Peroxisomes – similar to lysosomes, formed by self-
Homeostasis – maintenance of nearly constant conditions in
the internal environment
Feedback system/loop – cycle of events in which the status
of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed,
remonitored, reevaluated, and so on.
Components:
Stimulus – any disruption that changes a controlled
condition
Controlled condition – body condition
Receptor – body structure that monitors changes in a
controlled condition and sends input (in the form of nerve
or chemical signals) to a control center through an afferent
pathway
Control center – sets the range of values within which a
controlled condition should be maintained (set point),
evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates
output commands (in the form of nerve or chemical signals)
to the effectors through an efferent pathway
Effector – body structure that receives output from the
control center and produces a response/effect that
changes the controlled condition
Types:
Negative – reverses a change in the controlled condition
Positive – strengthen/reinforce a change in the controlled
condition
STUDY Examples of positive and negative feedback and
analyze its components
Cell Physiology
Protoplasm – substances that make up the cell, composed
mainly of five basic substances: water, electrolytes, proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates
Physical Structure of the Cell
Cell/Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Cytosol – jelly-like fluid portion of cytoplasm
Organelles
Organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum – network of tubular and flat
vesicular structures filled with endoplasmic matrix lined
with walls of lipid bilayer; the space is continuous with the
space within the nuclear membrane; for processing and
transporting molecules
Rough/Granular ER – with ribosomes
Smooth/Agranular ER – for synthesis of lipid
substances
Ribosomes – composed of RNA & proteins; for protein
synthesis
Golgi Apparatus – thin, flat, enclosed vesicles lying near
one side of the nucleus with walls similar to smooth ER,
prominent in secretory cells; for further processing of
substances in the transport/ER vesicles forming
lysosomes, secretory vesicles and other components
STUDY Process of synthesis of cellular structures by ER
and golgi apparatus
Lysosomes – walls of lipid bilayer filled with hydrolases;
for intracellular digestive system
Proteosomes – tiny barrel-shaped structures consisting
of four stacked rings of proteins around a central core,
contains proteases, degrades proteins in the cytosol
Secretory vesicles/granules
replication (or from smooth ER), contains oxidases (form
H2O2) and catalase; for detoxification, catabolize long
chain fatty acids
Mitochondria – powerhouse of the cell, variable in size
and shape with two lipid bilayer (outer and inner), inner
membrane has infoldings forming shelves and tubules
(cristae) with oxidative enzymes, inner cavity is filled with
matrix with enzymes for extracting energy from nutrients,
self-replicative (replication is rel. to inc.. energy demands),
with mtDNA; produces ATP
Cytoskeleton – provides rigid physical structures for
certain parts of cells, track-like system that directs
movement of organelles, participates in cell division,
movement of cell
Microfilaments – help generate movement and
provide mechanical support e.g. ectoplasm – actin
filaments in the outer zone of the cytoplasm for elastic
support for the cell membrane; myofilaments – actin
and myosin filaments in muscles fibers; in microvilli –
nonmotile, microscopic fingerlike projections of the
plasma membrane, increases surface area for
absorption
Intermediate filaments – help stabilize the position
of organelles and nucleus, form a flexible scaffolding for
the cell and help it resist external pressure; protein
make up is cell-specific e.g. vimentin in fibroblasts,
cytokeratin in epithelial cells
Microtubules – consist of tubulin molecules e.g.
flagella and cilia, centrioles and mitotic spindle
Centrosome – consists of two centrioles (short cylinders
arranged at right angles), surrounded by pericentriolar
material
Cilia – numerous, short, hairlike projections that extend
from the surface of the cell, consists of axoneme anchored
to the basal body
Flagella – similar in structure to cilia but are typically
much longer.
Nucleus – control center of the cell
Nuclear membrane/envelope – with two lipid bilayer,
outer membrane is continuous with ER, the space is
continuous with the space within the ER
Nuclear pores
Nucleoplasm
Nucleolus – accumulation of large amounts of RNA
Genes – comprised of DNA
Chromatin – in interphase
Chromosomes – organized chromatin material, in
mitosis
Cell/Plasma Membrane
Fluid mosaic model – molecular arrangement of the plasma
membrane resembles a continually moving sea of fluid lipids
that contains a mosaic of many different proteins
Lipid-bilayer – double-layered film of lipids, each layer only
one molecule thick
Composition:
Phospholipids – most abundant, amphipathic (with both
polar and non-polar parts) phosphate “head” (polar) is
hydrophilic, fatty acid “tail” (non-polar) is hydrophobic
Sphingolipids – also have hydrophobic and hydrophilic
groups, present in small amounts (i.e. nerve cells),
numerous functions
 Cholesterol – weakly amphipathic, steroid rings and
hydrocarbon tail (non-polar) with hydroxyl (-OH) group
(non-polar),
Glycolipids
Membrane Proteins
Arrangement:
Peripheral – attached to the polar heads of membrane
lipids or to integral proteins
Integral – extend into or through the lipid, some are
attached to the fatty acids, amphipathic with hydrophilic
regions protrude into either cytosol or ECF and hydrophobic
regions among the fatty acid tails
Transmembrane – spanning the entire lipid bilayer and
protrude into both the cytosol and ECF
Functions:
Ion channels/pores – holes for specific ions, most ions
are selective (only allows single type of ion to pass through)
Carriers/transporters – selectively moving a polar
substance or ion from one side of the membrane to the
other
Receptors – recognizes specific molecules called ligands
which bind to receptors, and alters cellular function (e.g.
secondary messenger)
Enzymes – catalyze specific chemical reactions at the inside
or outside surface of the cell
Linkers – anchor proteins in the plasma membranes of
neighboring cells to one another
or to protein filaments inside and outside the cell
Cell-identity markers – glycoproteins e.g. MHC proteins
Membrane Carbohydrates
Glycoprotein – proteins with carbohydrate groups attached
to ends projecting to ECF, most of the integral proteins are
glycoproteins
Glycolipids – amphipathic, “head” of carbohydrate groups
(polar) with fatty acid “tails” (non-polar), appears only in the
membrane that face the ECF
Proteoglycans – carbohydrate bound to small protein
cores, loosely attached to the outer surface of the cell
Glycocalyx – carbohydrate coat consisting mainly of
carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins
Functions:
- gives most cells an overall negative surface charge that
repels other negatively charged objects (e.g. protection from
being digested by some enzymes)
- glycocalyx of some cells attaches to glycocalyx of other cells
- receptor substances
- cell-identity markers, molecular “signature” varies from one
cell to another and also to “foreign” glycocalyx (e.g. in
detection of self and foreign antigen by WBCs, recognition of
other cells of the same kind during tissue formation)
- hydrophilic surface attract a film of fluid to the surface (e.g.
makes RBC slippery as they flow through narrow blood
vessels and protects cells that line the airways and the
gastrointestinal tract from drying out)
Membrane fluidity
An excellent compromise for the cell; a rigid membrane would
lack mobility (e.g. in assembly of membrane proteins, or
movement of the membrane components responsible for
cellular processes) and a completely fluid membrane would
lack the structural organization and mechanical support
required by the cell
Membrane lipids and many of the membrane proteins easily
rotate and move sideways in their own half of the bilayer, they
seldom flip-flop from one half of the bilayer to the other
Allows the lipid bilayer to self-seal if torn or punctured
Depends on:
- Number of double bonds in the fatty acid tails of the lipids
(the “kink” in the fatty acid tail)
- Amount of cholesterol present; increases fluidity by
preventing lipid molecules from packing tightly in the
membrane
Cholesterol makes the lipid bilayer stronger but less fluid at
normal body temperature, but at low temperatures, it
increases fluidity
Membrane permeability – semi-permeable, lipid layer is
impermeable to the water-soluble substances (e.g. ions,
glucose, and urea), permeable to fat-soluble substances (e.g.
O2, CO2, alcohol, steroids)
In the degree of permeability:
- highly permeable to non-polar/lipid-soluble/hydrophobic
substances (e.g. O2, CO2, alcohol, steroids)
- moderately permeable to small, uncharged polar molecules
(e.g. H2O, urea)
- impermeable to ions and large, uncharged polar molecules
(e.g. glucose)
Protein channels and carriers can facilitate a variety of ions and
uncharged polar molecules to cross the membrane, but they
are very selective.
Macromolecules (e.g. proteins) cannot pass though except by
vesicular transport (e.g. endocytosis, exocytosis)
Transport of Substances through Cell Membranes
ECF and ICF: Composition
STUDY Figure 4-1 Chapter 4 (Guyton). Note which components
are higher/lower in ICF/ECF and relate it to membrane
transport
*cation, anion
Passive Process – only its own kinetic energy, across the
gradient
Diffusion
Simple diffusion
Lipid-soluble/hydrophobic/nonpolar substances through the
lipid bilayer – oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen gases;
fatty acids, steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and
K).
Small, uncharged polar molecules (e.g. water, urea, and
small alcohols) – though moderately permeable
Facilitated diffusion
Water and other lipid-insoluble/highly charged (e.g. ions) or
too polar molecules
Channel-mediated: selective permeability e.g ion-
channels, aquaporins (allows water but does not allow
hydrated ions)
Types of ion channels:
Leak channels – randomly alternate between open
and closed position
Chemical/ligand-gated – opens and closes in
response to the binding of a ligand/chemical (e.g.
neurotransmitters, hormones, ions) stimulus
Mechanically-gated – opens or closes in response
to mechanical stimulation (e.g. vibration, touch,
pressure, stretch), distorting the channel from its resting
position
 Voltage-gated – opens in response to a change in Ameboid movement – movement of entire cell in relation to
membrane potential its surroundings. Protrusion of a pseudopodium from one end
Carrier-mediated – solute binds to a specific carrier on of the cell. The pseudopodium protrudes from one end of the
one side of the membrane and is released on the other cell away from the cell body and partially secures itself in a
side after the carrier undergoes a change in shape (e.g. new tissue area, and then the remainder of the cell is pulled
glucose) toward the pseudopodium (e.g. WBC in chemotaxis)
The number of carriers available in a plasma membrane Ciliary movement – cilium displays an oarlike pattern of
places an upper limit, called the transport maximum on beating; it is relatively stiff during the power stroke (oar
the rate of facilitated diffusion. Saturation occurs when digging into the water), but
the transport maximum (i.e. all carriers are occupied) is more flexible during the recovery stroke (oar moving above the
reached, further increase in concentrated gradient does water preparing for a new stroke
not increase the rate of facilitated diffusion Flagellar movement – flagellum generates forward motion
Osmosis – solvent (i.e. water) along its axis by rapidly wiggling in a wavelike pattern
- through spaces between phospholipid molecules
- through aquaporins, though hydrated ions cannot pass
Relate to hydrostatic (forces movement of water) and
osmotic pressure (prevents movement of water)
Relate to osmolality (concentration of a solution in terms of
numbers of particles/osmoles per kg of water) and
osmolarity (osmoles per liter of solution): tonicity of solution
(i.e. isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic) and cellular reaction
(i.e. lysis/rupture in hypotonic solution, crenation/shrinkage
in hypertonic solution)
Factors that affect net rate of diffusion
Gradient – the steeper, the faster
- Concentration gradient/difference
- Electrical gradient: membrane electrical potential/"Nernst
Potential"
- Pressure gradient/difference
Temperature – the higher, the faster
Mass of diffusing substance – the smaller, the faster
Surface area – the larger, the faster
Diffusion distance – the smaller, the faster

Active Process – uses ATP, against gradient

Active transport – also exhibits transport maximum and
saturation
Primary active transport – uses ATP, e.g. Na-K pumps,
Ca pumps; part of the pump functions as ATPase
Secondary active transport – uses energy stored in an
ionic concentration gradient established by primary active
transport, indirectly uses energy obtained from the
hydrolysis of ATP
- Co-transport/symport – same direction e.g. Na–glucose
and Na–amino acid symporters
- Counter-transport/antiport – opposite direction e.g. Na–
Ca2, Na–H antiporters

Transport through Vesicles

Endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis – highly selective, cells
take up specific ligands.
STUDY Process in receptor-mediated endocytosis (Tortora)
Pinocytosis/bulk-phase endocytosis – ingestion of
minute particles
STUDY Process in pinocytosis (Tortora)
Phagocytosis – ingestion of large particles
STUDY Process in phagocytosis (Tortora)
Exocytosis – releases materials from a cell (e.g. secretory
cells, nerve cells), also restoring segments of the plasma
membrane
Transcytosis – successively move a substance into, across,
and out of a cell.

Locomotion of Cells