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INTRODUCTION
In this unit three issues are outlined – climate change, “mad cow”
and foot and mouth diseases, and resource security and safety. What
do these very different phenomena have in common? Why should
they be of interest to us? Each of these cases has held the attention
of the international media at different times. What they also have in
common is the very wide potential impact they could have on the
quality of life of many of the world’s citizens.
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OVERVIEW
Sessions 1, 2 and 3 cover climate change, “mad cow” and foot and
mouth diseases, and resource security and safety in the Caribbean, in
that order. In each case you are asked to consider the scientific and
technological aspects of these issues as well as the implications for
society, both internationally and locally. The unit ends by questioning
the relevance of these issues to our societies and our personal lives.
Some of these issues will be referred to again in more detail in Unit 3
of this Module, and in much of Module 2, The Impact of Science on
Society.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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FOR THE STUDENT
A number of readings are provided for you. You are asked to read
through as many as you can. Some readings provide more details on
topics covered in the text; others deal with related but different
issues. The intention is for you to sample different views. You must
form your own opinions. However, we expect that you will be able
to support your views with scientific knowledge and factual infor-
mation from the text or the readings.
READINGS
• Donahue, James. Melting ice caps and thunder. From The Mind of
James Donahue. perdurabo10@lycos.com
• Gellateley, Juliet. Foot the bill and shut your mouth. Viva! LIFE,
Issue 18. Summer 2001, p.20. Also available at
http://www.vivaorg.uk/ Foot and Mouth Home Page.
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Education. © Joseph E. LeDoux, Ph.D. December 1998.
http://xchar.home.att.net/tna/ledoux.htm
8 FD12A
Session 1.1
Climate Change
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n There have been Possible long-term impacts of global warming
several ice ages in
the history of the • Increased desertification as water sources dry up in areas that
earth when very cold were once fertile.
periods alternated
with relatively
warmer periods.
• The melting of glaciers and the polar ice-caps, causing a rise in
20,000 years ago ice sea levels and the disappearance of very low-lying islands.
covered nearly 1/3 of
the earth’s land • Changes in the nature of crops that can be cultivated in different
surface. One
immense ice sheet, parts of the world. For example, growing grapes in the
two miles thick in “temperate” zones may become a real possibility.
places, buried most
of Canada and
reached as far south
• Loss of coral reefs due to the death of the temperature-sensitive
as Illinois. Other organisms that build the reef.
massive ice sheets
covered much of
northern Europe and The Kyoto protocols: the US response
Asia.
The Kyoto protocols are a set of agreements developed at an interna-
tional conference in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. They include a time
frame for participating countries to reduce the emission of green-
house gases by specified amounts over an extended period. Although
the international community agreed that there was urgent need for
such protocols, the Bush Administration in the USA decided, in
early 2001, that it could not support the agreement. However, some
European countries have made significant progress in reducing emis-
sions in their countries. The American response is a major setback
because the USA is a significant source of the greenhouse gases
being emitted at present. To date, this issue has not been resolved.
Table 1.1 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption and
Flaring of Fossil Fuels, 1991-2000
Region/Country 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
North America 1,552.59 1,577.33 1,608.42 1,642.15 1,652.22 1,711.55 1,743.55 1,757.44 1,783.87 1,832.50
Central & South
204.01 208.85 217.86 224.1 235.85 244.29 254.13 263.03 265.39 268.65
America
Western Europe 1,002.76 965.54 957.66 953.02 972.65 1,000.03 1,005.72 1,006.23 984.14 999.62
Eastern Europe &
1,190.49 1,124.13 1,033.96 914.03 877.48 861.21 806.51 789.58 824.22 844.23
Former U.S.S.R.
Middle East 217.37 223.57 234.02 243.91 251.29 259.09 272.45 276.66 281.43 288.01
Africa 204.93 205.7 213.26 215.75 225.69 224.29 238.31 246.02 238.11 240.14
Asia & Oceania 1,510.12 1,574.99 1,673.86 1,769.99 1,859.67 1,913.40 1,954.74 1,915.37 1,945.73 1,970.22
World Total 5,882.27 5,880.12 5,939.03 5,962.94 6,074.86 6,213.86 6,275.41 6,254.33 6,322.90 6,443.38
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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
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Session 1.2
“Mad Cow” Disease and Foot and
Mouth Disease
In the mid 1990s, in the United Kingdom (UK), there was great
concern within the cattle industry because of increasing reports of a
disease that caused cattle to stagger around and lose control of their
movements. Concern mounted, as the disease seemed to be related
to one called “scrapie” which had been recognised for many years in
sheep but not in cattle. The general population became even more
alarmed when it was discovered that the disease can be transmitted
to humans who eat infected beef as a variant of Creuzfeld-Jakob
disease (vCJD), a human form of the disease that the cows had.
n DID YOU KNOW...? A major cause of the rise of BSE in cattle was the practice of “feed-
that cattle feed may ing cattle to cattle”! Included in the feed supplied to cattle were
contain more than rendered remains of cattle and other animals such as sheep, some
15% protein from left-
over parts of presumably infected with “scrapie”. The rendering process (heating
butchered animals to cause the melting of the fat) did not remove the sources of infec-
e.g. blood, used
chicken litter, tion. When eaten, this abnormal protein can be absorbed and cause
feathers and offal? normal related proteins to change their shapes into the abnormal
patterns of the BSE protein. The cattle supplied with infected feed
could develop BSE and pass it on to humans. A major problem in
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tracking diseases of this sort is that many years elapse between
exposure and the development of symptoms. During that time
already infected animals can spread the disease to healthy animals
without any signs that this is happening.
The first concern of the agricultural industry was about the impact
of the epidemic on sales of beef and therefore the economic well-
being of cattle farmers. Their fears were justified. Once the disease
had been identified, most countries banned the importation of cattle
from the UK. Soon after this, sales of all beef products from the UK
fell sharply. Also costly, were the systems that had to be put in place
to prevent the spread of the disease and to ensure that beef
produced for market did not include infected animals and would be
safe for human consumption. Slaughterhouses which handled cattle
had to be inspected to ascertain high standards of hygiene.
Slaughtering and butchering practices were also carefully monitored
and each member of a herd had to be identified and tagged. Even in
countries such as the USA, which does not usually import many
beef products from the UK, BSE became a cause for concern. In
October 2002, the first case of an infected human was detected in
the USA.
?
? QUESTIONS
A more recent disaster for the UK cattle industry has been the very
widespread occurrence of foot and mouth disease. The disease gets
its names from its most obvious signs, the lesions and sores that
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develop around the mouth and on the feet of the cattle. Although
this disease is not necessarily fatal, it severely reduces the produc-
tion of both milk and beef. Thus the economic viability of the cattle
industry is compromised. The cost of the recent outbreak to the UK
government – and therefore UK taxpayers – is in the billions of
pounds.
• the slaughter of herds on farms close by, even when they appear
healthy.
ACTIVITY
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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
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Session 1.3
Resource Security and Safety
in the Caribbean
We usually use the term “national security” in considering events
such as the attack on the World Trade Centre on September 11,
2001 or increasing security at airports or spending on our armed
forces. However, our security as sovereign nations goes much deeper
than that. To what extent are we secure when we depend on exter-
nal sources for essentials such as food and energy? How secure are
we internally when our water supplies are “under attack”? We will
now look at some of the issues raised by these questions.
Food security
The Caribbean has a very large food import bill. We have become
dependent on a number of other countries for basic foodstuffs such
as flour, rice, cornmeal, meat, fruit, and vegetables. With our ever-
increasing populations and the decline in local agriculture, this is
likely to be the case for a long time. This dependence raises a
number of issues:
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genetically modified, foods and the use of various
agricultural chemicals should concern us).
ACTIVITY
The Caribbean also has a very large energy import bill, mostly as
derivatives of the petroleum industry. Few Caribbean countries have
significant energy reserves in the form of oil or gas. The major
exception is Trinidad and Tobago, which has significant supplies of
both. The energy generated and used in the Caribbean is therefore
largely dependent on external suppliers. The cost of this energy is
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beyond our control and rising. This has serious implications for our
development and our economies.
ACTIVITY
Water resources
FD12A 19
this could be made worse by global warming. Governments will
wish to ensure that they have control of sufficient water resources
to meet the present and future needs of their peoples. This can be
very difficult when such resources are rivers that flow through a
number of countries. The quality and quantity of the water flowing
from one country to another varies considerably depending on how
each country uses this shared resource. This can create serious
disagreements between neighbouring countries.
There have been some interesting suggestions made about the possi-
bility of exporting water from Canada (which has a population
about one tenth that of the USA) to the USA but many Canadian
environmentalists oppose the idea. Some countries are more inter-
ested in using flowing water to generate electricity, rather than for
other needs. This is another reason why sharing rivers is of serious
concern.
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Session 1.4
Why Should I Care?
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If you think carefully about your everyday life, you may begin to
identify other issues besides the ones that we have raised that affect
you directly:
To what extent are these local and personal issues separate from the
larger issues discussed in this unit? We ask that you keep this ques-
tion in mind as you continue the course.
ACTIVITY
22 FD12A
n No one expects any one person to be fully informed about
all of the key issues affecting the economic and social
development of a country. Should we therefore leave the
decision making about issues of scientific and technological
importance to “experts”? Perhaps you will agree with the
view expressed over 50 years ago by Sir Winston Churchill
that scientists should be “on tap not on top”. (This issue is
raised again in Unit 3 of this Module.)
SUMMARY
In the previous part of this unit you were asked to think about
issues which have appeared in the news media in the past few years.
These included, global warming thought to be caused by greenhouse
gases, and “mad cow disease” and foot and mouth disease in cattle
in Britain, both of which caused epidemics that could spread abroad.
These issues become news not necessarily because of their scientific
or technological interest, but usually because there is some perceived
impact on society, often bad.
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Not so much in the news but of equal importance were the issues of
energy and food security, and secure water resources raised next.
Our dependence as a region on outside sources of energy and food
was questioned and the need to maintain sources of clean water
was mentioned. We also noted that water, as a shared resource could
become a problem.
When such issues appear to threaten our safety or us, only then do
we become more concerned about the state of scientific knowledge
or the ways in which a technological advance may affect our envi-
ronment. Regardless of the issues involved, it is important for all of
us to have some understanding of the ways in which scientific
knowledge is generated and the scope and limitations of scientific
findings. Unit 2 of this module is about just this.
DISCUSSION
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Unit 2
Scientific Methods
and the Nature of Science
INTRODUCTION
We hope that this unit will give you an insight into the ways of
science and scientists and an appreciation of their contribution to
how we see our world. Understanding the various concepts and
issues may also help you to recognise that scientific knowledge is
not as secure as is commonly supposed and that scientific theories
are never conclusively proven. We hope that the differences between
science and other cognitive pursuits will also become clear as you
reflect on these various ideas.
FD12A 27
OVERVIEW
In this unit we first consider some of the methods that are used in
the practice of science. The inductive, deductive, and hypothetico-deduc-
tive methods are dealt with in that order. We then consider the use of
deductive inferences in science and note some of the problems that
have been identified with the inductive method. The concept of a
scientific paradigm and the changing of such paradigms are then
discussed. The status of scientific fact is also analysed in this
context. Methods used in historical research are compared with
those used in science in order to highlight the ways in which the
scientific approach is unique. The roles of observation and experi-
mentation as well as theories and models in science conclude the
section.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
28 FD12A
FOR THE STUDENT
You should be able to define clearly the terms that have been high-
lighted in italics above. It is advised that you write them and their
meanings down as you go along so that you can refer to the mean-
ings whenever they turn up after they are first mentioned.
READINGS
FD12A 29
30 FD12A
Session 2.1
Is Science Objective?
31
a person’s head aggressive, generous, holy or other behaviour could
be predicted. This “science” seemed to have practical application and
became popular among some psychiatrists until it was replaced by
other psychiatric theories. Gall was eventually removed from his
position at the university because his theory appeared to conflict
with the accepted religious account of sin and virtue.
(a) unscientific,
(b) scientific, but bad science, or
(c) good science but prevented from developing by religious
prejudice?
2. How do you think the links were made between the skull
shape and the different patterns of behaviour? (Guesswork,
observations or knowledge of the brain?)
We now take science for granted but it was only within the twentieth
century that the general population began to accept science as a
valuable way of thinking about and investigating the world around
us. Evidence of the high regard for science and its value is plentiful.
32 FD12A
• By applying scientific methods and the resulting knowledge,
human beings can now control their environment to a far
greater extent than was possible before.
FD12A 33
Everyday experience and science
Induction
The inductivist view of science
During the Scientific Revolution that took place mainly during the
seventeenth century, the philosopher Francis Bacon, and many of
his contemporaries, summarised the scientific attitude of the times
when they stated that if we want to understand nature then we
must consult nature, that is, observe nature.
34 FD12A
unprejudiced mind what he or she can see, hear, smell, and touch
with respect to the situation. Facts about the world can be deter-
mined and established as true by an observer’s use of his or her
senses. In the inductivist perspective, these facts constitute the base
from which the laws and theories that make up scientific knowledge
are derived.
FD12A 35
go from observing heated metal bars to the general law, “Metals
expand when heated”.
36 FD12A
Finally, if one metal bar does not expand when it is heated, then the
universal generalisation stated above would not be justified, which
is why condition (iii) is essential.
Read the story carefully and then answer the questions below.
Try to follow the child’s line of reasoning as you go along. To do
this you have to accept that the child had no prior knowledge of
anything to do with materials that burn. The information being
used is just that which is present at the time of the story.
A child became lost and decided to make a fire. He collected a variety
of objects and discovered that some of them burned while others did
not. To avoid collecting useless objects the child classified his
information and after several trips his lists contained the information
below.
Will burn: tree limbs broomsticks pencils chair legs
Will not burn: mangoes tin cans marbles rocks
FD12A 37 37
At first, organising the information in this way was helpful but as
these objects became scarce the child tried to find a rule to guide him
to new burnable materials. Looking at the two piles the child noticed
that the ones that burned had one property in common; they were all
cylindrical. So the child proposed this generalisation: “Cylindrical
objects burn.”
The next day the child went looking for more burnable materials but
forgot to take the list. He remembered his generalisation and so
returned with a tree limb, an old cane and three wooden baseball bats
(all successful predictions). He was also pleased that he had not
bothered to carry back a car radiator, a piece of metal chain and a
large door, as since these objects were not cylindrical, he had no
reason to expect them to burn.
4. How would you explain to the child why his reasoning was
faulty? (Suggestion: Refer to the three conditions mentioned
earlier).
38 FD12A
The inductivist view of scientific progress
On his first morning at the turkey farm the turkey was fed at 9
a.m. However, he did not jump to conclusions but waited until
he had a large number of observations of being fed at 9 a.m. He
made these observations under a wide variety of circumstances,
FD12A 39
on Wednesdays, Thursdays and all other days, on warm days
and cold days, on rainy days and dry days. Every day he added
another observation to his list until he was finally satisfied and
made the inductive inference, “I am always fed at 9 a.m.” Alas,
this conclusion was shown to be false when, at 9 a.m. on
Christmas Eve, instead of being fed, his head was chopped off.
An inductive inference, with many independent observations,
had led to a false conclusion.
40 FD12A
day? The answer to the first two questions is, in fact, “Yes” and to
the second two questions is “No”. The list of variations could be
extended forever by adding (and having to test) variations such as
the colour of the container, the identity of the experimenter, the
geographical location, and so on. Unless we can eliminate irrelevant
variations, the number of observations required will be infinitely
large. Induction does not suggest how we can decide which factors
are important in a given situation and which are unnecessary.
ACTIVITY
FD12A 41
QUICK REVIEW
42 FD12A
Session 2.2
Deduction
Deductive reasoning
1. Everyone who falls from the top of this building suffers a severe
injury.
Possible answers:
If the premises 1 and 2 are true, the conclusion (3) must be correct.
(However, we are now trying to avoid 3 and thus deny premise 1!).
44 FD12A
These examples highlight the important fact that the premises on
which the conclusion rests must be true. The problem lies in verify-
ing them; this is not always possible or easy. A deduction may be
based on large numbers of observations but unexpected exceptions
can overturn what has been accepted as a law.
We can now understand one way that scientific laws and theories
may be used to either predict future events from present knowledge
or explain events that have occurred. The following two examples
illustrate this point.
ACTIVITY
FD12A 45 45
a. Some patients with spots have measles
b. Eileen has spots
c. Therefore Eileen has measles
QUICK REVIEW
Deductive arguments are logically valid but inductive arguments are not.
Deductive reasoning is therefore safer than induction provided the
46 FD12A
initial general statement is true. An inductive statement, however,
always involves an element of doubt, as it is possible to arrive at a
wrong inference from correct information. General statements
(laws) do not necessarily follow from the particular observations
made and we cannot be sure that laws will always be obeyed.
Only inductive reasoning opens new horizons and sets new problems.
Deduction does not, give us anything new. Not only does induction
summarise the information we have gathered but it also expands
our knowledge. For example observations may suggest hypotheses
to be tested. Induction, although it has its problems, can play a
useful role in furthering scientific knowledge. Deduction only relates
the consequences of the initial statements to the case being consid-
ered. It does not suggest further investigation.
It would be useful at
Inductive methods stress the importance of unbiased “facts” from observa-
this point to read tion. However, many important scientific theories refer to concepts
section 2.4, about
“facts”.
that cannot be observed directly, only their effects are observed.
Atoms, electrons or gravitational fields are examples of such
concepts. In a sense these are creations of scientists that are better
seen as representing their ideas about these phenomena. These ideal-
isations describe as best they can, the patterns found by observation.
They then need to undergo further testing by making more observa-
tions and performing more experiments. Thus, it is important to
appreciate that the basic scientific laws that we have been
discussing are not ultimate truths that have been “discovered” in
nature.
ACTIVITY
1. Select from sessions 2.1 and 2.2 one example each of induc-
tive and deductive reasoning. Write these down and then
add two additional, original examples.
3. Write a short essay (one page will do) comparing the ways in
which inductive and deductive reasoning contribute to scien-
tific knowledge. Some information in session 3 may also be
helpful. Make sure to include the following:
FD12A 47 47
• A definition of inductive reasoning and deductive
reasoning
• The limitations of induction and deduction
• The extent to which both types of reasoning have added
to scientific progress
• Your opinion on which one has been more useful
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Session 2.3
The Hypothetico-Deductive
Approach
From the results of these tests deductions are made which lead to
conclusions that either support or reject the hypothesis. If the
hypothesis is rejected then a new hypothesis can be formulated,
sometimes based on the results of the previous tests, and the
process repeated. If many experimenters repeat the same tests and
get the same results, the hypothesis may be regarded as a theory or
49
law or it may be used to modify an existing theory. We will now
look at some of these steps in more detail and also at how different
scientists have used this approach over the years.
What is a hypothesis?
When you are confronted with an event for which you do not have
The best explanation an explanation you may put forward a suggestion. The suggested
should: explanation is your best guess, given all the information you have.
• fit neatly with all
other accepted This information or data may be from current observations about
theories the particular event or information you remember about similar
• be consistent in events and their circumstances. What you have done is to propose a
itself, i.e. without self-
contradiction hypothesis. A scientific hypothesis is basically the same as your
• be simpler than suggested explanation except that certain conditions apply. While it
other accounts and is a reasoned guess based on current evidence it often includes a
• make novel
predictions which can
prediction from what is already known. We can define a hypothesis
be tested by as a reasoned guess formulated as a statement of expectation about the
observation and
things being studied. It is put forward tentatively, usually on the basis
experiment and lend
further support to of incomplete evidence. In general, the scientific hypothesis has to
theory. fit in with accepted scientific laws and theories although it may
suggest replacing part of a previous theory.
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It is interesting to note that scientists never speak of proving a
hypothesis, the most positive thing they can say is that the results
of an investigation support the hypothesis. This cautious approach is
necessary as more tests at a later date may provide evidence that
overturns the hypothesis or shows that the prediction it made is
incorrect. Hypotheses and theories cannot be conclusively proven.
Common sense tells us that because two things happen at the same
time it does not mean that one causes the other. There may be other
factors (variables) involved in this coincidence that are less obvious.
(Ignoring this possibility is a very common error in explaining the
causes of everyday events.)
FD12A 51
ACTIVITY
Galileo was one of the first scientists to break with the tradition of
his day. He felt that established facts or observations should be accepted
as such even when the observations did not fit into a currently
accepted theory. This may seem obvious to us but in Galileo’s day
scientific observations were frowned on if they did not support
accepted versions of the world. For Galileo, the important thing was
to accept the facts and build or modify the theory to fit them.
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Popper and falsifying theories
The lower boiling point is explained by the fact that Knox College is
about 1,000 metres (over 3,000 feet) above sea level. At this altitude
the pressure is lower than at sea level and the boiling point is lower
at lower pressures. Thus the addition of the phrase “at one atmos-
phere pressure” improves the law, making it more precise. What
should the law now state?
FD12A 53
precision. Can you now adjust the law to include this new
information?
The law would now read, The boiling point of pure water at one atmos-
phere pressure is 100 degrees Celsius (100 oC).
ACTIVITY
54 FD12A
The inductive method versus the hypothetico-deductive
approach
ACTIVITY
FD12A 55 55
it indeed something he ate? His diet seems to be OK. Has he at last
done his liver irreparable damage? An upper respiratory virus is
going around and perhaps this is relevant to the case ? Let me test his
breathing.
56 FD12A
Session 2.4
How Science Progresses
The word paradigm was first used in science by the science histo-
rian, Thomas Kuhn, who used it to refer to the set of fundamental
beliefs (or premises) to which scientists subscribe and which they use as a
framework for conducting research. A scientist that belongs to a certain
branch of science is accepting a given set of paradigms. Sometimes
when a particular set of beliefs, or ways of looking at some aspect of
nature, is accepted for the first time a new paradigm is created and a
new discipline or specialisation comes into being.
57
Scientific revolutions
Kuhn divided scientific activity into two parts: normal science and
extraordinary science. Normal science is research that is based on
the currently accepted paradigm. Extraordinary science, on the other
hand, takes place outside the paradigm. In the latter case, experi-
ments and observations begin to produce results that contradict
parts of the accepted paradigm. As the number of these difficulties
grows “extraordinary science” begins. When a body of data starts to
accumulate that poses major problems for a theory Kuhn’s process
of radical change may occur. A new paradigm takes over, a new
consensus begins to prevail and the revolution is underway. The
new ideas enable a range of previously puzzling phenomena to be
explained and so activities are undertaken to examine these
phenomena. We look at examples of this next.
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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
FD12A 59
Figure 2.2 According to the continental drift theory, the super contnent
Pangaea began to break up about 225-200 million years ago, eventually
fragmenting into the continents as we know them today.
Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/historical.html
60 FD12A
It is now believed that the outer crust of the Earth or mantle is
divided into enormous sections called tectonic plates. The conti-
nents rest on different sections of these plates. It was argued that
the continents drifted apart as the sea floor spread, enlarging the
ocean basins. This movement is the result of heat rising from the
Earth’s core to the surface by convection in the mantle. This puts
pressure on the edges and other sections of the tectonic plates, grad-
ually forcing them over or under each other at their edges.
I. Continental drift
II. The coastline fit of the continents
III. The alignment of mountain ranges, especially on either side of
the Atlantic
IV. The presence of the remains of the same prehistoric reptiles in
both Brazil and South Africa
V. The distribution of fossil plants
FD12A 61
challenged the notion that all species on earth were created exactly
as they are now. The clergy and the general public considered
Darwin’s ideas heretical. The theory of evolution is still hotly
debated. At present there are cases before the courts in the US
asking that special creation be included on the school curriculum.
In The Origin of Species Darwin argued that present species are the
result of gradual changes over millions of years. In other words
(a) animals and plants living today are the evolved descendents or
relatives of animals and plants that lived long ago, and
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reproduction were passed on by inheritance from parents to
offspring, more of the offspring with these characteristics will
survive and pass them on to their offspring.
In this case, to make the necessary links with the ancestral plants
and animals, Darwin had to work back from present observations,
e.g. geographical distribution of present species or the distribution of
fossils in the rock strata. By arguing from present evidence to the
past that was unobservable, he tried to show that natural selection
provided the best explanation for his observations. (Keep this point
in mind for our next session.) He and many others have done so.
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comparative anatomy, the study of fossils, similarities in the
embryos of different species and the remains of “useless” or vestigial
organs in animals. A vast network of interconnecting explanations,
both geological and biological, can be fitted together through apply-
ing Darwin’s theory. Predictions can be made: in rock strata no
mammalian fossils should be discovered at levels below the lowest
fossils of fish with backbones, no human fossils should be found at
the same levels as dinosaur fossils, no fossil birds at levels lower
than the lowest amphibian fossils, and so on.
Scientific facts are statements made after observation. In science this often
requires the experienced use of apparatus and understanding certain
concepts. We tend to behave as if scientific facts are unchanging
truths on which all scientific knowledge is based. It is as if we
believe that these facts can be found somewhere out in nature but
this is not the case. For example, take the fact that pure water boils
at 100°C at one atmosphere pressure. How can we find that fact in
nature? Before we could make this statement, we would have to
know and understand concepts of “boiling”, “temperature”, and
“pressure” and possess and know how to use a thermometer and
have a supply of pure water.
64 FD12A
Facts (the ways in which we interpret what we observe) change with time.
When we observe the sun “moving” across the sky we might say
“the sun is orbiting the earth”. This statement of “fact” is consistent
with the observation and this is what was believed to be a fact in
Galileo’s day. Now we know differently and can make a different
statement of fact: “the earth is spinning on its own axis relative to a
stationary sun.”
The fact is that facts change. As we have seen in this session, scien-
tific knowledge progresses sometimes by small discoveries and
sometimes by radical shifts. In all cases, making careful observations
is the key. We have seen that large numbers of detailed observations
can provide enough information to form viable hypotheses that are
supported by additional observations. New theories can be proposed
by a process of deduction. When these theories allow prediction of a
wide range of phenomena they carry as much weight and are as
influential as theories arrived at by experimental investigation.
Perhaps science is not so different from other disciplines as we
think!
ACTIVITY
(b) The case for a new theory can be deduced logically from
observational data without the need for experimentation.
FD12A 65
CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
Before the next session, think about and write down the
answers to the questions below.
66 FD12A
Session 2.5
Scientific Methods
67
used, as well as other factors) will have appropriate similarities to
other signatures of Columbus. (This can be done in the Spanish
archives.)
There will be, of course, additional procedures and any account may
suffer from gaps. The aim is to establish the most completely
consistent and coherent narrative (at least more so than previous
ones). For example, a previous narrative may have claimed that
Columbus never traveled round Trinidad and that the letter is a
forgery. So the historian may need to look at the new narrative to
ensure that:
• The events that took place are unobservable but can be inferred
from objects that can be observed in the present.
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• Objects presented as evidence can be re-described to fit the
account of past events (the letter can be re-described as a forgery
if it does not fit in with known facts); having “evidence” is not
enough, it must be accepted as authentic.
This sounds quite similar to the way in which the theory of evolu-
tion was constructed. So what is the fundamental difference
between historical and scientific methods? We will explore this in
the next section. (See also Module 2, Unit 5.)
ESSAY
Possible answer:
FD12A 69 69
describe the objects being used as evidence very carefully so they can be
accepted as valid. From a careful study of the objects they may predict
the discovery of more evidence that supports the evidence already in
hand.
How findings are used: Scientific findings that support the original
hypothesis that was tested often require that the underlying theory be
modified to accommodate the new findings. Science progresses as
existing theories are modified and made more accurate or precise.
Historical narratives cannot be tested in the same way. They are
accepted when they provide a better and more complete account than
previous accounts of the same event and are consistent with other
accepted historical data.
70 FD12A
used increasingly to refute older theories. In science it came to have
priority over all other sources of knowledge.
(a) Accept the theory (what you know) and reject the new
observation.
(b) Accept the observation and reject the theory (your previous
knowledge).
(c) Change the way you look at both to make observation and
theory consistent.
We tend to take the option that makes the most sense, given what
we already know.
FD12A 71
seen either as one image or as another quite different one, but not
both at the same time.
72 FD12A
implied when a scientist reports “findings” based on “observations”
and then formulates new hypotheses and theories that direct
further research. Scientists are only human and sometimes because
of what they already know they see what they expect to see, not
what is really there.
FD12A 73
your readings. You might like to try it on someone with prominent
veins. It works very well. The experiment confirms that the move-
ment of blood in the veins is only towards and not away from the
heart.
74 FD12A
Working in this way Galileo was able to develop hypotheses that
showed certain mathematical relationships. His intention was that
these hypotheses would become laws when his observations
supported them. However, many of his hypotheses expressed rela-
tionships that could not be directly observed. His law of inertia
claimed that an object moving horizontally would retain its velocity perpet-
ually (keep moving at the same rate forever!) unless other forces interfered
with it. Obviously nothing of this sort could be observed. A moving
object would have all sorts of forces interfering with it and no
object could be observed perpetually. However, by assuming that
the law was correct, he could make certain predictions and if these
predictions were correct, that is, if they were observed, then the law
would be supported.
ACTIVITY
2. Use the terms in the first column to fill in the boxes below
to show the sequence of activities carried out by a scientist
during an investigation.
FD12A 75 75
ð ð ð ð
76 FD12A
Session 2.6
Scientific Theories and Models
What goes up must come down! The question is, why? What laws
govern the falling of objects towards the earth? Sir Isaac Newton, a
professor of mathematics at the University of Cambridge in
England, followed Galileo’s mathematical approach in his
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy of 1686. This work laid
out Newton’s theory of gravitation. The theory can be summed up
in a single statement: Attractive forces between two bodies, depend on
their masses and on the distance between them. This theory of gravita-
Mass: The quantity
of matter a body tional forces was remarkable for its simplicity, its coherence and the
contains. The weight surprising range of predictions that it made possible. It made possi-
of an object is
determined by its ble predictions about the tides and the shape of the earth and it
mass, not its size. could be applied to the smallest of objects on earth as well as the
relationships between heavenly objects in outer space. On earth,
what goes up comes down because it is attracted to the earth.
ACTIVITY
Can you put Newton’s theory into your own words? One way
to look at it is as follows: When two objects are separated from
each other the attraction between them depends on how far
apart they are and the difference between their masses.
77
The role of models
electrons orbitting
nucleus
nucleus
Adapted from:
78 FD12A
All grains of ordinary table salt (sodium chloride) have the same
shape, a cube, even if their sizes are different. There is regularity in
the internal structure of the grains, which cannot be seen directly,
but can be deduced from chemical and physical experiments. To
visualize this structure, it is useful to build a three-dimensional
model using small cubes and balls of two different sizes to represent
the arrangement of chlorine and sodium atoms as we think they are
in the grain.
Models may be similar in some ways to the objects that they repre-
sent but they are not replicas of the real thing. Nevertheless, models
are very useful because they
ACTIVITY
FD12A 79
Science and the imagination
Much of what we have discussed would lead you to believe that all
theories are logically derived from facts and laws. This is not always
the case. In fact, many theories are the results of imaginative
insights that are subsequently developed by careful, conscious
thought. One of the best examples of a theory that was not derived
from any experimental data at all is Einstein’s theory of relativity.
He proposed this theory when no supporting experimental data
were known; in fact, most of the experimental evidence appeared to
refute it for many years. As time passed efforts were made to test
the predictions of the theory. The results supported Einstein’s
theory and disproved competing theories.
80 FD12A
THE METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE – A SUMMARY
So far in this unit, we have tried to give you some insights into the
ways of science and scientists. The main focus has been on the
methodology of science. However, this has been presented against a
historical and philosophical background so that you can appreciate
how and why the methodology developed as it did.
You should now be able to identify two common aspects of any human
endeavour that claims to be scientific: its aim and its methods.
FD12A 81
2. Predictions based on the theories are tested by experiments
designed specifically to check whether a predicted effect exists
or not.
In this section of the course it has also been argued that observation
is a complex process involving the active participation of the brain.
What we perceive is influenced by our previous experience and by
what we expect to see.
82 FD12A
The success of science at predicting events suggests that there are
patterns in reality that we can discern. These patterns may, or may
not be, unchanging, but our representations of them, such as facts,
laws and theories, will always be tentative because they depend on
assumptions that we may change.
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REFERENCES
Avison, John H. Physics for CXC. Surrey: Thomas Nelson and Sons,
1988.
84 FD12A
Unit 3
Science and Technology
INTRODUCTION
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For many, the advances in technology that have influenced our lives
so deeply are the hallmark of science. The average citizen does not
make any great distinction between science and technology, and the
activities of scientists and engineers. However, scientists themselves
do not share this view. They differentiate between the two, although
they admit that the two are closely interrelated. We must therefore
ask what the difference between science and technology is, and what
the relationship is between the two. There are many aspects of the
discussion we hope you enjoy exploring them here and afterwards.
OVERVIEW
Not all technological innovations have been useful. Some of the tech-
nologies, or some uses of them, have been harmful. This raises the
question of whether the people involved in the development of these
technologies – pure or applied scientists, engineers or technologists –
have any responsibility for ensuring the positive use of their work,
and if so, what this responsibility is. We turn to these questions in
the second part of this section. Module 2 of the course will examine
more examples of how both science and technology have changed
the way in which societies are organized.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
86 FD12A
should be, responsible for how the technologies derived from
their work are used
READINGS
NOTE
FD12A 87
Figure 3.1 Science and technology – their nature and relationship
88 FD12A
Session 3.1
The Relationship between Science
and Technology
What is technology?
89
certain things work and knowing how to do things, without know-
ing why they work. Technologies have existed from the dawn of the
human race; it was not until fairly recently that scientific explana-
tions for why these technologies work became available. Indeed in
some cases they are still outstanding.
Figure 3.2
90 FD12A
Another important set of technologies involved the ability to extract
iron from iron ore and techniques for shaping iron into more
powerful tools and stronger weapons. The Chinese civilisation had
very advanced iron technology before the fifth century BC. Initially,
in the Western world the technologies used for extracting iron were
relatively primitive but they became highly sophisticated with the
evolution of furnaces and so on. Also, towards the latter part of the
eighteenth century they learned that by mixing iron with certain
other elements, such as carbon, they could make an even stronger
material called “steel”. The invention of steel allowed humans to
construct stronger and more reliable structures, such as bridges and,
a little later, sky scrapers, whose skeletons are constructed from steel.
ACTIVITY
Quickly review the above section and then answer the questions
below.
FD12A 91 91
3. For each of the examples you have provided, state which
branch of science could now offer explanations of how they
work. (Consider Biology, Chemistry and Physics. You may
suggest one or more than one for each example.)
We know now that the oils used in the mummification process had
a number of anti-microbial properties that prevented the decomposi-
tion of the bodies covered in them. The priests and their helpers
who were responsible for mummifying bodies obviously knew that
these oils would preserve the bodies but not why they did. Indeed,
the discovery of microbes and their role in decomposition did not
take place until more than 2,500 years later. Similarly, the world had
to wait for the genius of Sir Isaac Newton, who lived from 1642 to
1727, to explain why the wheel allowed one to transport heavy
loads more easily, even though it had been in use for at least 10,000
years.
Does this suggest Even today there are many technologies that we know work but we
that science is not still do not know why they work. We know that certain animals,
necessary for human
progress? such as cows, pigs, chickens, camels, and yaks, can be domesticated
relatively easily and humans have been using this knowledge for the
last 10,000 years. What makes it possible to domesticate a horse
while a zebra (which does not look very different) is impossible to
domesticate? Perhaps we will never know the answer.
92 FD12A
To what extent does modern technology depend on scientific
findings?
This trend has accelerated over the last 10 to 15 years. In the phar-
maceutical industry, progress in biochemistry and an increased
understanding of the chemical processes taking place in the human
body have made it possible to develop different and more powerful
drugs. Further developments in genetics are likely to lead to a better
understanding of how drugs can be tailored to an individual.
Similarly, a better understanding of HIV structure and how it
manages to undermine the body’s immune system have made it
possible to develop a wide range of anti-HIV drugs. These drugs
have significantly prolonged life for AIDS sufferers and those
infected with the virus, provided they can afford them. Many
modern technologies do not come cheap!
FD12A 93
are various kitchen gadgets, many of which make life considerably
easier for us but do not rely in any way on elaborate scientific
theories.
On the other hand there are examples where the basic science is
understood and the difficulty is in applying the scientific knowledge
to build useful technologies. The structure of DNA, the famous
double helix, has been known since the early 1950s. Crick and
Watson published the paper describing the structure of DNA in
1953, nearly 50 years ago. This knowledge offers exciting potential
for genetically engineering new foods and medicines but this poten-
tial has still not been fulfilled. Genetic engineers are still struggling
to find reliable ways of using this knowledge. (We will consider this
in more detail in Module 2.)
94 FD12A
ACTIVITY
FD12A 95
observations, an issue that was discussed in the previous section in
connection with Galileo’s work. (See Module 1 Unit 2, Session 2.5.)
You may recall that Galileo only gained acceptance for his observa-
tions when he distributed telescopes and instructions for their use
96 FD12A
ACTIVITY
FD12A 97
98 FD12A
Session 3.2
The Use of Technology and
the Scientist’s Responsibility
Who is responsible?
The story of the atomic bomb really starts with a physicist, Albert
Einstein. His famous equation, E = mc2 (and several other less
simple ones), provided the scientific information that made the
bomb possible. The Hungarian physicist, Leo Szilard was perhaps
the first to realize that the advances made in physics could be
applied to building a super weapon. In 1939, Szilard, who by that
time was living in the United States, persuaded Einstein to write to
President Roosevelt making him aware of the possibility of
constructing the nuclear bomb. It was President Roosevelt, who
decided to establish the so-called Manhattan Project with the
explicit mandate to construct an atomic bomb.
99
tists working on the Manhattan Project urging President Truman,
Roosevelt’s successor, not to use the bomb. The petition argued that
the United States should not use the bomb against Japan because of
the devastating effect that it would have. However, the petition
never reached Truman and on his orders, the bomb was dropped.
One can draw a number of lessons from this story. The decision to
build and indeed the decision to drop the bomb were political, not
scientific, decisions. Some people believe that the scientists working
on the Manhattan Project were responsible for the annihilation of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The scientists disagreed. They saw a clear
demarcation between their responsibilities and that of government.
They accepted the responsibility of having used what they knew
about nuclear physics to construct the atomic bomb but they
believed that it was the responsibility of the government of the
United States to decide whether or not to use the bomb.
Most modern scientists are of the view that it is not the responsibil-
ity of scientists to decide how the technologies that can be devel-
oped, based on their scientific discoveries, should be used by society.
However, they accept responsibility for making the public aware of
the likely consequences of the use or abuse of these technologies. It
is then up to the politicians, who, after all, in democracies, are the
representatives of the people, to decide whether to use the technolo-
gies and, if so, how to use them.
FD12A 101
Genetically modified foods – a case for caution?
The notion that scientists should take some responsibility for the
outcomes of using their discoveries might seem reasonable but it
raises other problems. Scientists do not always agree about the
implications of their theories. A good example of this is the continu-
ing debate on genetically modified (GM) foods. An increasing
proportion of corn and soy beans in the United States is grown
from seeds that have been genetically modified. The genetic makeup
of these plants has been changed artificially in ways that benefit
farmers and consumers and in some cases the plant. In Jamaica,
experiments are taking place at this moment with genetically modi-
fied papaya (paw-paw) plants. These papaya plants are grown from
cells that have a gene inserted into them to make the plants
immune to the papaya ring spot virus that affects the appearance of
the fruits.
Who decides?
102 FD12A
This is well illustrated by the activities of some researchers in France
and Italy who are insisting on cloning a human being using the
techniques that allowed veterinarians in Edinburgh, Scotland to
clone Dolly the sheep. They persist in their right to this research
path despite major moral objections from large parts of the popula-
tion. Presumably they will proceed in secret but what are the conse-
quences of allowing such individuals to do their work in secrecy?
FD12A 103
103
ACTIVITY
SUMMARY
n Science and technology are not the same. Science is a search for
understanding how the world around us works, it seeks to offer
explanations for natural phenomena and build theories from which
predictions can be made. Technology can be defined as a set of tools
and techniques for controlling and changing the environment.
104 FD12A
science (as it did in ancient times) and putting some scientific ideas
to work has proved problematic.
FD12A 105
Unit 3
Health and Disease in the Caribbean
INTRODUCTION
Good health is central to a good quality of life for all of us. It is also
essential for the economic and social stability of a country or nation
as ill health on a large scale reduces productivity and increases the
cost of health care.
FD12A 159
are now the leading causes of death in the region. We hope that
after completing this Unit you will have a better understanding of
these health issues and a new awareness of what is required of us to
improve and maintain the health of the region. Good health
concerns us all.
OVERVIEW
There are three sessions in this Unit. After introducing the concepts
of health and disease we begin with a brief review of some of the
common diseases of the region. These include non-communicable
disorders associated with poor nutrition and/or life styles and
communicable diseases, the ones we “catch”. Particular attention is
paid to AIDS because of its increasing incidence in the region. This
session also includes a short discussion on substance abuse, because
of its association with sexually transmitted infections and other
causes of ill health.
The final session of the unit begins with a brief review of the
genetic basis of inheritance then describes three inherited disorders.
Biotechnology and gene therapy are mentioned only briefly as they
are covered in more detail in Unit 4.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
160 FD12A
5. Comment on substance abuse and its implications for regional
health and productivity
READINGS
FD12A 161
Human Trials. ScienceDaily Magazine. Source: University
Hospitals of Cleveland, 2002.
162 FD12A
Session 3.1
Some Diseases Common
in the Region
Introduction
FD12A 163
Communicable diseases
A brief look at incidence in the region
164 FD12A
ACTIVITY
FD12A 165
some of the African countries which run as high as 35.8% in
Botswana and 20% in South Africa. The important point is that
they are increasing, not decreasing, as they should. More AIDS cases
were reported in the Caribbean in the three years between 1995 and
1998, than in the 15 years since the beginning of the epidemic in the
1980s. A 1999 estimate put the number of people living with HIV or
AIDS in the region at 360,000. Some 85% of these cases are in Haiti
and the Dominican Republic. Cuba has relatively few cases.
The infection is now moving into the younger age groups. The
majority of diagnosed cases are between the ages of 25 and 34. This
means that the infection probably occurred between the ages 15 and
24, if time is allowed for the infection with the virus to develop into
AIDS (the incubation period). The increase in this particular age
group is a major concern as they represent our future labour force
and their health will impact significantly on our social and
economic well being in years to come.
166 FD12A
• male homosexuals
• newborns of HIV-positive mothers
• pregnant women (Cuba has no sign in this group)
• commercial sex workers
• persons with a history of STDs. (As at 2000, some 39% of AIDS
cases in Jamaica had a history of other STDs (Figueroa, 2001).)
Treating AIDS
n Anti-HIV drugs are A programme to help prevent vertical transmission is now in place
especially expensive.
Zidovudine (AZT) in Jamaica where one in 100 pregnant women are HIV infected, and
costs US$3,000 per one child so infected is born every week. There is free voluntary
year per case. Newer
treatments are even testing of pregnant women. Women found positive are given two
more expensive at tablets of Nevirapine at the onset of labour, and the child a single
US$1,000 per month
per patient. dose of the drug within the first 72 hours of its life. Breast-feeding is
Nevirapine discouraged in these mothers, since the virus may be passed on in
(Viramune) may be
as good as AZT in this way, and mothers are provided with a substitute formula. The
reducing vertical programme started in four parishes and is being extended to cover
transmission, and is
fortunately cheaper the entire island. Vertical transmission has been reduced consider-
at about US$4.00 per ably in the industrialized countries by providing drug assistance for
child.
the mothers. We can do the same.
FD12A 167
• The enforced reduction of our labour force leading to decreased
productivity.
168 FD12A
ACTIVITY
Non-communicable diseases
FD12A 169
1989, 24–57% of all deaths in the region were due to these diseases.
Malnutrition and infectious diseases accounted for only 2% to 7% of
deaths over the same period.
Diabetes mellitus
170 FD12A
secreted but the cells that should, do not respond to it. Some young
people have this type of diabetes but it tends to develop in older age
groups. Type II diabetes may be controlled by a diet and exercise
regimen, or by using oral drugs along with this. In some cases, it
may become necessary to use insulin.
The high rates of diabetes and its complications exert a heavy toll
on hospital services in the Caribbean. The estimated cost of medica-
tion, treatment in hospital for amputations of infected limbs, eye
disease, and other related services for diabetics is in excess of US$30
million annually. A study recently co-ordinated by the
Commonwealth Caribbean Medical Research Council (CCMRC)
showed that in Trinidad’s Port-of-Spain General Hospital, diabetic
patients occupied approximately 26,659 bed days per year. This cost
the hospital over US$1.8 million.
n Think about it: In
how many different In Trinidad and Tobago, the average cost of one diabetic admission
ways might having a
family member with
was calculated as approximately US$516. This sum would cover the
severe diabetes cost of treating up to nine diabetics in a government primary care
affect other family
setting for one year. We can only imagine what it will cost 10 years
members?
Given the cost to the from now if preventive action is not taken seriously. Many of these
society, should admissions would be avoided with better preventive management in
testing and
attendance at these primary health care settings (cited in Henry et al., 1997, from
primary care clinics Gulliford et al., 1995).
be made mandatory?
Hypertension
n MmHg, a unit of Hypertension (high blood pressure) is a condition in which the pres-
pressure equal to
that exerted by a sure of the blood in the arteries is persistently abnormally high.
column of mercury 1 Mostly, the cause is not known, but excess fat in the diet, long-term
millimetre high under
standard gravity. smoking, excessive alcohol intake, and obesity seem to be among the
Normal atmospheric contributory factors.
pressure is
760mmHg .
FD12A 171
When we check our blood pressure, we measure the pressure of the
blood against the walls of a large artery. Two figures are recorded.
The higher is taken when the heart contracts (systole) and the other
when it relaxes between beats (diastole). For example, a reading of
120/80 (mmHg) means that the systolic pressure is 120, and the
diastolic 80 mmHg. Blood pressure differs with age, activity and
time of day. Normal figures for an adult range between about
120/80 mmHg and 130/85 mmHg, but the characteristic is very
individual. Persistently higher readings may suggest to the doctor a
need for monitoring, depending on the individual and other factors.
Heart disease
172 FD12A
disease. Fatty deposits in the coronary artery which supplies the
heart muscle with oxygen and food, can obstruct the flow of blood
to the muscle. With exertion, or when the artery becomes
completely blocked, the blood supply may become insufficient, caus-
ing weakening or death of the heart muscle from lack of oxygen.
This is accompanied by intense pain and the weakened heart muscle
may fail to pump adequate amounts of blood either to itself or to
the brain and other tissues. It may then cease to function altogether.
This is what has happened when someone is said to have had a
massive heart attack. When small branches of the coronary artery
are blocked only a part of the heart muscle is affected and a person
may experience pain for a short time and have a mild heart attack.
This warning is sometimes ignored. There is little data on blood
cholesterol levels in the Caribbean population.
Cancer
There are probably few people in the Caribbean who have not lost a
relative or friend to cancer. Although much more is known about
the disease than was known 20 years ago it is still in many ways a
FD12A 173
mystery. There are many different kinds of cancer. What they have
in common is that they are all uncontrolled growths that if left
untreated invade normal tissues to their detriment.
140
120
100
80
Deaths / 100,000
60
40
20
0
ca s lize ad e
ados Jamai ahama Be Trinid urinam Guyan
a n USA anada
rb bbea C
Ba B S Cari
174 FD12A
The problem has increased over the years. Between the 1960s and
1990s the increase in mortality from nutrition-related cancer among
the countries of the region ranged from a low of 1.3% in Belize to
12.9% in St Vincent, with the figure in Jamaica showing an increase
of 5.7%. Cancer was the third leading cause of death in Jamaica
(82.2/100,000 population in 1990). The increase coincides with the
change in dietary patterns over the same period.
1. What are the implications of these facts for family life and
the health services in your territory?
Substance abuse
Substance abuse and its related health problems fall into the cate-
gory of self-inflicted diseases. Despite this, they include effects that
are caused by changes in the functioning of the nervous system
making them very difficult for the affected individual to control.
The social and economic effects of substance abuse go far beyond
those of most other diseases, for example, an increase in crime. One
of their many health-related effects is their association with the
spread of HIV/AIDS and other STDs.
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Alcohol and tobacco are socially acceptable, and this makes the
temptation to use them much harder to resist. Alcohol abuse has
been associated with road fatalities, violence, family disputes, sexual
abuse, and poor job performance. Long term use causes liver damage
that may be eventually fatal. Smoking tobacco is associated with
lung cancer, heart disease, bronchitis, and emphysema. Emphysema
is caused by the gradual breakdown of the thin walls of the tiny air
sacs in the lungs. Eventually this results in decreased surface for
gaseous exchange. People affected with emphysema show severe
breathlessness and in later stages have an uncontrollable racking
cough. It has also been shown that children living in homes where
parents smoke have a higher incidence of diseases such as sinusitis,
tonsillitis, and other bronchial diseases.
176 FD12A
CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
3. What are the arguments for and against such a step in the
Caribbean?
QUICK REVIEW
Some important points to remember
FD12A 177
l Causes of cancer still not well understood. High intake of
saturated fats and cured/smoked foods suspected. Some
foods may contain carcinogens, others appear to be protective.
178 FD12A
Session 3.2
Nutrition and Associated Problems
Introduction
Over the past four decades or so, nutrition in the Caribbean region
has undergone a major transformation. Traditional diets tended to
be low in animal protein, high in complex carbohydrates (e.g. yam
and sweet potato) and fibre, with “reasonable” amounts of fat. The
more modern diet that has come with urbanization and so-called
development is high in animal protein and fat, processed refined
carbohydrates, and little fibre. The fast food culture has not helped.
Salt preserved foods, such as salted codfish, have always formed part
of the Caribbean diet. These are still commonly used in addition to
the new sources of salt: fast and junk foods. This transformation in
our diet has lessened some old problems but brought new ones
which are proving more difficult to deal with.
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Food consumption trends
For many years, the most important nutritional concern for the
region was energy-protein malnutrition. Many children were getting
neither the total calories, nor the protein supply they needed to
develop properly, both before and after birth. So we focused our
efforts on increasing the overall calorie and protein supply available
to our country’s populations.
Figure 3.2
(a) Energy availability in the Caribbean: (b) Fat availability in the Caribbean:
Calories/person/day 1961–1994 Grams/person/day 1961–1994
(Heavy horizontal lines indicate recommended daily allowance, RDA, levels. Courtesy of
Dr. Fitzroy Reid, Caribbean Food & Nutrition Institute, CFNI)
But while we met calorie and protein needs, we ate fewer cereals,
fruits, vegetables, legumes, roots, and tubers. As a result, what we
now have is a very significant decline in under-nutrition rates, but
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an enormous increase in the incidence of chronic diseases that might
more properly be thought of as related to a kind of “over-nutrition”.
These diseases include diabetes, hypertension and heart disease, and
some nutrition-related cancers. At the same time, iron deficiency
anaemia remains a problem, especially in pregnant women and pre-
school children (Cajanus, 2000).
Based on a diet supplying 2,250 calories per person per day, CFNI
has recommended that staples (cereals, roots, and tubers) should
supply 45% of that energy; legumes, nuts, fruits, and vegetables
25%; food from animals 15%; fats and oils 10%, and refined sugar
only 5%. In order to stay healthy we should:
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ACTIVITY
Food supply
We need to ensure that food is not only available to all the people all
the time, but that such food provides the nutrients needed for
people’s full development, both physical and intellectual. Further,
we should be able to do this on an on-going basis. What we do now
should not put in jeopardy the natural resources needed to ensure
future generations the same advantage. In other words, the food
supply must be sustainable (available over time).
182 FD12A
Although living conditions have improved greatly in most
Caribbean countries, poverty still persists throughout the region.
Food may be available but not affordable for those people living
below the poverty line. In 1995 it was estimated that 38% of the
total population was living in poverty. Levels varied throughout the
region – ranging from 65% in Haiti to 5% in the Bahamas.
The following data show differences in access to food for those who
earn the least in our society. Minimum wage earners in Barbados,
Belize, Montserrat, and St Kitts and Nevis in 1993–1994 needed to
use between 15% and 28% of their earnings to have a well-balanced
2400 kilocalorie per day diet. In Grenada, this figure was between
43% and 34%, while in Guyana costs went from 80% in 1993 to
63% in 1994. Figures varied widely in Jamaica for the period. In
December 2000 the cost of feeding a family of five adequately for
one week was estimated at J$1,828 (US$40). The present minimum
wage in Jamaica is only J$1800 per week.
ACTIVITY
1. Distinguish between the terms “available” and “accessible” as
applied to food supply.
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Nutrition problems
Deficiency problems
184 FD12A
She therefore called the condition protein-energy malnutrition
(PEM), and the disease it produced kwashiorkor, the term used in
West Africa (meaning the disease the old baby gets when the new
one comes – in other words when the baby is weaned). In the
Caribbean, we also see “mirasmi” babies – babies with marasmus,
which is another way in which this type of malnutrition shows
itself.
Much research into this type of malnutrition has taken place since
Dr. Williams’ original discovery. Whereas the original emphasis in
treatment was on the protein in the diet, more emphasis is now
being placed on the energy aspect. So the term now used is energy-
protein malnutrition (EPM).
The survey also showed that the 0–5 months and 6–11 months age
groups had the largest proportion of admissions for malnutrition –
38.8% and 50.8% respectively. This is surprising since EPM levels
tend to increase with age between ages 0 to 5 years. The feeling is
that, as the Ghanians observed, this is associated with poor weaning
practices. The figures suggest a need to re-emphasise the importance
of breastfeeding.
FD12A 185
Iron deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency
Iodine deficiency
186 FD12A
42.8% in pregnant women and 27.6% of female children, and 26.1%
of male children 5–14 years old. In 3.9% of the female and 2.5 % of
male children, the deficiency was regarded as severe (CFNI, 1997b).
Iodine can be supplied as iodized salt. The latter is available in most
countries.
We have already noted that there is more than enough food calories
available in the region to satisfy our nutritional needs. We now need
to be concerned, not by undernutrition but overnutrition. The real
cause for concern is no longer how much we eat but what we eat,
that is, the type of nutrients consumed. The trend towards more
animal, fatty, and refined foods, including sugar-based types, is not
good. In addition, as the region “develops”, we have adopted a more
sedentary lifestyle. These are important contributors to obesity.
FD12A 187
proportions of obesity than males as shown by studies done in
Dominica, Guyana, Trinidad, and Jamaica. Among Jamaicans, over-
weight is more frequently associated with lower education levels.
More rural residents than urban are pre-obese but there seem to be
no urban/rural differences at higher levels of BMI. In Trinidad,
however, more rural residents are obese, compared with residents in
the city or towns.
Any effective strategy for dealing with the nutrition problems of the
Caribbean must take into account
Public education
The following comment was made about Jamaica, but it could well
be said of the whole Caribbean region:
188 FD12A
should encourage careful attention to diet and involvement in regu-
lar physical activity. We should try to ensure that citizens with
family histories of nutrition-related diseases have regular medical
checks, hopefully delaying or avoiding altogether the onset of these
diseases. Smoking and substance abuse should be discouraged.
ACTIVITY
Health-care policies
FD12A 189
of good health. This issue was a key component of the Caribbean
Co-operation in Health (CCH) initiative, launched by the CARI-
COM Ministers Responsible for Health as far back as 1986. The
overall goal was to “prevent malnutrition in all its forms and
prevent and control those diseases conditioned by nutrition practice
and behaviour”. CARICOM Ministers at a 1991 meeting, approved
the goals and targets of the CCH. Targets set for CARICOM coun-
tries to develop were:
190 FD12A
But national plans for health care are enormously affected by
economic constraints. Treatment and care costs are high, and for
each individual who has a chronic disease (diabetes, hypertension or
heart disease), a lifetime of such costs is often involved. Therefore,
the best approach is an integrated one that emphasizes preventive
and health promotion measures, while supporting treatment and
care. All programmes and plans should reflect these two considera-
tions. The aim is to cover all stages of life – pregnancy, early infancy,
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
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?
? CRITICAL THINKING
192 FD12A
Session 3.3
Genetic Diseases
Introduction
FD12A 193
OVERVIEW
194 FD12A
The basis of inheritance
FD12A 195
special reproductive cells called gametes, for example, sperms and
eggs. Most organisms have male and female gametes. How are the
instructions passed on? This is done in two ways. The astonishing
thing is that the basic mechanism is the same in all organisms.
For growth to take place, one cell divides into two, two into four,
and so on. The new cells increase to the size of the one from which
they came, before they themselves split into two again. Each new
cell has the same number of chromosomes and the exact number of
genes in the same order on the chromosomes as the cell from which
it came (the parent cell). This number is the number for the species.
This is the way cell division takes place in almost every part of your
body (with one exception). It is termed mitosis (Figure 3.6).
If the cell is dividing over and over how does the number of chromo-
somes remain exactly the same? Before mitosis each chromosome
makes an exact copy of itself to form a chromosome with two
strands held together at a single point. Each strand in the double-
stranded chromosome is called a chromatid.
196 FD12A
Cell division for gamete formation (meiosis)
In mitosis you get back exactly what you start with! A cell divides
to form two exact copies of itself. Cell division for gamete forma-
tion is somewhat different, (the exception mentioned above).
Gametes are reproductive structures, in our case, the male sperms
and the female eggs. Remember that our body cells have 46 chromo-
somes. Sperms and eggs have only 23 chromosomes i.e. half the
number found in body cells. There is a very practical reason for that
which should be fairly obvious if you think about it. Cells with the
capacity to produce gametes divide in a two-step process.
Step 1: One cell becomes two, but each daughter cell gets one of
each chromosome pair, and so has 23 unpaired chromosomes. Note
that one will get the X and the other the Y chromosome (see
above). This step is called a reduction division because of the halv-
ing of the chromosome number.
Step 2: These two cells divide to become four, each with 23 chromo-
somes. In a male, these four cells become the gametes (sperms), half
FD12A 197
having X chromosomes and half Y.
198 FD12A
Figure 3.8 The inheritance of sex
XY XX
MEIOSIS
X GAMETES
X
FERTILIZATION
XY
FD12A 199
Figure 3.9
Source: (a) from: J.D. Watson, 1968, The Double Helix. The New American Library, Inc.,
USA.)
Here is the key to the mystery of how these chemicals are able to
carry so much information. The sequence of the bases on each DNA
strand forms a code that directs the production of specific proteins.
Each DNA strand is therefore a list of different instructions for
making different proteins that the cell needs to carry out its specific
functions. To understand this fully, we must first describe the struc-
ture of proteins. Proteins make up most of the cell structures, and
enzymes that control what each cell does are also made of protein.
200 FD12A
then follow the instructions and assemble the protein. A length of
DNA that codes for one protein is called a gene. Genes give us our
characteristics.
In most people both of the genes for HbA in the maternal and
paternal chromosome 11 will be identical. In the Caribbean and else-
where, some people have a different haemoglobin. A single base pair
in the entire sequence coding for HbA is different. Thus, a different
amino acid is substituted into the haemoglobin chain. This slightly
different haemoglobin is termed haemoglobin S (HbS), and behaves
differently from normal HbA, causing sickle cell anaemia. We will
explain this further in a later section of this session.
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Each variant of a gene is called an allele; HbA and HbS are alleles of
the Hb gene. Let us take this single characteristic – the haemoglobin
molecule, and work out the possibilities for the offspring from
parents with different alleles for this gene. To do this, we need to
understand the terms dominant and recessive as they apply to
alleles. Sometimes one allele of a gene compensates for and masks
the effects of the other allele when they are present together. In this
case the allele A (coding for HbA), will mask the effect of the allele
S (coding for HbS), preventing its effects from showing up in a
person. When this is so, we say the allele A is the dominant allele,
and S the recessive allele. We call the alleles (variants of genes) in
the cells, the genotype for the characteristic.
Figure 3.11
202 FD12A
Figure 3.12 Probable phenotypes of children of a father and mother,
both with sickle cell “trait” (AS genotype).
Any gene can undergo a mutation, and there are about 30,000 genes
in humans. So, theoretically, thousands of genetic diseases are possi-
ble. But many embryos formed from gametes with genetic defects
FD12A 203
die, either before birth (in a miscarriage) or shortly after. Others live
with the conditions or diseases caused by the mistakes. These condi-
tions may show varying degrees of severity. We look briefly at four
of these conditions. One of these, Down’s syndrome, involves a
whole chromosome. The other three involve single genes.
Down’s syndrome
204 FD12A
Figure 3.13 Scanning electron
micrograph of blood from a sickle
cell patient. The blood is placed in
a low-oxygen medium to induce
sickling then quick frozen. The
normal red blood cells are disc-
shaped, sickled cells are
distorted.
Normal red blood cells with HbA are disc-shaped. In the lungs, Hb
combines with oxygen. This it gives up to cells that need it. The red
blood cells then return to the lungs where Hb picks up more
oxygen. The process is continuous. To get through very small blood
vessels, the red cells bend and flex. When there is not much oxygen
the red blood cells with HbS change shape and become fragile and
stiff. (Some of them become sickle-shaped, hence the name.) The
abnormal shape slows the flow of blood and causes blockages in
small vessels. This can cause tissue damage and severe pain, often in
the joints and stomach.
Normal red blood cells last about 120 days in the circulation. Those
with the sickle shape seem to last only about one tenth of that
time. Individuals therefore become anaemic because of the rapid and
continuous breakdown of the cells. Treatment includes pain relief
measures, drug therapy, and transfusions. Exposure to certain condi-
tions can trigger these crises. In Jamaica, cold and/or wet conditions
have been observed to do this. Where these triggers are known,
affected individuals can avoid them.
FD12A 205
learn from the experiences the Centre provides. Staff is actively
involved in sickle cell projects in these countries.
If you look back at Figures 3.11 and 3.12 you should be able to see
how malaria and sickle cell worked together to develop and main-
tain a pool of individuals of the HbS genotype. This is one instance
where the mutation could be said to have had a good, as well as a
bad effect. Where malaria is no longer common, we can expect a
gradual reduction in sickle cell anaemia as persons with the AS
genotype no longer have an advantage over others although the SS
genotypes are still at a disadvantage.
Cystic fibrosis
206 FD12A
which we worked out genotypes and phenotypes, you will note that
both parents would have had one recessive allele, for their child to
have two. Each parent is said to be a carrier. In their genotype,
they have one recessive allele (which may be passed on to a child),
but they themselves do not show the disease in their phenotype.
Why not?
Huntington’s disease
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The unfortunate thing is that onset of the disease takes place
between ages 35 and 50. So individuals may have had children
before knowing that they had the allele. Life expectancy from the
onset of symptoms is about 15 years, and no effective treatment is
yet known.
208 FD12A
have a child, at least they would be better prepared to deal with the
consequences of the disorder. (For more information on gene ther-
apy and pre-natal diagnosis, see Unit 4, Session 1.)
QUICK REVIEW
FD12A 209
4. Explain to a friend why a person may have a characteristic
which neither parent has.
SUMMARY
210 FD12A
their links to the non-communicable diseases mentioned in Session 1.
The Caribbean Co-operation in Health (CCH), an initiative of the
CARICOM health ministers, shows an awareness of the nutritional
problems of the region and willingness to deal with them.
FD12A 211
REFERENCES
Taylor D.J., N.P.O. Green and G.W. Stout. Biological Science 1 & 2.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 1997.
212 FD12A
Unit 4
Biotechnology and Society
INTRODUCTION
What do rum, beer, and wine have in common with bread and
cheese? They all depend on the activity of living organisms so small
that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Similar types of organ-
isms are responsible for the yoghurt that has been enjoyed in places
like India for thousands of years. In Module 1, we introduced tech-
nology as “the set of tools and techniques for controlling and chang-
ing one’s environment”. In biotechnology, these tools and
techniques are based on the processes and products of living things.
Although the biological science behind the techniques may not have
been fully understood, clearly, biotechnology is not new.
FD12A 213
Modern biotechnology no longer limits itself to the use of whole
organisms. There are now techniques that allow scientists to manip-
ulate genes directly. Genes can be moved from a human to a
bacterium and then into a cow! Genetic engineering, as this is
called, has alarmed many but mostly those who know little about
it. We hope that when you have finished this unit you will have
learned enough to make a more enlightened contribution to the
ongoing discussion on the possibilities offered by this new technol-
ogy and the controversies surrounding certain aspects of its use.
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
214 FD12A
5. Discuss in an informed manner some of the ethical issues arising
out of biotechnology
READINGS
FD12A 215
l Tennant, Paula. Crops of agricultural biotechnology. The Gleaner,
November 7, 2002, p. B10.
l Wellington, Karl. The Jamaica Red Poll story. Red Poll Supplement.
The Gleaner, November 14, 2002, pp. 2, 16.
216 FD12A
Session 4.1
Biotechnology and Medicine
Introduction
Artificial insemination
FD12A 217
There are registered human sperm banks, where donors leave semen
specimens. In some cases donors are paid for their contributions. In
reputable facilities, donors are screened for their suitability and their
medical and social histories recorded. A physical description and
biography is also recorded so that women or couples using the bank
can select a donor with characteristics of their choice. For example,
if a man is infertile, the couple may want to use donor sperm from
someone similar to him in appearance, ethnic group, and educa-
tional background. Application and screening processes vary in the
strictness of their requirements, but the insemination procedure is
not guaranteed to result in an embryo.
In vitro fertilisation
218 FD12A
?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
FD12A 219
When DNA from two different sources are joined together it is
called recombinant DNA. Another related technique that is very
important for the practical applications of genetic engineering is
gene cloning. The foreign gene is inserted into the DNA of bacter-
ial cells. Bacterial cells reproduce very rapidly. Each cell simply
divides in two, making exact copies of itself. This is repeated over
and over and in a short time there are thousands of exact copies of
the original cell all containing the recombinant DNA strand.
Whatever the clones now produce can be isolated and collected for
sale or used in other research areas. The importance of this tech-
nique is that large quantities of a useful product can be manufac-
tured very quickly and relatively cheaply.
Think about it! What thoughts do you have about using genetic
engineering to change the genetic makeup of a species? Write them
down for further consideration at the end of Session 3.
In our bodies there are special glands that secrete substances directly
into the bloodstream. They are transported in the blood to the
organs or cells where they have an effect. These substances regulate
the growth or functioning of specific organs or tissues in the body.
For example, the hormone insulin, produced in the pancreas, helps
to control the level of glucose in the blood by stimulating liver cells
and other cells to remove excess glucose from the bloodstream.
220 FD12A
Figure 4.2 Genetic engineering for large scale production
FD12A 221
E. coli bacteria which are then cloned. Large quantities of the altered
bacterium can be grown in a large vat called a fermenter where they
will produce the hormone. Before this technology became available,
insulin was obtained from the pancreas of slaughtered pigs and
cattle. Some patients were allergic to insulin from these sources and
only small quantities were found in each pancreas. Insulin was
therefore extremely expensive and many persons could not afford it
at all.
Find out (or suggest) what traits the mutant strain of the bacteria
used in research might have so that they cannot survive in the open.
Manufacture of vaccines
222 FD12A
l Each antibody is specific to the foreign substance that
stimulated its manufacture. Thus, antibodies against measles
will have no effect on chicken pox germs.
Prenatal diagnostics
FD12A 223
n THINK ABOUT IT! may be used. In this process, a fine needle attached to a syringe is
Do parents really inserted into the amnion or protective fluid-filled case in which the
have the right to
choose the baby is developing. Some of the fluid, in which there are cells from
characteristics of the embryo, is withdrawn. These cells are grown in special media
their children? until enough are available to carry out the required tests. The
numbers of chromosomes, as well as the chemical structure of the
genes can be determined in these tests. The tests show whether or
not the sequence of the bases on the chromosomes is normal (see
Module 2 Unit 3). Amniocentesis is particularly useful in those situ-
ations where disorders like haemophilia already exist in a family, or
for late pregnancies where the risk of abnormalities developing is
greater than in younger mothers. It allows parents to make
informed decisions as to whether to continue or terminate a
pregnancy.
224 FD12A
and so losing the baby. This signal is carried by hCG. Within
about two weeks after conception, hCG can be detected in the
urine. The pregnancy test uses antibodies to detect hCG in a
sample of urine. The results are ready in five minutes.
Forensic medicine
FD12A 225
tissue sample with one obtained from the belongings of the person.
In cases of disputed paternity prints of the child, the mother and
the alleged fathers are compared for similarities. The technique is
also useful in transplant programmes for matching organ donors
with persons needing to receive the organs.
Medical research
Transgenic animals with human genes
ACTIVITY
226 FD12A
Preventing rejection of transplants
Gene Therapy
This technology offers hope for the genetic disorders such as those
described in Unit 3. Go back and look at the effects of sickle cell
anaemia, cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. Now you can
understand the excitement of the possibilities offered by gene
therapy!
FD12A 227
ACTIVITY
There are about 220 different types of cells in the human body, for
example, muscle cells, blood cells and bone cells. Early in the devel-
opment of an embryo, cells are present which have the potential to
become the various types of specialised cells. These “primitive” cells
are called stem cells. In the orderly development of the embryo, cells
like these from different regions of the embryo will mature into
particular types. The aim behind stem cell research is to harvest and
grow these immature cells and use them to replace tissues lost by
injury or incurable diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s disease,
multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s and others.
There are within our bodies, sites at which new cells are being made
all the time and from which stem cells can be harvested. They have
been obtained from the brains of cadavers, from living bone marrow,
and from human placental tissue. However, extracting the cells from
these sources is difficult and supplies fewer cells of limited potential.
For example, stem cells which will produce cardiac cells or pancreatic
228 FD12A
islet cells have not yet been found in adult tissue. (The special
patches of tissue that make insulin in the pancreas are known as the
islets of Langerhans.)
Britain has been considering making this source legal, with the
proviso that all such embryos must be destroyed after 14 days. This
precaution would prevent the development of cloned foetuses or
babies. One consideration driving the British interest in this proce-
dure is the possibility of using it to produce replacement tissues that
are of the correct genetic makeup of a patient that needs these
tissues. If the patient’s own DNA were to be placed in an egg cell
stripped of its DNA, and the stem cells from this embryo then used
in the patient’s treatment, there would be little risk of rejection,
since stem cell and patient DNA would be identical. Therapeutic
cloning is the term being used to describe the process. Many people
have reservations about these procedures. Those against the use of
embryonic stem cells from whatever source regard the unavoidable
destruction of the embryo in the process as taking a life. This
brought research in the United States to a standstill for some time.
However, limited permission to continue the work has been granted
by the present administration.
FD12A 229
Figure 3.1.3 Gene cloning
230 FD12A
?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
The Human Genome Project aims to identify all the pairs and genes
in the human genome and use this information to create a genetic
map that would allow researchers to locate a particular gene, when
necessary. (Producing this map could take more than one lifetime! It
FD12A 231
has become possible by developing super computers programmed to
sequence genes.) At the same time, they intend to address the ethi-
cal, legal, and social issues which may arise from the project. Non-
human organisms commonly used in research, are also to be studied.
These include the bacterium Escherichia coli, commonly found in the
gut, the fruit fly, and mice.
Possible applications
232 FD12A
?
? ACTIVITY
Artificial
insemination
In vitro fertilisation
Production of
hormones using
recombinant DNA
Manufacturing
vaccines using
recombinant DNA
Gene therapy
FD12A 233
234 FD12A
Session 4.2
Biotechnology and Agriculture
FD12A 235
commonly thought) over many years have produced the Buffalypso.
This buffalo type is much in demand as it produces good quality
beef and milk on very poor quality feed, making it ideal for coun-
tries that spend large sums importing animal feed or beef. Similarly,
in Jamaica, work by Dr. Thomas Lecky gave rise to the Jamaica
Hope breed of cattle, a great milk producer and all round animal
that is well suited to tropical conditions such as ours. Both these
types of cattle have been exported to many different countries in
the world.
Tissue culture
236 FD12A
n FIND OUT MORE! One of the problems of monocrop cultivation is obtaining a suffi-
What are the ciency of young plants for crops that do not reproduce from seed.
additional
advantages of One answer has been to use tissue culture techniques. The tech-
growing crop plants nique makes it possible to get large numbers of the same plant easily
by using tissue
culture methods?
and quickly. Dr Lloyd Coke of the then Botany Department,
University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, in the early 1960s
made a significant contribution to the successful use of this tech-
nique for obtaining banana plants. At the St Augustine Campus
Professor Julian Duncan did similar work until very recently.
?
? QUESTION
l Plant breeders can now develop varieties that were not possible
using traditional cross-breeding methods because genes can be
copied from different species of plants, from animals, and
microbes. Traditional cross-breeding was between varieties of the
same species.
FD12A 237
These new techniques have already been used to develop food crops
that:
l are more resistant to pests, disease, and poor soil and weather
conditions,
l tolerate chemical herbicides better,
l can be processed more easily,
l exhibit improved nutritional content,
l have better physical characteristics such as appearance, texture,
and size.
The tomato plant has been injected with a gene for an insecticidal
protein, with the result that when an insect eats the transgenic
plant, the protein is released and the insect dies.
?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
238 FD12A
?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY
FD12A 239
Developing substitutes for existing plant products
For several years now the sugar industry has been in crisis through-
out the Caribbean. As wages and transport costs increased locally
the market price for our sugar became less attractive. However, this
is not the only reason. Countries that used to purchase our sugar
can now make their own sweeteners, thanks to genetic engineering.
Corn-based fructose sweeteners are now available cheaply and have
all but killed the market for the sucrose produced from sugar cane
and beet. This research was spearheaded in the first world countries
that previously provided us with markets. Perhaps we need to
consider using genetic engineering to develop a new variety of sugar
cane that can produce a different and more marketable product.
A MATTER OF CONCERN
240 FD12A
production respectively. Selection and cross-breeding took place at
the level of the whole animal.
?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
The health of animal stock can be improved with the help of geneti-
cally engineered vaccines. Microbes are made to produce large
amounts of the specific antigens associated with particular diseases.
Vaccines are then made from these antigens (see Session 1). In
Australia, animal vaccines have been produced to counteract diar-
rhoea in piglets and parasites that affect sheep.
FD12A 241
easily and can, therefore, be left on the plant until ripe. This ensures
that its flavour is properly developed. This contrasts with “natural”
tomatoes which must be picked at the onset of ripening to prevent
softening; such tomatoes do not stay on the tree long enough to
develop their full flavour.
l Food that contains products from GMOs does not always carry
labels that would alert the public to its nature and/or method of
preparation. Policies for labelling GMOs are not uniform. The
European Union and countries such as New Zealand and
Australia are pursuing mandatory labelling of these products.
However, the United States is using a system of voluntary
labelling as the main strategy. In the Caribbean, both Jamaica
and Trinidad and Tobago have begun drafting relevant policies
and other territories are now discussing this issue. Should there
be a regional policy?
242 FD12A
l Some persons have suggested that the increase in children of
hypersensitivity diseases such as allergies and asthma may be
due to genetically modified foods to which they are exposed.
FD12A 243
244 FD12A
Session 4.3
Biotechnology and Industry
Introduction
Rum has been made in the Caribbean since about 1750. The prepa-
ration of rums, wines and beers is one example of the early use of
biotechnology in industry. The alcohol base of these beverages came
from the fermentation of plant material by yeast, a living organism.
Yeasts, like all other living things, need energy to live. Unlike us
they can survive by obtaining energy from sugar (glucose) in the
absence of oxygen. When they do this they produce alcohol and
carbon dioxide as waste products. We could represent the process
like this:
FD12A 245
Besides preventing environmental degradation, biotechnological
methods can also be used to remedy damage that has already taken
place. Living organisms have been used to modify and destroy chem-
ical wastes making them harmless to the environment. Typically,
bacteria or fungi that can digest the waste are genetically engineered
to produce more effective strains that can get rid of the waste
quickly. In the case of oil spills, genetically engineered bacteria have
been produced and used to clean up waterways. This contrasts with
previous methods, for example, using detergents that often did more
damage than the oil spills.
Enzyme technology
246 FD12A
Considering issues in biotechnology
For each issue that is raised there are a number of pertinent ques-
tions. Consider them all carefully and discuss your opinions with a
class member or a friend or at your next tutorial. Use the informa-
tion provided in this and other units to inform your discussion but
your final opinions are personal. Write down your answers to the
questions for future reference.
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
FD12A 247
Patenting
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
248 FD12A
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
Do these steps put your mind at rest? Even field trials are
hazardous; should we wait until we know more?
FD12A 249
Competition with natural species
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
Will we have the legal right to continue growing the crops from
which the genes have been patented? Is there any way of
protecting Caribbean countries from these activities? Should we
be doing more of our own biotechnology research?
250 FD12A
Large companies, because of their economic strength, can force
poorer governments to accept their genetically modified exports,
affecting the livelihoods of farmers and farm workers. Reduced earn-
ings mean a lowering of the quality of life of these individuals and
of the economic circumstances of the countries to which they
belong.
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
FD12A 251
Ethical considerations
The right to modify life
?
? THINK ABOUT IT!
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It should be clear to you that to begin thinking about these ques-
tions at all, people need to have some basic information about what
is going on. We hope you are now in a better position to make more
objective decisions should you be asked to contribute to a debate on
any of the issues raised.
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? A FINAL QUESTION
SUMMARY
Biotechnology in agriculture
In this section the main focus was on examples from the Caribbean
of work done to enhance the characteristics of some commercially
important plants and animals. Methods used include plant propaga-
tion by tissue culture and genetic engineering of new varieties. The
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“old” technologies of plant and animal breeding were also seen to
have made an important contribution to Caribbean agriculture
Biotechnology in industry
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REFERENCES
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Unit 5
Computer Science
and Information Technology
INTRODUCTION
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Until very recently, the number of telephones per 100 households
differed considerably both between countries and within countries.
This is changing rapidly since the cost of cell phones was reduced
but the difference between access to landlines remains. Access to
information technology depends on access to landlines. This differ-
ence in access to information technology is often referred to as the
“digital divide”.
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
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4. Describe some of the impacts of the use of Information
Technology on individuals, organizations and societies
READINGS
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Session 5.1
Computer Science
and Informaton Technology
Computer science
Have you never wondered how a computer works? In the same way
that genetics is the science behind genetic engineering, computer
science is the science behind information technology. It may
surprise you to learn that there is an academic discipline named
after an artifact, even if the artifact in question is a relatively
complex one. After all, there is no similarly recognized science
named after, automobiles or refrigerators. What makes this even
more surprising is that, although computers play an important role
in computer science, they are not the central concept and figure
only peripherally in most definitions of computer science. What
then is computer science? To understand this we need to look first
at how instructions are provided to a computer in useable form.
Algorithms
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For a sequence of actions to be an algorithm, it must meet a number
of requirements. First, the steps that make up the algorithm must
be unambiguous in that there is no doubt in the mind of whoever is
reading the algorithm what the steps are. Clearly, the above meets
this requirement. Second, the steps in the algorithm must be
executable in the sense that the person performing the algorithm
must be able to perform the individual actions. Again, the above
algorithm meets this requirement for most of us, as most of us will
be capable of performing the actions that make up the algorithm.
Finally, the algorithm must achieve its aim in a finite amount of
time, a requirement that the above algorithm again meets. While
the first two requirements are straightforward, the final one may
need some explanation. By way of explanation, we give an example
of a sequence of unambiguous executable steps that does not termi-
nate:
A little thought will show that, since there is no largest number, the
above sequence of actions never terminates and therefore is not an
algorithm.
Notice also that the first sequence of steps given above is only one
algorithm for making a cup of tea. We could have performed step 4
first or second or third. In each case, we would have generated a
slightly different algorithm, although all of them would have
resulted in us achieving our goal.
Did you also notice that the above definition of an algorithm is not
entirely clear? After all, it states that an algorithm must consist of a
sequence of executable steps but it does not say what makes a step
executable. Indeed, there may even be some doubt as to what makes
a step executable since there are certainly differences between
people that may prevent execution of a particular instruction. Steps,
such as “bowl a cricket ball at 90 miles an hour”, are executable for
only a few of us. Can we be more precise about exactly what makes
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a step executable? Also, because we are dealing with algorithms in
the context of computers, we are really interested in steps that can
be executed by a computer.
What makes computers such powerful tools is the fact that the
same computer can execute different algorithms. Thus, depending
on the algorithm that it has been given, the same computer can be
used to predict the likely path of a hurricane over the next 24 hours
or to type out a poem. However, before an algorithm can be
executed by a computer it first needs to be translated into a
program written in a programming language and this program
translated into a set of instructions that the computer can execute.
We refer to the translation of the algorithm into a program as the
linguistic realization of an algorithm and the execution of this
algorithm as its mechanical realization.
1 As in the case of the automobile, there are many discussions about where the first
computer was invented and by whom. Leading contenders are Z3 (built by Konrad
Zuse in Germany in 1941), COLLOSSUS (built in England in 1943) and ENIAC (built
in the USA in 1944). As is the case with the automobile, the reason that people can
have this debate is that there is no clear-cut definition of exactly what a computer is,
or at least no agreement whether Z3 for example would classify as a computer under
whatever definition one prefers.
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write different programs. However, it would obviously be good if
one could compare algorithms. If we have two algorithms for the
same task, is one better than the other, for example, because it runs
faster?
Bearing all this in mind, we can now define computer science as:
ACTIVITY
Information technology
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Economics of IT
The first factor responsible for the explosion in the use of informa-
tion technology has been the continuing decline in cost of computer
hardware. Some 10 years ago, George Moore, a founder of one of the
most successful computer processor manufacturers in the world,
Intel, formulated what is now called “Moore’s law”. Moore’s “law”
states that the power of a computer doubles every eighteen months
without an increase in price. Thus, a computer that can do x today
and costs $y, will still cost $y in eighteen months and do 2x. Or, and
equally importantly, a computer to do x will cost only ½$y in eight-
een months time.
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cost of using it, i.e. the cost of transmitting information, to
decrease. It is this drop in the cost of telecommunication, as much
as the drop in the cost of computer hardware that has been behind
the emergence of the Internet. (We discuss the Internet in greater
detail in the next session.)
ACTIVITY
1. Write down the three main reasons for the rapid increase in
the use of IT.
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allowing the organization to deal with many more cases. Unlike
humans, computers do not get tired and, at least if programmed
correctly, do not make mistakes.
More recently, the emergence of the Internet has led to even more
dramatic changes in the way in which companies do business and
the general way in which societies are organized. We discuss some of
these factors in the next section.
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2. List the advantages of using information technology
described in the passage above. Can you think of any other
advantages?
The Internet
Development and growth of the Internet
n Protocols are
Two factors led to the growth of the Internet, both of which
agreed ways and / or involved the voluntary adoption of a set of standards. The first was
standards of getting adopting a protocol referred to as TCP/IP (Transmission Control
something done.
These protocols are Protocol/Internet Protocol) that made it possible for all types of
sets of rules computers to communicate with each other. The second factor was
governing the
exchange or the adoption of HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) as the stan-
transmission of data dard for providing content for the Internet and the development of
between electronic
devises. TCP/IP the so-called Web browser to display information encoded in HTML.
allows computers to
talk to each other in
an error-free way. Today, the Internet has grown and continues to grow rapidly. By some
HTML is the layout estimates there are over 550 million users (or some 10% of the world
script used to design
web pages. HTTP is population). Unfortunately, accurate estimates are hard to come by
another protocol, and while there may be some dispute about the actual number of
used by most
browsers when users, there can be no dispute about the exponential increase in those
reading a web page. numbers. It is perhaps good to recall that the Internet in the form that
we know it today is only about 10 years old!
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Although the Internet was initially used primarily for entertainment
and information exchange between academics, more recently it has
become a vehicle for commercial activity as well. Accurate estimates
are again hard to come by but it has been estimated that e-
commerce, the conduct of financial and commercial transactions
over the Internet, will reach a value of US$1trillion by 2003. There
are many disputes about the actual value of e-commerce but it is
again good to remember that in 1995 e-commerce did not exist.
There are many reasons that one can advance for the explosive
growth in Internet use. Some reasons have to do with the sheer
amount of information that is available on the Internet and the rela-
tively low cost of access. Anybody with a personal computer and a
telephone can basically access the Internet. Moreover, anybody can
find something of interest to them, whether it is music of various
kinds, the state of Dutch second division football, reviews of a new
film or what’s new in computer software.
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track goods from the time they leave the supplier until they
reach the customer.
In addition, people are also using the Internet to sell and buy
directly from each other through on-line auctions. This type of e-
commerce is often referred to as C2C. A good example of this is
eBay.com which, in essence, is an electronic flea market.
The cheap and open access to the Internet has also helped create
global communities and global special interest groups. Although it is
unlikely that one will find a sufficient number of individuals with
the same esoteric interests in a geographically defined area, it is
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more than likely that one can find sufficient individuals with similar
interests among a group of some 550 million.
The community building aspect of the Internet clearly has its posi-
tive sides. However, there are also some more negative aspects to it.
A person with strange interests will find it difficult to find similar
persons in a geographically defined community, no matter how large
this community. Clearly, this is no longer the case if the larger
community becomes globally defined by access to the Internet.
There is little harm in people using the Internet to create self-help
groups for people with particular diseases, or communities with
unusual interests, 1920s British motorcycles for example, but the
technology can also be used to create communities of people with
less savoury interests. Indeed, it is not too difficult to find Neo-Nazi
groups spreading their message via the internet or to find child
pornography. Can anything be done to control the use of the net?
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A good example of shifting sites to get around the law is Internet
gambling. A few years ago, the United States passed a law prohibit-
ing the provision of Internet gambling services. However, rather
than not providing these services, for which there was a clear
demand in the US, the organizations providing these services simply
relocated to the Eastern Caribbean. Internet gambling is as popular,
if not more so, as it was before the ban. It is just that the services
are now provided from the Caribbean, rather than from US based
organizations.
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access. Do you consider this a reasonable point of view or that
it might start a free-for-all that would be the detriment of
individual property rights?
There are, of course, efforts under way to address this problem and
the cellular phone is coming to the rescue by providing telephone
services that are considerably cheaper for both customer and service
provider than installing wired telephony. Already, Africa has more
cellular phone lines than wired ones, and the number of cellular
lines is increasing rapidly. However, while the provision of basic
telephony is of course important, and will lead to significant
economic opportunities, access to a telephone is a far cry from
access to the Internet.
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and more than 4 times an average person’s annual salary in the
poorest countries of the world. In other words, while information
technology might provide important economic opportunities for
poor countries and their citizens, their very poverty often makes it
extremely hard for them to access the technology in the first place.
Even if one could solve the problem of access, the big problem
remains how to attract customers in the first place. Selling in the
“real world” (as opposed to the “virtual world” of the Internet) is
difficult but relatively well understood. If you are selling to individ-
ual customers in a store, then it pays to establish the store in the
best location possible. As the saying goes, in retail only three things
matter: “Location, location and location.” Similarly, selling to large
businesses often involves a well-understood marketing exercise with
repeated visits to the prospective customer and possibly visits by the
customer to one’s physical establishment as well.
It is less clear how one sells in the virtual world. In order to conduct
a sale, one first has to get the prospective customer to visit one’s
Internet site. Visiting a site requires a conscious decision on the part
of the prospective customer. Prospective customers may happen to
wander into a physical retail store, for example because they were
visiting the area in which the shop happens to be located. However,
a prospective customer is much less likely to visit an Internet site by
chance. One therefore has to entice customers to one’s site and this
is an expensive proposition. It has been estimated that the acquisi-
tion cost per customer (the cost of acquiring a potential customer) is
four to five times as high in the “virtual” world as in the real world.
Indeed, very few businesses that rely exclusively on the Internet for
sales have made any profit, despite their having access to consider-
able amounts of capital through their local stock markets. The ques-
tion is how companies located in the developing world, usually with
far less access to capital, can make a profit when many companies in
the rich world have not been able to do so.
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ACTIVITY
Essay/discussion topic
Whatever one thinks about the prospects of this technology for the
developing world, there is no doubt that it has had a significant
impact on the way in which the world is organized, and that it will
continue to have a significant impact. Companies and individuals,
no matter where they are located, would seem to have no choice but
to integrate this technology into their operations. We would all be
wise to keep abreast of developments in the fields of computer
science and information technology; the end is nowhere in sight.
ACTIVITY
1. Compare your society now and ten years ago. List all the
differences (good and bad) that the increasing use of IT has
brought to your region.
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3. How do you think these changes will affect social relations
in your country?
SUMMARY
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Unit 6
Some Ethical and Gender Issues
INTRODUCTION
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ties of natural sciences and medicine but in engineering there is still
a great disparity between the numbers of males and females gradu-
ating.
OVERVIEW
The first section of the unit reviews briefly the concern for account-
ability in science raised in Module 1. Here it is extended to include
the topic of eugenics as an example of the extremes that may be
reached in the name of science when accountability is not an issue.
This leads us to a consideration of the commercialisation of scien-
tific research and our role in limiting its effects on developing coun-
tries such as ours. This is followed by a discussion of the changing
pattern of gender and science education and the factors that limit
access to quality health care for women.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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4. Relate knowledge of the issues surrounding science, medicine,
and technology to the challenges and decisions in your own life
READINGS
l Ridley, Matt. The new eugenics: Better than the old. National
Review July 31, 2000. http://www.findarticles.com
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l Separating the political and the scientific elements: The atom
bomb. FD 12A Module 3: Society 7.2 (a) pp. 62–65.
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Session 6.1
Science and Accountability
The story of the atom bomb has been dealt with in Unit 3 of
Module 1. However, it is mentioned here again as it illustrates that
it is not always easy to decide who is ultimately responsible for
what is done with scientific findings. Einstein did not only deal
with theory but as the extract below shows, he was well aware of
the application of his findings. Szilard, the main proponent of the
bomb, contacted Einstein and persuaded him to write the famous
letter to President Roosevelt which was sent on August 2, 1939.
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work. However, the commitment to build the bomb was not the
scientists’ decision, but President Roosevelt’s. The order to drop the
bomb came from yet another individual, President Truman.
Building the bomb was a gigantic engineering feat, but there was an
enormous gap between the scientific knowledge and developing the
technology that used the knowledge. What we can agree on is that:
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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
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The eugenics issue
Galton’s views were derived from ideas about natural selection and
evolution. An American, Charles Davenport, was particularly influ-
enced by the idea of eugenics. In 1904 he persuaded the Carnegie
Foundation to set up the Cold Spring Harbour Laboratories for the
study of human evolution. From his studies on human pedigrees,
Davenport came to believe that certain races were feeble-minded.
Negroes were biologically inferior, Poles were perceived of as inde-
pendent and self-reliant, though clannish; Italians tended to crimes
of personal violence. (On what type of reasoning do you think this
was based? See Module 1, Unit 2.)
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Harry H. Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office at
Cold Spring Harbour, used prison and hospital data to lobby at the
state level for the passage of eugenic sterilization laws which would
allow individuals in state institutions to be forcibly sterilized if they
were judged to be genetically defective. Over 35 states passed and
used such laws. By the 1960s, when most of these laws were being
repealed more than 60,000 people had been sterilized for eugenic
purposes (Allen, 2001).
Many are of the view that scientists are obliged to examine the
social implications of their work. This may be debatable. What is
clear is that they need not decide how or if it should be used but
make clear the extent to which their observations and conclusions
can be reliably put into practice. This is especially important in
sensitive social areas, when they should be clear to the point of
being overcautious. The responsibility of a vigilant public is to be
as informed as possible, to demand the evidence and evaluate it
critically.
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He considers it unlikely, that we will see a return to sterilization
proposals. However, the requirement of anti-fertilization medication
for continuation of welfare benefits in the United States, and tough
immigration sentiments in that country and in Europe, remind us
that that we are not entirely free of the prejudices of earlier genera-
tions.
The scenario described above may never happen. However, there are
other important concerns that relate to the economics of science
and technology. As noted earlier, most scientific research is being
funded or conducted by agencies with a commercial interest in the
applications of what they underwrite. Two problems arise because
of this. Firstly, the objectives of scientific research and technological
development are not necessarily directed to areas that are most in
need or of greatest scientific interest. Instead, they are directed to
those areas that will yield the greatest profit. An outstanding exam-
ple is in the area of medicine where certain disorders and potential
cures are overresearched because the results can be successfully
marketed. Diseases that are common in the Third World and kill
millions every year receive much less attention and funding.
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The second concern arises from the first but is more general in
scope. Even when technology and science produce research findings
that are in the interest of humanity in general, the benefits may not
reach the potential beneficiaries because they cannot afford them. A
recent example makes the point. Drugs that can alleviate the symp-
toms of AIDS or prevent it from developing are too expensive for
the countries that need them most. It took determined political
action, threats to ignore patents, and public censure to convince
drug companies to bring the prices to those nations within reach of
their economies.
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ACTIVITY
Research done by Bailey and Leo-Rhynie (1994) pointed out that the
education literature at the time contained many references to gender
differences in relation to the pursuit of science. It was found that
boys elected to do more courses in science, enjoyed science more and
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achieved at higher levels in science than girls did. This situation was
also true of Jamaica up to about a decade ago. The picture has
changed as more girls choose to do courses in science. However, the
common perception that science subjects are more suited to boys
than girls still persists and influences choice to a certain extent.
Other factors that emerged from the research were the greater
uncertainty of girls about their ability to cope with the demands of
studying science or mathematics. At that time fewer females seemed
to be interested in careers in engineering and computer science
(p. 62).
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gender, and science education” (Sjöberg, 2000, p. 166). Students,
approximately 13 years of age, were asked to respond to a question-
naire that was designed to explore their interests and experiences
with respect to science-related activity and their hopes and plans for
the future.
The study also showed that there was a great deal of interest in
studying science in developing countries among both boys and girls,
but with a slightly higher level of interest displayed by girls, overall.
This was certainly the pattern for Trinidad. However, when the data
were analysed in terms of areas of interest, it was found that boys in
all countries were far more interested in mechanical areas such as
“the car and how it works” than were girls. On the other hand, with
respect to issues pertaining to health, such as AIDS and healthy
eating habits, interest was higher in developing countries than in
developed ones, with small gender differences in favour of girls.
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beings with the male image. However they see intuition and the
capacity to care and nurture as part of the female image. These
perceptions, along with the historical lack of access to education for
women, have been suggested as contributing to the traditional
perception of science as “male”. But as Helen Weinreich-Haste has
argued, “science is masquerading under a stereotype of masculinity”.
While male scientists, in her opinion, do get to the top of their
professions by the exercise of their aggressive, masculine personali-
ties, their creativity comes from supposedly non-masculine ways of
thinking including intuition, speculation, and commitment. In her
view “knowledge needs de-sexing”. This she thinks would entail not
a change in the nature of knowledge, but merely a greater awareness
of what knowledge in reality is, and what the processes of science
are. However, erasing tradition is difficult.
The trend noted above in the figures for enrolment in CXC science
has persisted and is reflected in the official statistics of the
University of the West Indies 1999/2000. The extract below is from
a table showing the numbers registered in the three faculties that
teach sciences.
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in some areas. Vertical segregation manifests itself in the fact that
there are fewer women in top positions in the science departments
of universities and in other scientific institutions. This latter fact
will probably persist for some time until the females graduating
from school now enter the labour force in sufficient numbers to
change the entrenched positions.
Within recent times, the view has been expressed that increasing the
diversity among scientists (which can be achieved by having more
female scientists) would improve the quality of science in that,
among other things, the range of investigations would be broadened
because of a range of interests. For example, it is felt that if there
were more female research scientists, women’s health issues would
be more seriously researched. This link between diversity among
scientists and the quality of science produced has been hotly
debated.
ACTIVITY
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Gender and health
In addition, there are several social factors which may place women
at a disadvantage in terms of taking control of their own reproduc-
tive health. Societal attitudes to infertility, non-mothers and older
women, rape and violence in sexual relationships, male and female
attitudes to sexual practices – for example, the refusal by some men
to use condoms, all act as deterrents in this respect. In some 26
countries including parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia the
practice of female genital mutilation still exists. Usually performed
on very young females by older females because men want it so, it
attests to the dominance of tradition over contemporary norms and
scientific knowledge.
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recently, the accepted pattern was to save the chicken leg or breast
for the father; the mother claimed or learned to enjoy the bony
pieces.)
Societal norms for both men and women contribute to this spread.
Women are socialized to please men and will submit themselves to
high-risk behaviour to do that. For example, where virginity is
valued, anal sex may be practised, which may put them at risk for
HIV. Then there is deliberate selection of young girls by older men.
Many women are forced to have unsafe sex, within and without
steady unions. Fear prevents the female partner from bringing up
condom use. The male partner often interprets this as a sign of
faithfulness. In any case, motherhood is valued, and the condom
prevents conception. In some societies, infertility is grounds for
divorce.
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society does not cater to their needs in terms of making reliable
information on matters to do with sex, easily accessible to them.
This is a debate that will not be resolved as claims one way or the
other are mostly based on dogma making it difficult to analyse the
issues rationally (Macklin, 1991). Macklin is also of the view that
without safe abortion services in case of contraceptive failure for
whatever reason, a family planning programme is not complete.
With too many children, both mother and children are at risk.
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QUICK REVIEW
1. List three factors that could account for men and women
having different attitudes to reproductive health and sexuality.
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FD12A 295
SUMMARY
3. Gender and health: Health care for women tends to focus on the
biological aspects of health care without taking into account the
social factors that limit access to what is available. These include
women’s relationships with their partners and other family
members, religious attitudes, and societal attitudes to matters
such as infertility. Women consistently put the welfare of other
family members ahead of their own health needs as well as other
demands on their time and financial resources.
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Wrap up: Why should I care?
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what takes place in the rest of the world? (Before consider-
ing this question you might like to list all the ways you can
think of that September 11 affected your country).
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REFERENCES
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