrid microgrids, DC microgrids, HFAC (High-
model links several consumers to several DER units that have
Frequency AC) microgrids, and LFAC (Line-Frequency AC)
the DG and DS units. Under the idea of microgrids, we will
microgrids.
have smooth transition in landing modes during any critical
conditions which the grid may encounter. Also, there may be
parallel operations of the consumers and DER units with the
main grid,. Furthermore, this kind of grid structure will provide
more mould-ability to the control of DER units, thus offering
key possible advantages of increase in quality of power, a more
trust-able service centre of electricity and local power, as well as
higher efficiency of electricity supply. Rigorous examination of
microgrids and after demonstration of a number different projects,
we have been able to show the problems as well as solutions
in the field of power systems in AC and DC microgrids. In
the past few years, there has been a rapid development in the Fig. 1.
power electronics technology. This has happened mainly due A. DC Microgrids
to the speedy growth of semiconductors like silicon-phosphate-
Power systems which are DC distributed have wide appli-
astatine based power sytem synchronized semiconductors that
cations in shipboard power systems, telecommunication sys-
have reduced the transient time response, and also the complexity
tems,and electric vehicles. Lately, the increased usage of loads,
of the algorithms which are implied in control units. This paper
which are electronic in nature, especiallly in offices and other fa-
basically a short note on microgrids - power electronics based
cilities, microgrid is a very attractive and an apt answer for many
configuration and the control strategies. The paper is divided into
consumers. For example, an LVDC microgrid design (owning to
sections as following:
their high sensitive to electronic loads) has many applications in
• Second section is a note on the microgrid configuration. commercial power systems. Fig. 3 shows a LVDC microgrid, it is
 and a number of real world usage. Hence, we later cover a
systematically and ordered review of the design, characteristics
and controls of LFAC microgrids thoroughly. These microgrids
hold the potential to solve the energy and power problems we
face today.

Fig. 2.

commonly used system in power electronics. Many recent works

and research papers have discussed the dc microgrids. Many have
also discussed different operational scenarios and controls in the
system voltage, and the transitions between different modes -
islanded and grid-connected. In the end, we can say that if the
applied voltage level provided to the microgrid is appropriate,
they definitely present a better performance scope to LVAC
microgrids, both in terms of efficiency and expenses. Fig. 4.

D. The Hybrid AC- and DC- Coupled Microgrids

Fig. 3.
B. HFAC Microgrids
For many years now, the well developed distributed power
systems for the army, navy and airforce. It is a well known fact
that by increasing the frequency, we can decrease the weight and
dimensions of the equipment. Although, there are limitations to
the use of these power systms - to local areas only. It is mainly
because the losses increase exponentially with distance. For
example, see Fig. 4, a power electronics based HFAC microgrid
is shown which is made up of a UPQC, a single-phase 500 Hz
HFAC line, and UPLC. The UPQC is mainly for reimbursement
of the voltage distortions, these result majorly from non-linear
loads. The UPLC, which interconnects the main grid and HFAC
, is used to monitor the flows from/to the microgrid, both active
and reactive power. It is very clear that both the systems, comprise
to regulate the ow of power in a microgrid. However, as already
mentioned, the leakages and losses increase with increasing
frequency.
C. LFAC Microgrids
Ever since the discovery of this type pf microgrids, they have
been the the most exciting area of study. The fifth figure shows
the design of power electronics based on LFAC microgrids.
The LFAC microgrid has a wide range of operational scenarios
The microgrid design with both DC and AC links aims to
provide an effective and efficient method of combining a number
of DER units into a number of different kinds of distribution
systems. The DC compenent of the hybrid microgrid is mainly
used for interlinking the distributed systemswhich store energy.
It also includes fuel cells , batteries, flywheels (linked to the
AC-DC bidirectional converters), and other various sources of
energy (DC-DC Boost converters linking the PV systems and
other smaller turbines). Although, we have a more advanced
method to integration of different DER units through hybrid DC-
and AC- coupled microgrid, there is need to investigate ans study
the stability, sustainability and protection issues of the design.
Fig. 5.
III. DESIGNS OF ELECTRONICALLY-COUPLED DER
UNITS
The units of DER inside a microgrid may be differentiated
by their interface characteristics. The interface of power elec-
tronics has a few superior performance indexes over the rotating
generators. SCIG, DFIG and PMSG are the three different
kinds of wind turbine systems.They have more effective, less
transitional losses and leakages, better suited to modern world -
environmental friendly and also provide active harmonic filtering,

Fig. 6.
higher flexibility, and a dynamic control of power flow. A range
of converters are regularly presented for interfacing units of DER.
The designs and controls for units of DER with alternating current
microgrids (do note that the DER units ate electrically coupled)
are as follows:
Fig. 7.
A. Electronically-Coupled DER Units
The traditional sources of energy can produce either DC or AC
voltages only, this is not enough to support a modern complex
microgrid and DER units which require a combination of both
from the power system. also, the structure of units of DER can
be categorized in two parts. The division is subjective in nature.
The output voltages from these energy resources are converted
to the voltages that are compatible to the microgrid. Also, the
most probable operational scenario of a DER unit has restrictions
when choosing the appropriate power stage topology regardless of
traditional sources of energy type, a united dynamic performance.
Thus, there must be a component to storage energy within each
DG unit which has a bidirectional converter. Fig. 7 depicts a wind
turbine connected to a system with battery like storage system.
Critical review of these DER units have been stated after critical
examination. Those converters can be divided into two categories
as follows:
1) Single-Stage Power Conversion Systems: These system are
the most widely used one while designing the microgrids. The
conventional make-up of a single-stage power conversion system
for DER unit can be seen Fig. 8. A transformer is usually added
to the system to pull up/down voltage in case of complex designs.
On the other hand, one of the simplest design is compromised
of a very heavy, high density and very costly line frequency
transformer. A couple of designs are available that offer a
different approach other than the conventional methods. Also,
one thing which needs to be pointed out is the losses suffered
due to the galvanic connection of the grid and the DC source.
The losses occur in form of currents known as leakage currents.
Some appropriate solutions need to be searched to minimize the
losses encountered during the power flow.
Fig. 8.
2) Two-Stage Power Conversion Systems: It is one of the most
widely used design for any microgrid technology that finds use in
DER. From Fig. 9, we can clearly see two designs for a two-stage
power conversion system - PV and FC systems, respectively. The
major problem with this system is the building and production
cost. In order to tackle the same, we build converters that are
multi leveled. There is still a lot of scope for improvement the
in coversionn system. It hold great potential to power the DER
units.
IV. CONTROL METHODS OF ELECTRONICALLY -
COUPLED DER UNITS
Control methods are usually used for the units which are
structured using potential modes of operations under specific
conditions and to function in the required manner. In Fig. 10,
we see a unit of DER. These DER units find use in forming the
control system for an electronically-coupled unit. The DER units
(electronically coupled) can operate in different manners such as:
1) Grid-Forming Units: These regularly regulate the voltage
and frequency of DER units, microgrids and the power system.
They do so by stabilizing the power generation vs load demands.
However, as there are references from the main grid of voltage
and frequency. In this case, only one unit of DER can work as
the grid forming unit and we may use two types control methods.
The first one uses a special kind of switch named STS to allow
the units to function in two different modes: voltage-controlled
mode and current-controlled mode. The switch between first and
second mode may bring some problems and difficulties while
dealing with variations and fluctuations i different components.
The two kinds of powers produced by the unit of DER may be
written as:
VC2 VC Vg
A= cos θ − cos(δ + θ) (1)
Z Z
V2 VC Vg
B = C sin θ − sin(δ + θ) (2)
Z Z
where Z is the coupling impedance Usually, Z is inductive in na-
ture. Now, the simplified in per unit value under the assumptions
power flow in an ideal unit can be given as:

VC Vg
P = sin δ
X for Field Oriented Control, VOC for Voltage Oriented Control
VC2 − VC Vg Z cos δ
Q=
X synchronous). They generally have high variable and static per-
The major advantages of a voltage control (direct alternating)
method are: It is compatibility for both operations in microgrid
(no additional static switch is required), and the quick response
of alternating voltage during transitional state.
Fig. 9. (a) General PV system design . (b) High-frequency link direct dc-ac
power converter for fuel cells.
Fig. 10.
2) Grid-Feeding Units: Grid-feeding units change powers in
A and B (both active and reactive ) such that it follows the power
requirements and is also able deal with any kind fluctuations with
ease. Many research papers regarding the methods to control all
units of DER. These units are be used in the grid-feeding units are
operational units. The available options are current controllers:
current control, DPC and alternating current voltage control; these
have divided based on their uses. Refer to Fi g. 11 for more
information o the varios categories. Below is a brief note on
them:
Fig. 11.
3) Current control method: The units of this kind are similar to
FOC but quite different from VOC and VFOC. Here, FOC stands
(3)
and VCOF for Virtual Flux Oriented Control. Both techniques
(4) copy the interfaces of power electronics as generators (mainly
formance (thse are control method dependent properties).
4) DPC method: It is similar to the direct torque control
(DTC) of a motor (inductive motor). There are no current loops
present in DPC method. This method is prone to high transition
voltages and an unstable environment may develop.
5) Grid-Supporting Units: The grid parallel units deliver as
much energy as possible whereas these are more advanced units;
in addition to being capable of extracting maximum possible
power (only active power), they also provide manageable condi-
tions for the improvement of quality in power. Lately, a Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT)was altered and was used along
with a voltage controller (periodic and AC) to compensate for
harmonics in a PV system.
V. MICROGRID CONTROL AND POWER
MANAGEMENT
In ancient systems, generators stored kinetic energy which
formed the base for studying the stability of the power systems.
The modern power systems have different problems: high resis-
tance at low voltage and several other problems which we will
discuss in depth. The microgrid structure is suppose to offer a
more human interactive behaviour and be flexible. The functions
of primary and secondary controller are well defined. Primary is
responsible for balancing active and reactive powers whereas the
secondary for managing the variations in frequency and voltage
of the system. There is also a third controller with a long term
job.
A. Impact of Load Characteristics
It is the most important characteristic of a microgrid and hence
the graph of load characteristics must be studied properly and
thoroughly. These determine the frequency and voltage stability.
We also look through the droop characteristics. The following
equations may be considered:

V
2 
V
2
P = PN [ap + bp + cp ] (5)
VN VN
 2  2
V V
Q = PN [aq + bq + cq ] (6)
VN VN
The constraints are:
ap + bp + cp = 1 (7)
aq + bq + cq = 1 (8)
B. Instantaneous Power Balancing Strategies
This characteristic is important to strike a balance between the
two types of power - active and reactive. The two types are:
active load sharing methods and droop methods. The methods
mentioned above use different techniques and principles to deal
with the losses encountered in a microgrid.
C. Supervisory Control for Energy Management
There are two types of methods to ensure maximum conserva-
tion of energy in microgrids. The first one (centralized) forms the
base in DER units to conserve power by minimizing lossed. the
second method (decentralized) is mainly used to control the multi-
agent technology. The leakage current is drastically reduced in the
same. Communication plays a key role in both the strategies. The
Java encoded system has been put under critical research.
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systems–Part II: Load sharing control,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., Vol. 19,
No. 6, pp.1551-1561, Nov. 2004.

VI. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we have presented a critical outline on microgrids
which are based on power electronics. A lot has been dis-
cussed regarding microgrid characteristics, properties, structure
THe following equations may be considered:s, designs and other
control methods for units of DER (coupled electrically). Also,
we came across strategies and techniques to allow us to conserve
power and energy in microgrids. For the microgrid characteristics
and designs, dc microgrids and high frequency AC microgrids
have been discussed and described showing that they give better
performances under special conditions for specific applications.
Thus by combining low voltage DC bus system with AC bus
systems under varied frequencies as needed by different loads.
We also studied the hybrid DC- and AC- coupled microgrids,
we showcased how they can provide a better performance and
an advantage when interlinking units of DER. We have also
discussed different options available in designs of units of DER
and their tpologies. Transformer less AC-AC converter is the
latest addition to PV systems. The fifth section discusses the
energy issues of these power system in microgirds in detail.
Although the conservation is compressed in some regards but
the output voltage is pretty decent and somewhat compensates
the extra energy spent. Microgrids are definitely the future of
poer production all over the world, mainly due their potential to
produce energy at faster rate causing less harmful effects. Finally,
we described the multilevel hierarchical control designs or the
hybrid microgrids for management of power and energy.

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