e> Pergamon Wat. Sci T~d1.Vol. 32. No.2. 1'1'. 209-216. 1995.

Copyright C 1995 IAWQ

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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

PROBLEMS OF A "BIG INCH" OUTFALL

Carlo Avanzini and Pierantonio Quirici

M.E.C.C. -Marine & lAnd Engineering and Consulting Consortium Ltd.. Hong Kong
via Swinburne 10/3 -116148 Genova (I)-Barbaros Cad. 39, 4 Levent. Istanbul.
Turkey

ABSTRACT

The increase in the population of cities and the formation of Great Metropolitan Areas bas increased
drastically the flow rates of waste water to the treatment plants. It means, in the coastal areas, an increase io
diameter of the outfaJls at the service of the treatment plants. Large diameter outfalls preseot design and
construction problems of a different type and size to those of the smaller Jines used lDltil recently. The paper
covers some of the problems encountered in the design and construction phases of SlH:alled "big incb"
outfalls.

KEYWORDS

"Big inch"; bottom pulling; diffuser outfall; proflle; sea water density.

INTRODUcnON

The programs of sanitation of Great Metropolitan Areas. located near the sea, have included and still include
many projects. among them large and long marine outfalls. at the service of the Metropolitan water
treatment plants or underwater pipelines for drinking water supply. While in the 1970s outfalls above 800•
1000 mm. diameter were an exception. the necessity of higher discharge rates leads at present to the design
and construction of outfalls of diameters well above such values and in some cases greater than 2 m. The
increase in size naturally also concerns other land and submarine service lines. such as sewer and drinking
water mains.

A few recent examples support such a statement: a twin fresh water line in Hong Kong has been realized
with a 2000 mm diameter; the Trieste (Italy) outfall is a twin 1500 + 1200 mm; the Athens (Greece) twin
submarine sewer siphon has a diameter of 2800 mm and Athens Psittalia outfall of 2600 mm.; the Barcelona
outfall is designed as 2200 mm diameter.

As far the Istanbul area is concerned. the Ahirkapi outfall is a twin 1600 mm; Baltalimani. a twin 1700 mm.
The Kadikoy project foresaw a twin 2200 mm diameter outfall while the Tuzla outfall. actually under
construction. has been redesigned as a single 2200 mm. Other outfalls being planned around the world are in
the range between 1200 and 2200 mm.

In the case of outfalls. their increase in size is often a consequence of the choice of single central large water
treatment plants against a number of smaller ones. Their length is also. in most cases. relevant - more than
209
210 C. AVANZINI and P. QUIRICI

1000 m - but that is strictly related to the environmental conditions and to the bottom depth in the area
where the diffuser will be located. in order to achieve the prescribed standards through the proper dilution of
the discharged waters. The present paper examines in general the problems which can be encountered in all
the phases of the design and planning of "big inch" steel outfalls (to use an American term for such large•
scale pipes) and sealines to be installed with the "bottom pull" method.

TIlE PROBLEMS

Most of the bottom profiles present. as a matter of fact. sensible changes in slope which require accented "S"
or sag bends. The longitudinal stiffness of the pipe and the limits in the bending radius given by the design
specifications can render difficult the achievement of a correct elastic profile of the pipeline. Also. the
presence of rock in banks or of areas of very hard bottom material. particularly in the location of the
maximum bending. creates problems in keeping the profile of the pipe within the design limits of curvature.
without exceeding the allowable stresses in the steel pipe and in the concrete coating. while keeping at the
same time a proper trench and bacldillievel andlor the rock excavation volumes at a minimum.

The geometrical radius of curvature is related to the bending moment, in the linear theory. through the
formula R =E • I I M. Therefore in the fmite element analysis of the profile the local values of any positive
or negative moment will not exceed the value calculated according to the allowable specified design values
for stress and radius. The bending moment depends anyway on the inenia moment of the pipe: if the pipe is
bare. the value of I is easily calculated. but the presence of the concrete coating complicates the matter.

The theoretical calculation in the case of a composite structure is. however. not difficult, but in practice the
engineer faces a non-homogeneous structure constituted by the pipe. the corrosion coating. the concrete
coating and its reinforcing mesh. Due to the construction mode. the structural characteristics will never be
constant along the whole length. A problem. mentioned by several authors. is for instance the bond of the
concrete coating to the corrosion coated steel. which may lead to slippage of part of the concrete mass;
another is the difference in the characteristics between the factory or yard applied concrete coating and the
field joints. The initial design must, therefore. be based on an average estimated values. As a consequence.
during the first phases of the launching. the behavior of the pipe should be controlled in order to verify the
assumptions and eventually to provide corrections to the bedding levels.

A further point influences the design profile: neither the executed trench bottom level. nor the bedding level.
if a bedding is prescribed. will match the theoretical design levels. A generally accepted tolerance is +50 cm.
above the design level. It is therefore practically impossible to obtain the so called "continuous support"
prescribed. in several cases. as a base for the pipe's elastic curvature. The pipe must be consequently
calculated as "sitting" in a cenain number of areas. accurately checked for level and depth. and spanning
between the "supports". Due to the always relevant longitudinal stiffness. the pipe is sensitive to any
significant obstacle or sudden variation in the profile; as a consequence the local moments can reach values
considerably higher than the permitted ones.

For the above mentioned reasons, it is advisable to avoid. as much as possible. reaching at any point the
allowable limit of the moment It is preferable to keep the design maximum moment during the installation
at 60-70% of the permitted one. in order to have some strategic reserve against surprises. And surprises are
possible. since the pipe does not care about our selection of the design parameters and takes the
configuration that its own structure permits.

Pipe nssembly
The large diameter of the outfalls and the presence of the concrete coating. to obtain the necessary
submerged weight, is cause of relevant weights of the pipes - in a recent project the weight is more than
 Design and construction problems of a "big inch" outfall 211

5700 kglm in air. Such weight makes the traditional "long string" pre-assembly on shore not impossible •
such a system has been used, for instance, in Hong Kong - but is difficult and costly because of the need
for heavy lifting equipment, even if the launching time is somewhat shorter. The problem may be overcome
with a launching ramp, which substitutes the "roller" or "car" way used for the string launching
configuration.

The concept of the launching ramp, also equipped with rollers, is to have the pipes aligned, welded, gamma•
ray tested and the corrosion and concrete coatings applied to the field joints. The assembly and coating
operations are performed in one or more stations, while the pipeline is being pulled step by step. An
advantage is given by the possibility of inclining with the slope necessary to have the pipe touch down on
the bottom as near as possible to the shore. This may avoid the need for intermediate supports in the sea,
minimizing the temporary stabilization and protection works against wave attack and facilitating the final
lowering in the trench of the spanning section.

The use of multiple stations (for instance alignment and hot pass, 2 or 3 welding for the weld completion,
gamma-ray, corrosion coating and concrete coating stations) allows a bottom pull at a rate of I pipe every
2-4 hours. the speed depending naturally on diameter and wall thickness for the welding and on the
swiftness of the ancillary operations. Generally, the governing step is the alignment of the pipes and the
completion of the first welding passes. In some cases, for lack of yard space, all the operations are
concentrated in one single station, but this can be used only for short outfalls when the launching time is not
binding.

The stiffness of the pipe, together with the tolerances of fabrication and the eccentricity in the concrete
coating, also influences the design of the ramp, this being anyway true also for any system on which the pipe
or the string move. A stiff pipe is very sensitive to any misalignment of the supports; due to the relevant
weight in air, even a few centimetre misalignment or difference in the pipe outside diameter may cause an
undesirable increase in the vertical reactions and the presence of unforeseen horizontal transversal forces. A
way to dampen the vertical reactions is found in the use of elastic supports in all the rollers, while particular
structural arrangements or free sliding frames take care of the possible horizontal forces.

Submer~ed wei~ht

The design of the submerged weight, which constitutes the necessary ballast during the installation phase
and a protection to the corrosion coating, involves contrasting requirements. On one side, the submerged
weight has to be kept in the low range to avoid unnecessarily high pulling forces, which may not be
available in the location or in the country; on the other side, the pipeline, during the installation and before
the filling for testing, must be stable to current and wave attack.

The problem of stability is usually a headache or, more technically, a very delicate item. It is sometimes
difficult to get all the meteomarine information related to a precise location - for instance, local maximum
wave height or coastal currents are often unknown. Once such data have been investigated or luckily found,
they must be carefully evaluated, the most appropriate wave theory defmed, together with the related
hydrodynamic and inertia coefficients and fmally the design parameters must be chosen. The design
parameters must include a reasonable risk factor, depending on the potential seasonal changes and the
uncertainty of all local meteorological forecasts.

A further problem is how to make use of such data to calculate the forces exerted on the submerged pipeline.
There is scarce information on the inertial forces originated by the waves on large, stiff pipes; also the
behaviour of twin or multiple pipes and the eventual shielding effect of the trench is little known. This leads
to different approaches to the calculation of the necessary ballasting or, if the unit submerged weight cannot
be increased above certain limits, to the defmition of auxiliary stabilization structures along the pipeline
route. In general, it appears anyway that for large, stiff pipes the prevailing force is the drag force, both as
hydrodynamic drag and as horizontal component of the inertia force.
212 C. AVANZINI and P. QUIRICI

Such pathways are anyway mostly connected to the installation phase - in operation, if the pipe is full of
water and, many times, covered, the problem practically does not exist - it usually falls on the Contractor's
shoulders. The Contractor must deal directly with it and the decision on the necessary stability value comes
through his experience and his evaluation of the degree of risk that he is ready to run. An underestimate of
the maximum wave height, and the consequent saving on the weight or on the safety precautions in the
launching period may lead to big problems, if not to disasters. In this respect, the twin pipe configuration is,
according to experience, basically more stable, but again there is no theoretical support for this statement.

As far as the unit submerged weight is concerned, unless a minimum design value is prescribed by the
Owner, sometimes as a percentage of the weight in air or as a given value, its final value is a Contractor's
decision after an evaluation, both technical and economic, of all the parameters of the situation. Just to give
some numbers, submerged weights from 50 to 500 kg/m have been used in recent projects, each choice
being strictly connected to the local conditions.

In many cases the choice of a low submerged weight depends more on the holding force of the anchors of
the pulling barge, or of the winch anchorage, if the line is pulled from land as it may happen in narrow straits
or in gulfs, than on the pulling force of the available winch, which can be increased, for instance, using
multiple tackle systems.

Sea water densjty

It should be taken into consideration that the sea water density plays a role in the submerged weight
becoming more relevant as the pipe size becomes larger. For instance, the value of the buoyancy of a 2600
mm 00 concrete coated pipe varies by 5.3 kg/m for any change of I kg/m 3 in the value of the density.
Generally, the density value is assumed as a known average value in the open sea, if available in the same
general area. For preliminary design and tender design purposes, it may be sufficient, but for the
construction design it could be misleading.

In the case of confined bays or gulfs, of closed seas, or in presence of strong thermoclines, which generally
denote also the presence of pycnoclines, there can be relevant differences in density between shallow waters,
where the density may be on the low side, and deep waters. In parallel, in the case of presence of clay layers
in the bottom, the excavation operations and the water movements may produce in the trench a distinct layer
of lime and eventually a colloidal solution with high density. Both can affect the submerged weight of the
pipe and it is clear that a "light" pipe may even reach buoyant conditions and lift above the bedding. The
density of the sea water must be considered a significant design parameter which must be monitored, both
near the trench bottom and in the near shore area, before and during the construction period.

Pullin!: procedures

The bottom pull of a large diameter pipeline does not differ conceptually from that of a small one. As
mentioned before, the excavated or the bedding profUe shall be, to some extent, more precise due to the
stiffness of the pipe; the pulling forces may be greater, due to greater submerged unit weight; but the
procedures are substantially the same.

No particular prescriptions are given, generally, for the pulling winches: any type of equipment has been
used, from the more sophisticated linear winches to modified mine winches, provided that they had enough
pulling force - eventually obtained through multiple tackle systems - and a correct speed.

It is important anyway for the "big inches" to have the possibility of monitoring, with sufficient precision,
the pulling force. Priority must be given to measuring the force at the pulling head, since it gives a correct
indication of the pipe situation, being related to such parameters as the submerged weight, the friction factor
on the trench bottom and to the eventual presence of obstacles - for instance the accumulation of material
in front or at the sides of the pipe. Any further measure on the winch or on the cable may be considered as
optional. only useful to detect if the pulling cable gets stuck, as it may happen, by "cutting" the bottom.
 Design and construction problems of a "big inch" outfall 213

The other important control is that of the pipe levels during the pulling; their accurate monitoring (which in
large pipes could also be made from inside) may permit the detection of eventual risks due to excess
bending.

Any good pulling procedure must also concentrate on the initial phase. when the pipe leaves. as often
happens. the last support of the ramp and remains in cantilever. till it reaches the touch down area.

In this phase the pipeline end must be equipped with buoyancy tanks. and in addition the pulling head itself
may be designed to act as buoyancy. According to the measured levels reached by the head. the total
balanced weight of the cantilevering section must be modified in order to avoid relevant increases in the
bending moment or in the reaction in the last sea-side ramp's supports; it is also necessary to check if the
moment in the span between the last ramp support and the foreseen touch down point remains within the
limits. eventually "guiding" the pulling head. with changes in the original buoyancy forces. to a
predetermined touch down area. This operation requires a lot of skill. since the regulation and control of the
pipe position depends on the inertia moment and on the pipe's submerged weight, which may change from
pipe to pipe and in reality are only known theoretically. In this respect, water densities near shore and at the
sea surface may cause substantial variations. usually an increase. in the submerged weight. Again. levels.
density and pulling force monitoring are essential for a good job.

No standard exists for the position of the pulling barge: some contractors prefer a "short pulling". starting at
a relatively short distance (300-500 m) from the pulling head and then repositioning and reanchoring the
barge for the second pull. others start the pull from a position 200-300 m offshore from the end point of the
line. The second solution requires a longer cable. but the barge is fixed in one single position and no
operational time is lost during the pulling. The pulling direction cannot be anyway very precise. due to the
possible cable snaking or cutting locally in the bottom.

With short pulling. the pulling direction is more precise. since with relatively low forces the catenary of the
cable does not touch the bottom. but the barge relocation may be time consuming. A combined solution is to
anchor the barge offshore to the end point of the line with long cables. and positioning itself by moving
backward on the cables for a sequence of short pulls (300-400 m each). In this case the relocation on the
barge is quicker and the pulling direction precise. It is in any case essential that the direction of the pull be
very precise until the pipe sits in the trench well offshore of the touch down; any. even minor. angle in the
pulling direction may cause damage to the ramp or to the near shore or sea supports.

Pulljn~ aU~nment

In most cases. but not always. the available construction yard area permits the launching way or the ramp to
be built in the direction of the pipeline alignment. We mention this point with reference to the Trieste
project The diffuser of the twin outfall. passing through the port area, had be installed in a precise final
position at an horizontal distance of 400 m from the comer of a future wharf. to be located just on the
launching alignment. The pipeline was in this case pulled for its whole 7 km length in a straight line. then
the first 3.5 km were lifted from the bottom and moved to the trench prepared according to the design route.
Despite the fact that such lateral deviations can be achieved. due to their complexity it is always better to
design the pipe route on a nice, straight line.

Twjn pjpeUnes

Trying to pull twin pipelines separately in the same trench has proved in most cases impractical and
difficult Nowadays. it is preferred to install two parallel lines at the same time in the common trench. as has
been long done for bundles of service pipes in river or gulf crossings.

The two pipe configuration can generally be pulled as a single pipe. provided that the pipes remain parallel.
This is obtained by installing a pulling head which solidly joins the pipe terminals. with the cable attached in
the center of the same. A minimum possible number of transverse connections must be installed. Their role
214 C. AVANZINI and P. QUIRICI

is to avoid any reciprocal displacement along the outfall length causing unforeseen forces on the ramp or on
the head, or strains in the pipe.

The number of transverse connections is a function of the structural capacity of the pipe to withstand the
expected horizontal forces which may be caused by trench bottom unevenness or by deviations in the pulling
direction. The connections should not be rigid: a sufficient degree of freedom, both I~ngitudinal and
transversal, must be present.

"X" diffusers

Just a quick mention of this case. For construction reasons, engineers tend to try to avoid such diffuser
configurations both for single and twin outfalls. In some cases, anyway, the design calls, for environmental
reasons, for an Y diffuser: the classical solution is , in this case, to pull the main line with the bottom pull
system, without the diffuser and install the branches independently, connecting them by underwater
flanging.

Sometimes, as an alternative, the two lines have been separated and laid independently on new diverging
routes: in other projects, the diffusers have been kept in line, despite possible jet interference. Another
solution may consist of connecting the diffuser or the diffuser branches to the main line with flexible
connections and moving them into the design position after the pull.

GeolQ~jcal and seismic problems

As any other land or sea construction, outfalls may be subject to landslides, in the case of geological
instability, or to earthquakes in seismic areas. The direct effects of seismic waves on the pipe may be
evaluated, and the necessary structural resistance can be therefore calculated. For instance, in the Athens
outfall design, earthquake parameters were specified and also the stability of the backfill under earthquake
had to be calculated.

In general, outfalls are installed along the line of main slope, perpendicular to the bathimetric lines:
therefore, it can be assumed that the bottom slides - due to geological faults or to the earthquake - takes
place parallel to the pipe, causing in most cases only an increase in the longitudinal tension forces. In a
recent recorded case, the mass of sliding material, accumulated at the bottom of the slope. pushed the pipe
upwards, bending and breaking it, but events like this are fortunately rare.

The problem is different when the pipeline - as in the case of the Ventimiglia 800 mm, 20 kID long,
submarine aqueduct - runs parallel to the coast in a seismic area, subject to underwater slides. We
introduce the subject, even if not directly related to outfalls, to mention a solution which has been proposed
by the Authors in the tender phase and evaluated in very positive terms by the technical commission of the
Owner. The concept at the base of the proposal was : "if the landslide occurs, let the pipe follow it to a
certain extent without being damaged". The pipe was therefore placed above ground and the freedom to the
eventual translation caused by the lateral pressure of the moving mass was entrusted to a certain number of S
shaped elastic loops inserted along the line. The loops were calculated to resist the forces caused by the
design displacement of the section.

The use of flanged "weak connections", subject to detachment in case of abnormal forces, or of elastic
connections. may also help in providing safety measures against failures, and in any case make eventual
repair easier.

Diffusers nnd diffuser protection

Large diameter outfalls with long diffusers and large diameter ports present a few problems connected both
to the construction and to the operation.
 Design and construction problems of a "big inch" outfall 215

In the bottom pull method. the pipe must be empty; that means that the ports (and naturally also the
inspection accesses. if any) must be blind flanged. Any contractor. despite his capability, fears the possibility
of leiling flanges which may fill to a certain extent the pipe and cause an increase in the pulling force.
Despite the attention the installation of blind flanges (proper sequence of bolt spanning. use of torque
wrench, proper gasket). cases of leaks have been recorded. mainly in large diameter flanges. The potential
problem can be solved by installing a submersible pump, with pressure sufficient to discharge to the surface,
inside the pipe near the pulling head. The pump can be operated from outside by divers and fed. if electrical.
by a generator on a service boat

Another problem. this time during the operation. is saline intrusion and the entrance of sand. lime and
marine organisms through the ports in the low flow periods. In large pipes. the accumulation of material and
the entrance of salt water can reach large volumes and disturb ( and sometimes reduce drastically ) the
regular discharge. To avoid salt water intrusion, several type of nozzles have been designed. tested and
installed with more or less satisfactory results. A common type is an inverted siphon, whose dimensions are
regulated by the difference in the density between salt and treated water. but they cannot avoid the entrance
of material. Also. if dissolved air is present in the discharged water. the air accumulation in the siphon can
reduce the flow through the port. The solution, theoretically, is to close the port with a check valve. but no
traditional check valve will operate for more than few months in the sea.

A scarcely used (at least in Europe) type of check valve has proven itself as suitable for the scope; it is the
commonly called "duck bill check valve" (patented name Tideflex®). It is made completely in rubber, with
a body reinforced with vulcanized-in nylon or polyester cords. and its appearance resembles the beak of a
duck.

The elasticity of the rubber, in the absence of backpressure, keeps the lips of the valve closed. The external
pressure. which is also governing in the dimensioning of the valve structure. helps to keep the valve tight,
not permitting therefore the entrance of whatever material nor of salt water. With the increase of pressure in
the outfall, the lips start to open progressively, until they reach the dimensions of the pipe bore at the
maximum design flow rate. According to experimental data obtained by the Manufacturer from an American
University. pressure losses through the valve are extremely low in all flow conditions. In two recent projects.
Tideflex check valves have been prescribed directly by the Owner.

A last note: the protection of the diffuser from external damages. Provided that since some years the body of
the diffuser is installed in trench and/or covered by backfill. the ports must still protrude from 0.8 to 1 m
above the backfill surface; the ports are therefore vulnerable. mostly to the passage of dragging nets. and
therefore require some type of protection. In this respect there are not, we think. even two projects that have
adopted the same solution. In broad lines, we can classify two systems of protection:

* port protection - any single port is protected by concrete structures in various forms and sizes. The
single concrete structures. despite being widely used, must be designed high above the bottom and
massive or they are likely to be either buried by sand or mud or displaced by the nets. The installation
of all of them. small or big. requires precision and skill; in deep waters the difficulties increase
enormously.

* diffuser protection - the diffuser is contoured by a defense system capable of stopping the nets. The
contour defense. usually placed at some 50-60 m around the diffuser, enables to leave the risers and
ports (and eventually the whole diffuser) free above the bottom. reducing the risk of burial by material
accumulation. The nets are stopped. before arriving on the ports. by concrete blocks connected by
chains. big natural rocks. concrete blocks with protruding blades or other similar artifacts.

This is a field in which any engineer can exercise his fantasy. While both systems constitute a reasonable
protection against nets (but no one is unfortunately really effective against big anchors dragging in the
bottom). from an environmental point of view, the second solution should be preferred; not only does the
216 C. AVANZINI and P. QUIRICI

absence of restrictions around the ports ensures a better flow, but also the concrete blocks or the rocks
surrounding the diffuser will create an undisturbed reproduction zone for marine life.

CONCLUSIONS

Due to the limits given for the papers, the key problems of "big inches" - the American term defining large
size pipes - have been recalled schematically, without entering into details. Each of the items mentioned, if
examined in all its complexity, cannot be covered in a few pages and, by the way, in general, there is plenty
of literature available on the different subjects related to the sealine's design. The intention has been to give
a general, preliminary "check list" as a guide to a deeper analysis into the engineering and construction
problems of the large diameter marine pipelines.