Submarine

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This article is about watercraft designed for submerged operation. For other uses, see Submarine
(disambiguation).

Virginia-class submarine underway in Groton, Connecticut, July 2004

A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from
a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. It is also sometimes used
historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-
sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine and the wet sub. Submarines are
referred to as "boats" rather than "ships" irrespective of their size.[1]
Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the
19th century, and they were adopted by several navies. Submarines were first widely used
during World War I (1914–1918), and are now used in many navies large and small. Military uses
include attacking enemy surface ships (merchant and military), or other submarines, aircraft
carrier protection, blockade running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear strike
force, reconnaissance, conventional land attack (for example using a cruise missile), and covert
insertion of special forces. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage,
exploration and facility inspection and maintenance. Submarines can also be modified to perform
more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair.
Submarines are also used in tourism and undersea archaeology.
Most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical (or conical) ends and a
vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices
as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the "sail" in American usage and
"fin" in European usage. A "conning tower" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure
hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a
propeller (or pump jet) at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins. Smaller, deep-diving
and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines
use diving planes and also change the amount of water and air in ballast tanks to
change buoyancy for submerging and surfacing.
Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. They range
from small autonomous examples and one- or two-person subs that operate for a few hours to
vessels that can remain submerged for six months—such as the Russian Typhoon class, the
biggest submarines ever built. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or
practical for human divers.[2] Modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which
in turn evolved from the diving bell.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Etymology
o 1.2Early submersibles
o 1.318th century
o 1.419th century
 1.4.1Mechanical power
o 1.520th century
 1.5.1World War I
 1.5.2World War II
  1.5.3Cold-War military models
o 1.621st century
 2Usage
o 2.1Military
o 2.2Civilian
o 2.3Polar operations
 3Technology
o 3.1Submersion and trimming
o 3.2Hull
 3.2.1Overview
 3.2.2Single and double hulls
 3.2.3Pressure hull
o 3.3Propulsion
 3.3.1Diesel-electric
 3.3.2Air-independent
 3.3.3Nuclear power
 3.3.4Alternative
o 3.4Armament
o 3.5Sensors
o 3.6Navigation
o 3.7Communication
o 3.8Life support systems
 4Crew
o 4.1Women
o 4.2Abandoning the vessel
 5See also
o 5.1By country
 6References
 7Bibliography
 8External links

History[edit]
Main article: History of submarines
Etymology[edit]
Whereas the principal meaning of "submarine" is an armed, submersible warship, the more
general meaning is for any type of submersible craft.[3] The definition as of 1899 was for any type
of "submarine boat".[4] By naval tradition, submarines are still usually referred to as "boats" rather
than as "ships", regardless of their size.[5] In other navies with a history of large submarine fleets
they are also "boats"; in German it is an Unterseeboot[6] or U-Boot (under-sea boat)[7] and in
Russian it is a подводная лодка (underwater boat).[8] Although referred to informally as
"boats",[9][10] U.S. submarines employ the designation USS (United States Ship) at the beginning of
their names, such as USS Alabama.
Early submersibles[edit]
Drebbel, an early submersible craft, propelled by oars.

According to a report in Opusculum Taisnieri published in 1562:[11]

Two Greeks submerged and surfaced in the river Tagus near the City of Toledo several times in
the presence of The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, without getting wet and with the flame they
carried in their hands still alight.[12]
In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or
Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle. A few years later the Scottish
mathematician and theologian John Napier wrote in his Secret Inventions (1596) that "These
inventions besides devises of sayling under water with divers, other devises and strategems for
harming of the enemyes by the Grace of God and worke of expert Craftsmen I hope to perform."
It's unclear whether he ever carried out his idea.[13]
The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and
built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England. It was
propelled by means of oars.[13]
18th century[edit]
By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been
granted in England. In 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working
example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill
with water to submerge the craft. A mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and
cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemen's Magazine reported that a similar design
had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. Further design improvement stagnated
for over a century, until application of new technologies for propulsion and stability.[14]
The first military submarine was Turtle (1775), a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by
the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person.[15] It was the first verified
submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to
use screws for propulsion.[16]
19th century[edit]

1806 illustration by Robert Fulton showing a "plunging boat"

In 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert

Fulton, Nautilus. The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British
when they later considered Fulton's submarine design.
In 1864, late in the American Civil War, the Confederate navy's H. L. Hunley became the first
military submarine to sink an enemy vessel, the Union sloop-of-war USS Housatonic. In the
aftermath of its successful attack against the ship, H. L. Hunley also sank, possibly because it
was too close to its own exploding torpedo.
In 1866, Sub Marine Explorer was the first submarine to successfully dive, cruise underwater, and
resurface under the control of the crew. The design by German American Julius H. Kroehl (in
German, Kröhl) incorporated elements that are still used in modern submarines.[17]
In 1866, Flach was built at the request of the Chilean government, by Karl Flach,
a German engineer and immigrant. It was the fifth submarine built in the world[18] and, along with a
second submarine, was intended to defend the port of Valparaiso against attack by the Spanish
Navy during the Chincha Islands War.
Mechanical power[edit]

The French submarine Plongeur

The first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion was the French Plongeur (Diver),
launched in 1863, which used compressed air at 180 psi (1,200 kPa).[19] Narcís
Monturiol designed the first air-independent and combustion-powered submarine, Ictineo II, which
was launched in Barcelona, Spain in 1864.
The submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the development of the Whitehead
torpedo, designed in 1866 by British engineer Robert Whitehead, the first practical self-propelled
or 'locomotive' torpedo.[20] The spar torpedo that had been developed earlier by the Confederate
States Navy was considered to be impracticable, as it was believed to have sunk both its
intended target, and probably H. L. Hunley, the submarine that deployed it.
Discussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the Swedish
industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt led to the first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with
torpedoes and ready for military use. The first was Nordenfelt I, a 56-tonne, 19.5-metre (64 ft)
vessel similar to Garrett's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240 kilometres (130 nmi;
150 mi), armed with a single torpedo, in 1885.
A reliable means of propulsion for the submerged vessel was only made possible in the 1880s
with the advent of the necessary electric battery technology. The first electrically powered boats
were built by Isaac Peral y Caballero in Spain (who built Peral), Dupuy de Lôme (who
built Gymnote) and Gustave Zédé (who built Sirène) in France, and James Franklin Waddington
(who built Porpoise) in England.[21] Peral's design featured torpedoes and other systems that later
became standard in submarines.[22][23]
20th century[edit]

USS Plunger, launched in 1902

Akula (launched in 1907) was the first Russian submarine able to cruise long distances.

Submarines were not put into service for any widespread or routine use by navies until the early
1900s. This era marked a pivotal time in submarine development, and several important
technologies appeared. A number of nations built and used submarines. Diesel
electric propulsion became the dominant power system and equipment such as the periscope
became standardized. Countries conducted many experiments on effective tactics and weapons
for submarines, which led to their large impact in World War I.
The Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine in 1876 and a full-scale version in
1878, which were followed by a number of unsuccessful ones. In 1896 he designed the Holland
Type VI submarine, which used internal combustion engine power on the surface and
electric battery power underwater. Launched on 17 May 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent
Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Holland VI was purchased by the United States Navy on 11
April 1900, becoming the Navy's first commissioned submarine, christened USS Holland.[24]
Commissioned in June 1900, the French steam and electric Narval employed the now typical
double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of
over 100 miles (161 km) underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the
concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of
these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.
The Royal Navy commissioned five Holland-class submarines from Vickers, Barrow-in-Furness,
under licence from the Holland Torpedo Boat Company from 1901 to 1903. Construction of the
boats took longer than anticipated, with the first only ready for a diving trial at sea on 6 April 1902.
Although the design had been purchased entirely from the US company, the actual design used
was an untested improvement to the original Holland design using a new 180 horsepower
(130 kW) petrol engine.[25]
These types of submarines were first used during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Due to
the blockade at Port Arthur, the Russians sent their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 1
January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first "operational submarine
fleet". The new submarine fleet began patrols on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours
each. The first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the
Russian submarine Som was fired upon by Japanese torpedo boats, but then withdrew.[26]
World War I[edit]

The German submarine SM U-9, which sank three British cruisers in less than an hour in September 1914

Military submarines first made a significant impact in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of
Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic, and were responsible for
sinking RMS Lusitania, which was sunk as a result of unrestricted submarine warfare and is often
cited among the reasons for the entry of the United States into the war.[27]
At the outbreak of the war, Germany had only twenty submarines immediately available for
combat, although these included vessels of the diesel-engined U-19 class, which had a sufficient
range of 5,000 miles (8,000 km) and speed of 8 knots (15 km/h) to allow them to operate
effectively around the entire British coast.[28] By contrast the Royal Navy had a total of 74
submarines, though of mixed effectiveness. In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from
their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war
patrol in history.[29]
The U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers,
and submarine technologies such as combination diesel-electric power system developed in the
preceding years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats operated primarily on the
surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were
roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a
distinct bow. During World War I more than 5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats.[30]
The British tried to catch up to the Germans in terms of submarine technology with the creation of
the K-class submarines. However, these were extremely large and often collided with each other
forcing the British to scrap the K-class design shortly after the war.[31][citation needed]
World War II[edit]
See also: List of submarines of World War II

The Imperial Japanese Navy's I-400-class submarine, the largest submarine type of WWII

A model of Günther Prien's U-47, German WWII Type VII diesel-electric hunter

During World War II, Germany used submarines to devastating effect in the Battle of the Atlantic,
where it attempted to cut Britain's supply routes by sinking more merchant ships than Britain
could replace. (Shipping was vital to supply Britain's population with food, industry with raw
material, and armed forces with fuel and armaments.) While U-boats destroyed a significant
number of ships, the strategy ultimately failed. Although the U-boats had been updated in the
interwar years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the
famous Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack naval tactics (Rudeltaktik,
commonly known as "wolfpack"), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall. By the end of the
war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen) had been sunk by U-
boats.[32] Although successful early in the war, ultimately Germany's U-boat fleet suffered heavy
casualties, losing 793 U-boats and about 28,000 submariners out of 41,000, a casualty rate of
about 70%.[33]
The Imperial Japanese Navy operated the most varied fleet of submarines of any navy,
including Kaiten crewed torpedoes, midget submarines (Type A Ko-hyoteki and Kairyu classes),
medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines and long-range fleet submarines.
They also had submarines with the highest submerged speeds during World War II (I-201-
class submarines) and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (I-400-class submarines).
They were also equipped with one of the most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-
propelled Type 95. Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan chose to use its
submarines for fleet warfare, and consequently were relatively unsuccessful, as warships were
fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships.
The submarine force was the most effective anti-ship weapon in the American arsenal.
Submarines, though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the
Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. US submarines also
destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its
military forces and industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more
Japanese shipping than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the
Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant
fleet.
During World War II, 314 submarines served in the US Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed
to the Pacific.[34] When the Japanese attacked Hawaii in December 1941, 111 boats were in
commission; 203 submarines from the Gato, Balao, and Tench classes were commissioned
during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to
hostilities.[35] US submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels,[34] a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55%
of the total sunk).[36]
The Royal Navy Submarine Service was used primarily in the classic Axis blockade. Its major
operating areas were around Norway, in the Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes
to North Africa), and in the Far East. In that war, British submarines sank 2 million tons of enemy
shipping and 57 major warships, the latter including 35 submarines. Among these is the only
documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged.
This occurred when HMS Venturer engaged U-864; the Venturer crew manually computed a
successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally maneuvering target using techniques
which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British
submarines were lost,[37] the majority, forty-two, in the Mediterranean.
Cold-War military models[edit]

HMAS Rankin, a Collins-class submarine at periscope depth

USS Charlotte, a Los Angeles-class submarine runs with submarines from partner nations
during RIMPAC 2014.

The first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred in July 1953,
from the deck of USS Tunny, a World War II fleet boat modified to carry the missile with a nuclear
warhead. Tunny and its sister boat, Barbero, were the United States' first nuclear deterrent patrol
submarines. In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. Equipment
was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines
the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months.[38][39] Most of the naval submarines built
since that time in the US, the Soviet Union/Russian Federation, Britain, and France have been
powered by nuclear reactors.
In 1959–1960, the first ballistic missile submarines were put into service by both the United
States (George Washington class) and the Soviet Union (Golf class) as part of the Cold
War nuclear deterrent strategy.
During the Cold War, the US and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that
engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union lost at least four submarines during this
period: K-129 was lost in 1968 (a part of which the CIA retrieved from the ocean floor with
the Howard Hughes-designed ship Glomar Explorer), K-8 in 1970, K-219 in 1986,
and Komsomolets in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines—1,000 m
(3,300 ft)). Many other Soviet subs, such as K-19 (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first
Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The US lost
two nuclear submarines during this time: USS Thresher due to equipment failure during a test
dive while at its operational limit, and USS Scorpion due to unknown causes.
During India's intervention in the Bangladesh Liberation War, the Pakistan Navy's Hangor sank
the Indian frigate INS Khukri. This was the first sinking by a submarine since World War
II.[40] During the same war, Ghazi, a Tench-class submarine on loan to Pakistan from the US, was
sunk by the Indian Navy. It was the first submarine combat loss since World War II.[41] In 1982
during the Falklands War, the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by the British
submarine HMS Conqueror, the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war.
21st century[edit]
This section needs expansion. You
can help by adding to it. (June 2016)

Usage[edit]
Military[edit]
Main articles: Attack submarine, Ballistic missile submarine, Cruise missile submarine,
and Nuclear submarine

German UC-1-class World War I submarine. The wires running up from the bow to the conning tower are
the Jumping wires
EML Lembit in the Estonian Maritime Museum. The Lembit is the only minelayer submarine of its series left
in the world.[42]

Before and during World War II, the primary role of the submarine was anti-surface ship warfare.
Submarines would attack either on the surface, using deck guns or submerged, using torpedoes.
They were particularly effective in sinking Allied transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in
disrupting Japanese supply routes and naval operations in the Pacific in World War II.
Mine-laying submarines were developed in the early part of the 20th century. The facility was
used in both World Wars. Submarines were also used for inserting and removing covert agents
and military forces in special operations, for intelligence gathering, and to rescue aircrew during
air attacks on islands, where the airmen would be told of safe places to crash-land so the
submarines could rescue them. Submarines could carry cargo through hostile waters or act as
supply vessels for other submarines.
Submarines could usually locate and attack other submarines only on the surface,
although HMS Venturer managed to sink U-864 with a four torpedo spread while both were
submerged. The British developed a specialized anti-submarine submarine in WWI, the R class.
After WWII, with the development of the homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear
propulsion, submarines also became able to hunt each other effectively.
The development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched cruise
missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea
targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons.
The primary defense of a submarine lies in its ability to remain concealed in the depths of the
ocean. Early submarines could be detected by the sound they made. Water is an excellent
conductor of sound (much better than air), and submarines can detect and track comparatively
noisy surface ships from long distances. Modern submarines are built with an emphasis
on stealth. Advanced propeller designs, extensive sound-reducing insulation, and special
machinery help a submarine remain as quiet as ambient ocean noise, making them difficult to
detect. It takes specialized technology to find and attack modern submarines.
Active sonar uses the reflection of sound emitted from the search equipment to detect
submarines. It has been used since WWII by surface ships, submarines and aircraft (via dropped
buoys and helicopter "dipping" arrays), but it reveals the emitter's position, and is susceptible to
counter-measures.
A concealed military submarine is a real threat, and because of its stealth, can force an enemy
navy to waste resources searching large areas of ocean and protecting ships against attack. This
advantage was vividly demonstrated in the 1982 Falklands War when the British nuclear-
powered submarine HMS Conqueror sank the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano. After the
sinking the Argentine Navy recognized that they had no effective defense against submarine
attack, and the Argentine surface fleet withdrew to port for the remainder of the war, though an
Argentine submarine remained at sea.[43]
Civilian[edit]
Although the majority of the world's submarines are military, there are some civilian submarines,
which are used for tourism, exploration, oil and gas platform inspections, and pipeline surveys.
Some are also used in illegal activities.
The Submarine Voyage ride opened at Disneyland in 1959, but although it ran under water it was
not a true submarine, as it ran on tracks and was open to the atmosphere.[44] The first tourist
submarine was Auguste Piccard, which went into service in 1964 at Expo64.[45] By 1997 there
were 45 tourist submarines operating around the world.[46] Submarines with a crush depth in the
range of 400–500 feet (120–150 m) are operated in several areas worldwide, typically with
bottom depths around 100 to 120 feet (30 to 37 m), with a carrying capacity of 50 to 100
passengers.
In a typical operation a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area and loads
them into the submarine. The submarine then visits underwater points of interest such as natural
or artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of collision the location of the
submarine is marked with an air release and movement to the surface is coordinated by an
observer in a support craft.
A recent development is the deployment of so-called narco submarines by South American drug
smugglers to evade law enforcement detection.[47] Although they occasionally deploy true
submarines, most are self-propelled semi-submersibles, where a portion of the craft remains
above water at all times. In September 2011, Colombian authorities seized a 16-meter-long
submersible that could hold a crew of 5, costing about $2 million. The vessel belonged
to FARC rebels and had the capacity to carry at least 7 tonnes of drugs.[48]
Civilian submarines

Model of the Mésoscaphe Auguste Piccard

Interior of the tourist submarine Atlantis whilst submerged

 

Tourist submarine Atlantis

Polar operations[edit]

US Navy attack submarine USS Annapolis rests in the Arctic Ocean after surfacing through three feet of ice
during Ice Exercise 2009 on 21 March 2009.

 1903 – Simon Lake submarine Protector surfaced through ice

off Newport, Rhode Island.[49]
 1930 – USS O-12 operated under ice near Spitsbergen.[49]
 1937 – Soviet submarine Krasnogvardeyets operated under ice
in the Denmark Strait.[49]
 1941–45 – German U-boats operated under ice from the Barents
Sea to the Laptev Sea.[49]
 1946 – USS Atule used upward-beamed fathometer in Operation
Nanook in the Davis Strait.[49]
 1946–47 – USS Sennet used under-ice sonar in Operation High
Jump in the Antarctic.[49]
 1947 – USS Boarfish used upward-beamed echo sounder under
pack ice in the Chukchi Sea.[49]
 1948 – USS Carp developed techniques for making vertical
ascents and descents through polynyas in the Chukchi Sea.[49]
 1952 – USS Redfish used an expanded upward-beamed
sounder array in the Beaufort Sea.[49]
 1957 – USS Nautilus reached 87 degrees north near
Spitsbergen.[49]
 3 August 1958 – Nautilus used an inertial navigation system to
reach the North Pole.[49]
 17 March 1959 – USS Skate surfaced through the ice at the
north pole.[49]
 1960 – USS Sargo transited 900 miles (1,400 km) under ice over
the shallow (125 to 180 feet or 38 to 55 metres deep) Bering-
Chukchi shelf.[49]
  1960 – USS Seadragon transited the Northwest Passage under
ice.[49]
 1962 – Soviet November-class submarine K-3 Leninsky
Komsomol reached the north pole.[49]
 1970 – USS Queenfish carried out an extensive undersea
mapping survey of the Siberian continental shelf.[50]
 1971 – HMS Dreadnought reached the North Pole.[49]
 USS Gurnard conducted three Polar Exercises: 1976 (with US
actor Charlton Heston aboard); 1984 joint operations
with USS Pintado; and 1990 joint exercises
with USS Seahorse.[51]
 6 May 1986 – USS Ray, USS Archerfish and USS Hawkbill meet
and surface together at the Geographic North Pole. First three-
submarine surfacing at the Pole.[52]
 19 May 1987 – HMS Superb joined USS Billfish and USS Sea
Devil at the North Pole.[53]
 March 2007 – USS Alexandria participated in the Joint US
Navy/Royal Navy Ice Exercise 2007 (ICEX-2007) in the Arctic
Ocean with the Trafalgar-class submarine HMS Tireless.[54]
 March 2009 – USS Annapolis took part in Ice Exercise 2009 to
test submarine operability and war-fighting capability in Arctic
conditions.[55]

Technology[edit]
See also: Timeline of underwater technology
Submersion and trimming[edit]

An illustration showing submarine controls

USS Seawolf (SSN-21) Ship Control Panel, with yokes for control surfaces (planes and rudder), and Ballast
Control Panel (background), to control the water in tanks and ship's trim

All surface ships, as well as surfaced submarines, are in a positively buoyant condition, weighing
less than the volume of water they would displace if fully submerged. To submerge
hydrostatically, a ship must have negative buoyancy, either by increasing its own weight or
decreasing its displacement of water. To control their displacement, submarines have ballast
tanks, which can hold varying amounts of water and air.
For general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward and aft tanks, called Main
Ballast Tanks (MBT), which are filled with water to submerge or with air to surface. Submerged,
MBTs generally remain flooded, which simplifies their design, and on many submarines these
tanks are a section of interhull space. For more precise and quick control of depth, submarines
use smaller Depth Control Tanks (DCT)—also called hard tanks (due to their ability to withstand
higher pressure), or trim tanks. The amount of water in depth control tanks can be controlled to
change depth or to maintain a constant depth as outside conditions (chiefly water density)
change. Depth control tanks may be located either near the submarine's center of gravity, or
separated along the submarine body to prevent affecting trim.
When submerged, the water pressure on a submarine's hull can reach 4 MPa (580 psi) for steel
submarines and up to 10 MPa (1,500 psi) for titanium submarines like K-278 Komsomolets, while
interior pressure remains relatively unchanged. This difference results in hull compression, which
decreases displacement. Water density also marginally increases with depth, as the salinity and
pressure are higher.[56] This change in density incompletely compensates for hull compression, so
buoyancy decreases as depth increases. A submerged submarine is in an unstable equilibrium,
having a tendency to either sink or float to the surface. Keeping a constant depth requires
continual operation of either the depth control tanks or control surfaces.[57][58]
Submarines in a neutral buoyancy condition are not intrinsically trim-stable. To maintain desired
trim, submarines use forward and aft trim tanks. Pumps can move water between the tanks,
changing weight distribution and pointing the sub up or down. A similar system is sometimes
used to maintain stability.

Sail of the French nuclear submarine Casabianca; note the diving planes, camouflaged masts, periscope,
electronic warfare masts, hatch, and deadlight.

The hydrostatic effect of variable ballast tanks is not the only way to control the submarine
underwater. Hydrodynamic maneuvering is done by several surfaces, which can be moved to
create hydrodynamic forces when a submarine moves at sufficient speed. The stern planes
(hydroplanes in UK), located near the propeller and normally horizontal, serve the same purpose
as the trim tanks, controlling the trim, and are commonly used, while other control surfaces may
not be present on all submarines. The fairwater planes on the sail and/or bow planes on the main
body, both also horizontal, are closer to the center of gravity, and are used to control depth with
less effect on the trim.[59]
When a submarine performs an emergency surfacing, all depth and trim methods are used
simultaneously, together with propelling the boat upwards. Such surfacing is very quick, so the
sub may even partially jump out of the water, potentially damaging submarine systems.
Hull[edit]
Main article: Submarine hull
Overview[edit]
The US Navy Los Angeles-class USS Greeneville in dry dock, showing cigar-shaped hull

Modern submarines are cigar-shaped. This design, visible in early submarines, is sometimes
called a "teardrop hull". It reduces the hydrodynamic drag when submerged, but decreases the
sea-keeping capabilities and increases drag while surfaced. Since the limitations of the
propulsion systems of early submarines forced them to operate surfaced most of the time, their
hull designs were a compromise. Because of the slow submerged speeds of those subs, usually
well below 10 kt (18 km/h), the increased drag for underwater travel was acceptable. Late in
World War II, when technology allowed faster and longer submerged operation and increased
aircraft surveillance forced submarines to stay submerged, hull designs became teardrop shaped
again to reduce drag and noise. USS Albacore (AGSS-569) was a unique research submarine
that pioneered the American version of the teardrop hull form (sometimes referred to as an
"Albacore hull") of modern submarines. On modern military submarines the outer hull is covered
with a layer of sound-absorbing rubber, or anechoic plating, to reduce detection.
The occupied pressure hulls of deep diving submarines such as DSV Alvin are spherical instead
of cylindrical. This allows a more even distribution of stress at the great depth. A titanium frame is
usually affixed to the pressure hull, providing attachment for ballast and trim systems, scientific
instrumentation, battery packs, syntactic flotation foam, and lighting.
A raised tower on top of a submarine accommodates the periscope and electronics masts, which
can include radio, radar, electronic warfare, and other systems including the snorkel mast. In
many early classes of submarines (see history), the control room, or "conn", was located inside
this tower, which was known as the "conning tower". Since then, the conn has been located
within the hull of the submarine, and the tower is now called the "sail". The conn is distinct from
the "bridge", a small open platform in the top of the sail, used for observation during surface
operation.
"Bathtubs" are related to conning towers but are used on smaller submarines. The bathtub is a
metal cylinder surrounding the hatch that prevents waves from breaking directly into the cabin. It
is needed because surfaced submarines have limited freeboard, that is, they lie low in the water.
Bathtubs help prevent swamping the vessel.
Single and double hulls[edit]

U-995, Type VIIC/41 U-boat of World War II, showing the ship-like lines of the outer hull for surface travel,
blended into the cylindrical pressure hull structure.

Modern submarines and submersibles, as well as the oldest ones, usually have a single hull.
Large submarines generally have an additional hull or hull sections outside. This external hull,
which actually forms the shape of submarine, is called the outer hull (casing in the Royal Navy)
or light hull, as it does not have to withstand a pressure difference. Inside the outer hull there is a
strong hull, or pressure hull, which withstands sea pressure and has normal atmospheric
pressure inside.
As early as World War I, it was realized that the optimal shape for withstanding pressure
conflicted with the optimal shape for seakeeping and minimal drag, and construction difficulties
further complicated the problem. This was solved either by a compromise shape, or by using two
hulls; internal for holding pressure, and external for optimal shape. Until the end of World War II,
most submarines had an additional partial cover on the top, bow and stern, built of thinner metal,
which was flooded when submerged. Germany went further with the Type XXI, a general
predecessor of modern submarines, in which the pressure hull was fully enclosed inside the light
hull, but optimized for submerged navigation, unlike earlier designs that were optimized for
surface operation.

Type XXI U-boat, late World War II, with pressure hull almost fully enclosed inside the light hull

After World War II, approaches split. The Soviet Union changed its designs, basing them on
German developments. All post-World War II heavy Soviet and Russian submarines are built with
a double hull structure. American and most other Western submarines switched to a primarily
single-hull approach. They still have light hull sections in the bow and stern, which house main
ballast tanks and provide a hydrodynamically optimized shape, but the main cylindrical hull
section has only a single plating layer. Double hulls are being considered for future submarines in
the United States to improve payload capacity, stealth and range.[60]
Pressure hull[edit]

In 1960, Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh were the first people to explore the deepest part of the
world's ocean, and the deepest location on the surface of the Earth's crust, in
the Bathyscaphe Trieste designed by Auguste Piccard.

The pressure hull is generally constructed of thick high-strength steel with a complex structure
and high strength reserve, and is separated with watertight bulkheads into several compartments.
There are also examples of more than two hulls in a submarine, like the Typhoon class, which
has two main pressure hulls and three smaller ones for control room, torpedoes and steering
gear, with the missile launch system between the main hulls.
The dive depth cannot be increased easily. Simply making the hull thicker increases the weight
and requires reduction of onboard equipment weight, ultimately resulting in a bathyscaphe. This
is acceptable for civilian research submersibles, but not military submarines.
WWI submarines had hulls of carbon steel, with a 100-metre (330 ft) maximum depth. During
WWII, high-strength alloyed steel was introduced, allowing 200-metre (660 ft) depths. High-
strength alloy steel remains the primary material for submarines today, with 250–400-metre (820–
1,310 ft) depths, which cannot be exceeded on a military submarine without design compromises.
To exceed that limit, a few submarines were built with titanium hulls. Titanium can be stronger
than steel, lighter, and is not ferromagnetic, important for stealth. Titanium submarines were built
by the Soviet Union, which developed specialized high-strength alloys. It has produced several
types of titanium submarines. Titanium alloys allow a major increase in depth, but other systems
must be redesigned to cope, so test depth was limited to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) for the Soviet
submarine K-278 Komsomolets, the deepest-diving combat submarine. An Alfa-class submarine
may have successfully operated at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft),[61] though continuous operation at
such depths would produce excessive stress on many submarine systems. Titanium does not flex
as readily as steel, and may become brittle after many dive cycles. Despite its benefits, the high
cost of titanium construction led to the abandonment of titanium submarine construction as the
Cold War ended. Deep-diving civilian submarines have used thick acrylic pressure hulls.
The deepest deep-submergence vehicle (DSV) to date is Trieste. On 5 October
1959, Trieste departed San Diego for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate
in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On 23 January
1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the
Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant Don Walsh,
USN.[62] This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in
the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 11,521 metres (37,799 ft),
although this was later revised to 10,916 metres (35,814 ft) and more accurate measurements
made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep slightly shallower, at 10,911 metres (35,797 ft).
Building a pressure hull is difficult, as it must withstand pressures at its required diving depth.
When the hull is perfectly round in cross-section, the pressure is evenly distributed, and causes
only hull compression. If the shape is not perfect, the hull is bent, with several points heavily
strained. Inevitable minor deviations are resisted by stiffener rings, but even a one-inch (25 mm)
deviation from roundness results in over 30 percent decrease of maximal hydrostatic load and
consequently dive depth.[63] The hull must therefore be constructed with high precision. All hull
parts must be welded without defects, and all joints are checked multiple times with different
methods, contributing to the high cost of modern submarines. (For example, each Virginia-
class attack submarine costs US$2.6 billion, over US$200,000 per ton of displacement.)
Propulsion[edit]
Further information: Marine propulsion, Air-independent propulsion, Nuclear marine propulsion,
and Nuclear submarine

HMCS Windsor, a Royal Canadian Navy Victoria-class diesel-electric hunter-killer submarine

The first submarines were propelled by humans. The first mechanically driven submarine was the
1863 French Plongeur, which used compressed air for propulsion. Anaerobic propulsion was first
employed by the Spanish Ictineo II in 1864, which used a solution of zinc, manganese dioxide,
and potassium chlorate to generate sufficient heat to power a steam engine, while also
providing oxygen for the crew. A similar system was not employed again until 1940 when the
German Navy tested a hydrogen peroxide-based system, the Walter turbine, on the
experimental V-80 submarine and later on the naval U-791 and type XVII submarines.[64]
Until the advent of nuclear marine propulsion, most 20th-century submarines used batteries for
running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines on the surface, and for battery
recharging. Early submarines used gasoline, but this quickly gave way to kerosene (paraffin),
then diesel, because of reduced flammability. Diesel-electric became the standard means of
propulsion. The diesel or gasoline engine and the electric motor, separated by clutches, were
initially on the same shaft driving the propeller. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor
as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine. The clutch between the
motor and the engine would be disengaged when the submarine dived, so that the motor could
drive the propeller. The motor could have multiple armatures on the shaft, which could be
electrically coupled in series for slow speed and in parallel for high speed (these connections
were called "group down" and "group up", respectively).
Diesel-electric[edit]

recharging battery (JMSDF)

Further information: Diesel-electric transmission

Early submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the engine and propeller,
switching between diesel engines for surface running, and battery-driven electric motors for
submerged propulsion.
In 1928, the United States Navy's Bureau of Engineering proposed a diesel-electric transmission.
Instead of driving the propeller directly while running on the surface, the submarine's diesel drove
a generator that could either charge the submarine's batteries or drive the electric motor. This
made electric motor speed independent of diesel engine speed, so the diesel could run at an
optimum and non-critical speed. One or more diesel engines could be shut down for maintenance
while the submarine continued to run on the remaining engine or battery power. The US
pioneered this concept in 1929, in the S-class submarines S-3, S-6, and S-7. The first production
submarines with this system were the Porpoise class of the 1930s, and it was used on most
subsequent US diesel submarines through the 1960s. No other navy adopted the system before
1945, apart from the Royal Navy's U-class submarines, though some submarines of the Imperial
Japanese Navy used separate diesel generators for low speed running.[65]
Other advantages of such an arrangement were that a submarine could travel slowly with the
engines at full power to recharge the batteries quickly, reducing time on the surface or on snorkel.
It was then possible to isolate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull, making the
submarine quieter. Additionally, diesel-electric transmissions were more compact.
During World War II the Germans experimented with the idea of the schnorchel (snorkel) from
captured Dutch submarines, but didn't see the need for them until rather late in the war.
The schnorchel was a retractable pipe that supplied air to the diesel engines while submerged
at periscope depth, allowing the boats to cruise and recharge their batteries while maintaining a
degree of stealth. It was far from a perfect solution, however. There were problems with the
device's valve sticking shut or closing as it dunked in rough weather; since the system used the
entire pressure hull as a buffer, the diesels would instantaneously suck huge volumes of air from
the boat's compartments, and the crew often suffered painful ear injuries. Speed was limited to 8
knots (15 km/h), lest the device snap from stress. The schnorchel also created noise that made
the boat easier to detect with sonar, yet more difficult for the on-board sonar to detect signals
from other vessels. Finally, Allied radar eventually became sufficiently advanced that
the schnorchel mast could be detected beyond visual range.[66]
While the snorkel renders a submarine far less detectable, it is not perfect. In clear weather,
diesel exhaust can be seen on the surface to a distance of about three miles,[67] while "periscope
feather" (the wave created by the snorkel or periscope moving through the water) is visible from
far off in calm sea conditions. Modern radar is also capable of detecting a snorkel in calm sea
conditions.[68]
The problem of the diesels causing a vacuum in the submarine when the head valve is
submerged still exists in later model diesel submarines, but is mitigated by high-vacuum cut-off
sensors that shut down the engines when the vacuum in the ship reaches a pre-set point. Modern
snorkel induction masts use a fail-safe design using compressed air, controlled by a simple
electrical circuit, to hold the "head valve" open against the pull of a powerful spring. Seawater
washing over the mast shorts out exposed electrodes on top, breaking the control, and shutting
the "head valve" while it is submerged. US submarines did not adopt the use of snorkels until
after WWII.[69]
One new technology that is being introduced starting with the Japanese Navy's eleventh Sōryū-
class submarine (JS Ōryū) is a more modern battery, the lithium-ion battery. These batteries have
about double the electric storage of traditional batteries, and by changing out the lead-acid
batteries in their normal storage areas plus filling up the large hull space normally devoted
to AIP engine and fuel tanks with many tons of lithium-ion batteries, modern submarines can
actually return to a "pure" diesel-electric configuration yet have the added underwater range and
power normally associated with AIP equipped submarines.[citation needed]
Air-independent[edit]
Main article: Air-independent propulsion

German Type XXI submarine

American X-1 Midget Submarine

During World War II, German Type XXI submarines (also known as "Elektroboote") were the first
submarines designed to operate submerged for extended periods. Initially they were to carry
hydrogen peroxide for long-term, fast air-independent propulsion, but were ultimately built with
very large batteries instead. At the end of the War, the British and Soviets experimented with
hydrogen peroxide/kerosene (paraffin) engines that could run surfaced and submerged. The
results were not encouraging. Though the Soviet Union deployed a class of submarines with this
engine type (codenamed Quebec by NATO), they were considered unsuccessful.
The United States also used hydrogen peroxide in an experimental midget submarine, X-1. It was
originally powered by a hydrogen peroxide/diesel engine and battery system until an explosion of
her hydrogen peroxide supply on 20 May 1957. X-1 was later converted to use diesel-electric
drive.[70]
Today several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably Sweden uses Stirling
technology on the Gotland-class and Södermanland-class submarines. The Stirling engine is
heated by burning diesel fuel with liquid oxygen from cryogenic tanks. A newer development in
air-independent propulsion is hydrogen fuel cells, first used on the German Type 212 submarine,
with nine 34 kW or two 120 kW cells and soon to be used in the new Spanish S-80-
class submarines.[71]
Nuclear power[edit]
Main articles: Nuclear submarine and Nuclear marine propulsion

Battery well containing 126 cells on USS Nautilus, the first nuclear-powered submarine

Steam power was resurrected in the 1950s with a nuclear-powered steam turbine driving a
generator. By eliminating the need for atmospheric oxygen, the time that a submarine could
remain submerged was limited only by its food stores, as breathing air was recycled and fresh
water distilled from seawater. More importantly, a nuclear submarine has unlimited range at top
speed. This allows it to travel from its operating base to the combat zone in a much shorter time
and makes it a far more difficult target for most anti-submarine weapons. Nuclear-powered
submarines have a relatively small battery and diesel engine/generator powerplant for emergency
use if the reactors must be shut down.
Nuclear power is now used in all large submarines, but due to the high cost and large size of
nuclear reactors, smaller submarines still use diesel-electric propulsion. The ratio of larger to
smaller submarines depends on strategic needs. The US Navy, French Navy, and the
British Royal Navy operate only nuclear submarines,[72][73] which is explained by the need for
distant operations. Other major operators rely on a mix of nuclear submarines for strategic
purposes and diesel-electric submarines for defense. Most fleets have no nuclear submarines,
due to the limited availability of nuclear power and submarine technology.
Diesel-electric submarines have a stealth advantage over their nuclear counterparts. Nuclear
submarines generate noise from coolant pumps and turbo-machinery needed to operate the
reactor, even at low power levels.[74] Some nuclear submarines such as the
American Ohio class can operate with their reactor coolant pumps secured, making them quieter
than electric subs. A conventional submarine operating on batteries is almost completely silent,
the only noise coming from the shaft bearings, propeller, and flow noise around the hull, all of
which stops when the sub hovers in mid-water to listen, leaving only the noise from crew activity.
Commercial submarines usually rely only on batteries, since they operate in conjunction with a
mother ship.
Several serious nuclear and radiation accidents have involved nuclear submarine
mishaps.[75][76] The Soviet submarine K-19 reactor accident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more
than 30 other people were over-exposed to radiation.[77] The Soviet submarine K-27 reactor
accident in 1968 resulted in 9 fatalities and 83 other injuries.[75] The Soviet submarine K-
431 accident in 1985 resulted in 10 fatalities and 49 other radiation injuries.[76]
Alternative[edit]
Oil-fired steam turbines powered the British K-class submarines, built during World War I and
later, to give them the surface speed to keep up with the battle fleet. The K-class subs were not
very successful, however.
Toward the end of the 20th century, some submarines—such as the British Vanguard class—
began to be fitted with pump-jet propulsors instead of propellers. Though these are heavier, more
expensive, and less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly quieter, providing an important
tactical advantage.
Armament[edit]

The forward torpedo tubes in HMS Ocelot

The success of the submarine is inextricably linked to the development of the torpedo, invented
by Robert Whitehead in 1866. His invention is essentially the same now as it was 140 years ago.
Only with self-propelled torpedoes could the submarine make the leap from novelty to a weapon
of war. Until the perfection of the guided torpedo, multiple "straight-running" torpedoes were
required to attack a target. With at most 20 to 25 torpedoes stored on board, the number of
attacks was limited. To increase combat endurance most World War I submarines functioned as
submersible gunboats, using their deck guns against unarmed targets, and diving to escape and
engage enemy warships. The importance of guns encouraged the development of the
unsuccessful Submarine Cruiser such as the French Surcouf and the Royal Navy's X1 and M-
class submarines. With the arrival of Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft, guns became more
for defense than attack. A more practical method of increasing combat endurance was the
external torpedo tube, loaded only in port.
The ability of submarines to approach enemy harbours covertly led to their use as minelayers.
Minelaying submarines of World War I and World War II were specially built for that purpose.
Modern submarine-laid mines, such as the British Mark 5 Stonefish and Mark 6 Sea Urchin, can
be deployed from a submarine's torpedo tubes.
After World War II, both the US and the USSR experimented with submarine-launched cruise
missiles such as the SSM-N-8 Regulus and P-5 Pyatyorka. Such missiles required the submarine
to surface to fire its missiles. They were the forerunners of modern submarine-launched cruise
missiles, which can be fired from the torpedo tubes of submerged submarines, for example the
US BGM-109 Tomahawk and Russian RPK-2 Viyuga and versions of surface-to-surface anti-ship
missiles such as the Exocet and Harpoon, encapsulated for submarine launch. Ballistic missiles
can also be fired from a submarine's torpedo tubes, for example missiles such as the anti-
submarine SUBROC. With internal volume as limited as ever and the desire to carry heavier
warloads, the idea of the external launch tube was revived, usually for encapsulated missiles,
with such tubes being placed between the internal pressure and outer streamlined hulls.
The strategic mission of the SSM-N-8 and the P-5 was taken up by submarine-launched ballistic
missile beginning with the US Navy's Polaris missile, and subsequently the Poseidon and Trident
missiles.
Germany is working on the torpedo tube-launched short-range IDAS missile, which can be used
against ASW helicopters, as well as surface ships and coastal targets.
Sensors[edit]
Main article: Sonar
A submarine can have a variety of sensors, depending on its missions. Modern military
submarines rely almost entirely on a suite of passive and active sonars to locate targets. Active
sonar relies on an audible "ping" to generate echoes to reveal objects around the submarine.
Active systems are rarely used, as doing so reveals the sub's presence. Passive sonar is a set of
sensitive hydrophones set into the hull or trailed in a towed array, normally trailing several
hundred feet behind the sub. The towed array is the mainstay of NATO submarine detection
systems, as it reduces the flow noise heard by operators. Hull mounted sonar is employed in
addition to the towed array, as the towed array can't work in shallow depth and during
maneuvering. In addition, sonar has a blind spot "through" the submarine, so a system on both
the front and back works to eliminate that problem. As the towed array trails behind and below the
submarine, it also allows the submarine to have a system both above and below
the thermocline at the proper depth; sound passing through the thermocline is distorted resulting
in a lower detection range.
Submarines also carry radar equipment to detect surface ships and aircraft. Submarine captains
are more likely to use radar detection gear than active radar to detect targets, as radar can be
detected far beyond its own return range, revealing the submarine. Periscopes are rarely used,
except for position fixes and to verify a contact's identity.
Civilian submarines, such as the DSV Alvin or the Russian Mir submersibles, rely on small active
sonar sets and viewing ports to navigate. The human eye cannot detect sunlight below about 300
feet (91 m) underwater, so high intensity lights are used to illuminate the viewing area.
Navigation[edit]
Main article: Submarine navigation

The larger search periscope, and the smaller, less detectable attack periscope on HMS Ocelot

Early submarines had few navigation aids, but modern subs have a variety of navigation systems.
Modern military submarines use an inertial guidance system for navigation while submerged, but
drift error unavoidably builds over time. To counter this, the crew occasionally uses the Global
Positioning System to obtain an accurate position. The periscope—a retractable tube with
a prism system that provides a view of the surface—is only used occasionally in modern
submarines, since the visibility range is short. The Virginia-class and Astute-class submarines
use photonics masts rather than hull-penetrating optical periscopes. These masts must still be
deployed above the surface, and use electronic sensors for visible light, infrared, laser range-
finding, and electromagnetic surveillance. One benefit to hoisting the mast above the surface is
that while the mast is above the water the entire sub is still below the water and is much harder to
detect visually or by radar.
Communication[edit]
Main article: Communication with submarines
Military submarines use several systems to communicate with distant command centers or other
ships. One is VLF (very low frequency) radio, which can reach a submarine either on the surface
or submerged to a fairly shallow depth, usually less than 250 feet (76 m). ELF (extremely low
frequency) can reach a submarine at greater depths, but has a very low bandwidth and is
generally used to call a submerged sub to a shallower depth where VLF signals can reach. A
submarine also has the option of floating a long, buoyant wire antenna to a shallower depth,
allowing VLF transmissions by a deeply submerged boat.
By extending a radio mast, a submarine can also use a "burst transmission" technique. A burst
transmission takes only a fraction of a second, minimizing a submarine's risk of detection.
To communicate with other submarines, a system known as Gertrude is used. Gertrude is
basically a sonar telephone. Voice communication from one submarine is transmitted by low
power speakers into the water, where it is detected by passive sonars on the receiving
submarine. The range of this system is probably very short, and using it radiates sound into the
water, which can be heard by the enemy.
Civilian submarines can use similar, albeit less powerful systems to communicate with support
ships or other submersibles in the area.
Life support systems[edit]
With nuclear power or air-independent propulsion, submarines can remain submerged for months
at a time. Conventional diesel submarines must periodically resurface or run on snorkel to
recharge their batteries. Most modern military submarines generate
breathing oxygen by electrolysis of water (using a device called an "Electrolytic Oxygen
Generator"). Atmosphere control equipment includes a CO2 scrubber, which uses
an amine absorbent to remove the gas from air and diffuse it into waste pumped overboard. A
machine that uses a catalyst to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide (removed by the
CO2 scrubber) and bonds hydrogen produced from the ship's storage battery with oxygen in the
atmosphere to produce water, is also used. An atmosphere monitoring system samples the air
from different areas of the ship for nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, R-12 and R-114 refrigerants,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other gases. Poisonous gases are removed, and oxygen
is replenished by use of an oxygen bank located in a main ballast tank. Some heavier submarines
have two oxygen bleed stations (forward and aft). The oxygen in the air is sometimes kept a few
percent less than atmospheric concentration to reduce fire risk.
Fresh water is produced by either an evaporator or a reverse osmosis unit. The primary use for
fresh water is to provide feedwater for the reactor and steam propulsion plants. It is also available
for showers, sinks, cooking and cleaning once propulsion plant needs have been met. Seawater
is used to flush toilets, and the resulting "black water" is stored in a sanitary tank until it is blown
overboard using pressurized air or pumped overboard by using a special sanitary pump. The
blackwater-discharge system is difficult to operate, and the German Type VIIC boat U-1206 was
lost with casualties because of human error while using this system.[78] Water from showers and
sinks is stored separately in "grey water" tanks and discharged overboard using drain pumps.
Trash on modern large submarines is usually disposed of using a tube called a Trash Disposal
Unit (TDU), where it is compacted into a galvanized steel can. At the bottom of the TDU is a large
ball valve. An ice plug is set on top of the ball valve to protect it, the cans atop the ice plug. The
top breech door is shut, and the TDU is flooded and equalized with sea pressure, the ball valve is
opened and the cans fall out assisted by scrap iron weights in the cans. The TDU is also flushed
with seawater to ensure it is completely empty and the ball valve is clear before closing the valve.

Crew[edit]

The interior of a British E-class submarine. An officer supervises submerging operations, c. 1914–1918.

A typical nuclear submarine has a crew of over 80; conventional boats typically have fewer than
40. The conditions on a submarine can be difficult because crew members must work in isolation
for long periods of time, without family contact. Submarines normally maintain radio silence to
avoid detection. Operating a submarine is dangerous, even in peacetime, and many submarines
have been lost in accidents.
Women[edit]
Midshipmen learn to pilot USS West Virginia.

Most navies prohibited women from serving on submarines, even after they had been permitted
to serve on surface warships. The Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy to allow women
on its submarine crews in 1985. The Royal Danish Navy allowed female submariners in
1988.[79] Others followed suit including the Swedish Navy (1989),[80] the Royal Australian
Navy (1998), the Spanish Navy (1999),[81][82] the German Navy (2001) and the Canadian
Navy (2002). In 1995, Solveig Krey of the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first female officer
to assume command on a military submarine, HNoMS Kobben.[83]
On 8 December 2011, British Defence Secretary Philip Hammond announced that the UK's ban
on women in submarines was to be lifted from 2013.[84] Previously there were fears that women
were more at risk from a build-up of carbon dioxide in the submarine. But a study showed no
medical reason to exclude women, though pregnant women would still be excluded.[84] Similar
dangers to the pregnant woman and her fetus barred women from submarine service in Sweden
in 1983, when all other positions were made available for them in the Swedish Navy. Today,
pregnant women are still not allowed to serve on submarines in Sweden. However, the
policymakers thought that it was discriminatory with a general ban and demanded that women
should be tried on their individual merits and have their suitability evaluated and compared to
other candidates. Further, they noted that a woman complying with such high demands is unlikely
to become pregnant.[80] In May 2014, three women became the RN's first female submariners.[85]
Women have served on US Navy surface ships since 1993, and as of 2011–2012, began serving
on submarines for the first time. Until presently, the Navy allowed only three exceptions to women
being on board military submarines: female civilian technicians for a few days at most,
women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for Navy ROTC and Naval Academy,
and family members for one-day dependent cruises.[86] In 2009, senior officials, including then-
Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus, Joint Chief of Staff Admiral Michael Mullen, and Chief of Naval
Operations Admiral Gary Roughead, began the process of finding a way to implement women on
submarines.[87] The US Navy rescinded its "no women on subs" policy in 2010.[88]
Both the US and British navies operate nuclear-powered submarines that deploy for periods of six
months or longer. Other navies that permit women to serve on submarines operate conventionally
powered submarines, which deploy for much shorter periods—usually only for a few
months.[89] Prior to the change by the US, no nation using nuclear submarines permitted women
to serve on board.[90]
In 2011, the first class of female submarine officers graduated from Naval Submarine School's
Submarine Officer Basic Course (SOBC) at the Naval Submarine Base New
London.[91] Additionally, more senior ranking and experienced female supply officers from the
surface warfare specialty attended SOBC as well, proceeding to fleet Ballistic Missile (SSBN) and
Guided Missile (SSGN) submarines along with the new female submarine line officers beginning
in late 2011.[92] By late 2011, several women were assigned to the Ohio-class ballistic missile
submarine USS Wyoming.[93] On 15 October 2013, the US Navy announced that two of the
smaller Virginia-class attack submarines, USS Virginia and USS Minnesota, would have female
crew-members by January 2015.[88]
Abandoning the vessel[edit]
In an emergency, submarines can transmit a signal to other ships. The crew can use Submarine
Escape Immersion Equipment to abandon the submarine.[94] The crew can prevent a lung injury
from the pressure change known as pulmonary barotrauma by exhaling during the
ascent.[95] Following escape from a pressurized submarine, the crew is at risk of
developing decompression sickness.[96] An alternative escape means is via a Deep Submergence
Rescue Vehicle that can dock onto the disabled submarine.[97]
See also[edit]
 Autonomous underwater vehicle
 Coastal submarine
 Depth charge
 Fictional submarines
 Flying submarine
 List of ships sunk by submarines by death toll
 List of submarine actions
 List of submarine classes
 List of submarine museums
 List of submarines of the Second World War
 List of specifications of submarines of World War II
 List of sunken nuclear submarines
 Merchant submarine
 Nuclear navy
 Ohio Replacement Submarine
 Semi-submersible naval vessel
 Submarine films
 Submarine power cable
 Submarine simulator, a computer game genre
 Supercavitation
By country[edit]

 List of submarine operators

 Australia – Collins-class submarine
 Britain – List of submarines of the Royal Navy, List of submarine
classes of the Royal Navy
 China – Submarines of the People's Liberation Army Navy
 France – Submarines in the French Navy, List of submarines of
the French Navy, List of French submarine classes and types
 Germany – List of U-boats of Germany
 India – Submarines of the Indian Navy
 Israel – Dolphin-class submarine
 Japan – Imperial Japanese Navy submarines, List of combatant
ship classes of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force § SS :
Submarine
 The Netherlands – List of submarines of the Netherlands
 Pakistan – List of active Pakistan Navy ships § Submarines
 Romania – Romanian submarines of World War II
 Russia – List of Soviet and Russian submarine classes, Future
Russian submarines
 Soviet Union – List of ships of the Soviet Navy § Submarines
 Spain – List of submarines in the Spanish Navy
 Turkey – List of submarines of the Turkish Navy
 United States – Submarines in the US Navy, List of submarines
of the US Navy, List of US submarine classes, Naval Submarine
Medical Research Laboratory

References[edit]
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Bibliography[edit]
General history

 Histoire des sous-marins: des origines à nos jours by Jean-Marie

Mathey and Alexandre Sheldon-Duplaix. (Boulogne-Billancourt: ETAI,
2002).
 DiMercurio, Michael; Benson, Michael (2003). The complete idiot's
guide to submarines. Alpha. ISBN 978-0-02-864471-
4. OCLC 51747264.
Culture

 Redford, Duncan. The Submarine: A Cultural History From the Great

War to Nuclear Combat (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 322 pages; focus on British
naval and civilian understandings of submarine warfare, including
novels and film.
Submarines before 1914

 Gardiner, Robert (1992). Steam, Steel and Shellfire, The steam warship
1815–1905. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-
55750-774-7. OCLC 30038068.
1900/Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905

 Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Dieter Jung; Peter Mickel (1977). Warships of

the Imperial Japanese Navy 1869–1945. Annapolis, Maryland: United
States Naval Institute. ISBN 978-0-87021-893-4.
 Olender, Piotr (2010). Russo-Japanese Naval War 1904–1905 Vol. 2
Battle of Tsushima. Sandomierz 1, Poland: Stratus s.c. ISBN 978-83-
61421-02-3.
 Showell, Jak (2006). The U-Boat Century:German Submarine Warfare
1906–2006. Great Britain: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 978-1-86176-
241-2.
 Simmons, Jacques (1971). A Grosset All-Color Guide WARSHIPS.
USA: Grosset & Dunlap, Inc. ISBN 978-0-448-04165-0.
 Watts, Anthony J. (1990). The Imperial Russian Navy. London: Arms
and Armour Press. ISBN 978-0-85368-912-6.
World War II

 Blair, Clay (1975). Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against
Japan. Philadelphia: Lippincott. ISBN 978-0-397-00753-
0. OCLC 821363.
  Lockwood, Charles A. (1951). Sink 'Em All: Submarine Warfare in the
Pacific. New York: Dutton. OCLC 1371626.
 O'Kane, Richard H. (1977). Clear the Bridge!: The War Patrols of the
USS Tang. Chicago: Rand McNally. ISBN 978-0-528-81058-
9. OCLC 2965421.
 O'Kane, Richard H. (1987). Wahoo: The Patrols of America's Most
Famous World War II Submarine. Novato, California: Presidio
Press. ISBN 978-0-89141-301-1. OCLC 15366413.
 Werner, Herbert A. (1999). Iron coffins: a personal account of the
German U-Boat battles of World War II. London: Cassell
Military. ISBN 978-0-304-35330-9. OCLC 41466905.
 Beach, Edward L. (1952). Submarine!. H. Holt. OCLC 396382.
Cold War

 Hide and seek: the untold story of Cold War espionage at sea, by Peter
Huchthausenand Alexandre Sheldon-Duplaix. (Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley &
Sons, 2008, ISBN 978-0-471-78530-9)
 McHale, Gannon (2008). Stealth boat: fighting the Cold War in a fast
attack submarine. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-502-
8. OCLC 216938657.

External links[edit]
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 U.S. Patent 708,553 – Submarine boat

 Role of the Modern Submarine
 Submariners Association – UK Submariners site and Boat
Database
 Video from 1955 giving a detailed description of boat
systems on YouTube
 The Invention of the Submarine
 U.S. submarine photo archive
 U.S. World War II Submarine Veterans History Project
 German Submarines of WWII, uboat.net
 Record breaking Japanese Submarines
 List of Naval Submarines on naval-technology.com
 The Fleet Type Submarine Online US Navy submarine training
manuals, 1944–1946
 The Home Front: Manitowoc County in World War II: Video
footage of submarine launches into Lake Michigan during World
War II
  American Society of Safety Engineers. Journal of Professional
Safety. Submarine Accidents: A 60-Year Statistical Assessment.
C. Tingle. September 2009. pp. 31–39. Ordering full article;
or Reproduction without graphics/tables
 Historic film footage showing submarines in WWI at
europeanfilmgateway.eu

show

Naval ships and warships in the Late Modern period

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