Free will - In humans, the power or capacity to choose among alternatives or to act in certain

situations independently of natural, social, or divine restraints. Free will is denied by some
proponents of determinism. Arguments for free will are based on the subjective experience of
freedom, on sentiments of guilt, on revealed religion, and on the universal supposition of
responsibility for personal actions that underlies the concepts of law, reward, punishment, and
incentive (for additional discussion of free will and determinism, see moral responsibility, problem
of). In theology the existence of free will must be reconciled with God’s omniscience and goodness
(in allowing people to choose badly) and with divine grace, which allegedly is necessary for any
meritorious act. A prominent feature of existentialism is the concept of a radical, perpetual, and
frequently agonizing freedom of choice. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–80), for example, spoke of the
individual “condemned to be free.”

Will - is a legal document that indicates how a person wants his or her estate (money and property)
to be distributed after death. Wills must expressly state to whom the will belongs and be signed,
dated and include the signatures of at least two witnesses. A will also may describe any wishes for
funeral and burial arrangements and may designate guardians for minor children.
How it works/Example:
A man who has created a will is called the testator; a woman is called a testarix. However, testator
is often used in reference to both genders.
When the testator dies, the executor, who is named in the will, administers the distribution of the
estate to the beneficiaries (a beneficiary is any person or organization that receives the assets after
the testator's death). The executor's job also includes paying any bills and taxes owed by the
estate as well as locating and protecting the assets until they are distributed. An executor often
receives payment for his or her services, and the payment varies from state to state.
Many people hire an attorney to draw up a will, but many states (though not all states) also
recognize holographic wills, which are simply created in the testator's own handwriting on a
regular piece of paper (holographic wills are more frequently contested, however).
A testator can change a will at any time, for any reason, and should keep the original copy of the
will in a safe place. A copy also should be given to the executor. There is some controversy over
whether banks may seal a safe-deposit box after a renter's death, so consult a professional regarding
storage of this important document.
If one does not have a will before death, the state's intestate succession rules determine how a
person's assets are distributed. These rules vary by state. Normally, a person's spouse and children
receive the estate first, then members of extended family. If there are no surviving family members,
the estate may pass to the state.
 THE MORAL DIMENSION OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Bob Corbett
Spring 2000
In many areas of human existence people generally do not hold that they may behave in just any
way they want toward other people. (This same limit may well be argued for other groups than
people as well. It may be held about our relationships to animals, to nature in general, even to gods
or other transcendental beings. But here I limit my remarks to our relationships with other people.)
At the political level every government makes certain acts illegal and punishes those who
transgress. At the social level we often show disapproval of people when they act in certain ways
and by that disapproval, we try to shape behavior away from the offending behaviors. At the
religious level certain acts are often held by the religion to be unacceptable, or sinful or some sort
of disapproval. Even at the personal level (perhaps influenced by religion, society and government)
we often will feel that certain acts toward other people are just not something we should do. This
entire realm is the area of moral concern.
Moral philosophy is a discipline of philosophy which uses the tools of human reason to inquire
into these questions of what should and shouldn't be done with and to other persons. (Government
uses reason as a tool, but also uses the machinations of politics and interests as tools. Society uses
reason as a tool, but also the power and value of tradition and social values as tools. Religion uses
reason as a tool, but also uses divine revelation, and faith as tools.)
When I talk of moral dimensions of education I am thinking of moral obligations in a philosophical
perspective, where reason is the dominant tool.
Within the formal educational establishment at the elementary and secondary level one category
of relationships are those of adults to those we call "children." Mainly these are humans who are
under the age of 19, and who, in most cultures, are legally regarded as minors.
Within these relationships when we as adults are in relation with children as students, we are in
relation with them in various roles. The key roles (but not the only ones) that interest me are:
 as teachers
 as administrators
 as parents
 as citizens
Given that in almost every nation on earth school attendance is mandatory by law and required to
at least the age of 16, we as citizens participate in this force applied to the young. As parents we
often use the power and force of our roles to be sure children are in school and more or less fulfill
the wishes of the school. And so on with the more stringent powers of teachers and administrators.
Within recent decades there has been some minor attention paid to the "rights" of students in the
face of all this power. It has been held (and behavior enforced) in at least some nations such as the
United States, that there are limits on how adults may relate with minor students in school. Some
limits are:
 students may not be beaten at will and in all manners.
 students may often have certain freedoms of dress and personal grooming previously unknown in
the schools
 students may have certain rights to privacy of their lockers and personal belongings in the school.
 and so on.
I maintain that there is a significant moral dimension to philosophy of education. As adults,
whether in the roles of teachers, administrators, parents or citizens, have power and authority over
students. As in other moral situations we need good reasons to interfere in the personal behavior
of children (even MAKING them students is a moral choice) and we should have good and
adequate reasons for our relationships with them.
To explore those reasons and those areas of interchange is the moral dimension of philosophy of
education.
There will not be a specific place or time where we will carry on this investigation in this course.
Rather, it will pervade the entirety of the course. I will try to make us face these issues at every
turn.
There is a tendency toward what I will call traditional behavior. That is, if a certain behavior pattern
is widespread and common in a culture it tends to become regarded as "RIGHT," even
"NATURAL." Often when this is the case it is very difficult to get the questions on to the floor of
serious moral inquiry. We have seen this within the past 1/2 century with the questions of the
relationships between blacks and whites and between men and women. There were traditional
behavioral patterns in place and attitudes toward blacks, whites, men and woman which told us the
place of each in society, even the "nature" of each. In the past 1/2 century the traditional views of
these relationships have been severely challenged and in some significant and historical degree
dramatically overturned.
Thus, as we move into the 21st century we see very different views of the nature of race and gender
relations and little by little behaviors toward those moral dimensions of human behavior are
changing. It is often the case that intellectual attitudes change much earlier than the dominant
behavior patterns of a culture.
It is a central thrust of this course that our attitudes toward adults and minor students need to be
dramatically (radically) reassessed and that some of our previous attitudes will be seen to not
measure up to reasoned inquiry. If this is so, then it would follow that there would need to be
behavioral changes which would likely follow upon these changes in attitudes. These behavior
changes, if needed, would likely impact our view of what education is all about.
I will take the responsibility of raising these moral issues as often as time permits, and I urge and
encourage you to do the same.
Famous Philosophers
Philosophy, which literally means “the love of wisdom,” is one of the oldest disciplines in
history. There are many ideas about philosophers and what they do. Some have even considered
the field to be a science that deals with logic and reason. Either way, many famous philosophers
have made their contributions known to the world through their writings and their students.
Below is a list of the greatest thinkers of all time along with their most important theories about
human nature and other ponderings of the world.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) Voltaire (1694-1778)

Famous For: The Communist Manifesto, co-founder Famous For: his philosophical wit
and father of Socialism & Communism French philosopher François-Marie Arouet was a
Karl Marx is better known as the “father of well known during the 18th century. He is better
socialism and communism,” one follows the other. known under his pseudonym, Voltaire. Voltaire
Marx has been labeled as a “revolutionary socialist” was an advocate of some of the most basic
for his belief in what has been called dictatorship of freedoms, he believed in the freedom of
the proletariat. In addition to espousing his own expression, religion and voiced this through his
philosophies, he was also a sociologist, economist, witty writing. One of his favorite targets was the
journalist, and historian. Catholic church.

Socrates (c. 469-399 BC)

Famous For: the Socratic Method of logic and a
founder of Western philosophy
His story began in his hometown of Athens, Greece
but unfolded through the writings of his students and
fellow philosophers. The field of ethics was the
specialty of Socrates and introduced a concept that
has been dubbed as elenchus, or the Socratic
method. He contributed much to the field of logic
and epistimology.
Plato (c. 428-348 BC)
Famous For: Platonic idealism & the theory of
forms
Athenian native Plato, and his role in western
philosophy can be traced back to when he was
student of Socrates. He also excelled in
mathematics, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and religion.
He founded the Academy in Athens.

John Locke (1632-1704)

Famous For: theory of mind & Father of Classical
Liberalism
The effect of English philosopher John Locke has on
the world reverberates to this day. His part on the
idea of the social contract theory was one he shared
with Sir Francis Bacon. The likes of Rousseau,
Voltaire, even American revolutionaries have been
influenced by his writings. He also offered the
Simone de Beauvoir (1908-
1986)
Famous For: existential feminism & ethics of
ambiguity
Simone de Beauvoir is viewed as a philosopher,
but she saw herself more as a political activist,
intellectual, and a writer. She authored numerous
theory of mind wherein he states that knowledge is books which include The Second Sex, The
something you are not born with, but learn and Mandarins, and She Came to Stay.
experience.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-

1778)
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
Famous For: General Will and the moral simplicity
Famous For: father of modern economics
of humanity
Best remembered for his writing of An Inquiry into
The political philosophy of Rousseau became the
the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
basis of the French Revolution. His ideas not only
and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Scottish
influenced nations, his work is reflected in the
philosopher Adam Smith was a pioneer in the field
modern thinking in regards to education, political,
of political economy. His ideas in the areas of
and sociological matters. Two of his books,
moral philosophy and economics have been
Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and On the
studied throughout the years, and still is.
Social Contract have had its effect on social and
political thinking.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Aristotle (384–322 BC)
Famous For: the “Baconian” method of scientific
Famous For: Aristotelian logic & theory of soul
investigation and creator of empiricism
The third member who has greatly influenced
The English Renaissance and Scientific Revolution
western philosophy, Aristotle provided ideas in the
benefitted from the work and ideas of Sir Francis
areas of aesthetics, ethics, logic, metaphysics,
Bacon. In addition to being a philosopher, Bacon
politics, and science. He was a student of Plato and
was likewise an author, jurist, statesman, orator,
teacher to Alexander the great. Nicomachean Ethics
and scientist. He was instrumental in advocating
is one of the treatises that Aristotle wrote. He
the use of the “inductive” method when it came to
believed that ethics should be applied practically,
scientific matters, this scientific method was also
not merely theorizing it.
called “Baconian method”.

Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) Confucius (551-479 BC)

Famous For: Law of Continuity, Monads, and the
Transcendental Law of Homogeneity
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz holds a special place
in the annals of philosophy and mathematics. As a
mathematician, he refined the use of infinitesimal
calculus. As a philosopher, he is best remembered
for his “optimism” and as an advocate of rationalism
along with Descartes and Spinoza. He also presented
the Law of Continuity.
Famous For: The Golden Rule and Confucianism
Born during the Spring & Autumn era in Chinese
history, Confucius and his ideas on social and
personal relationships became a school of thought
that many Chinese embraced. He was a voracious
writer for which includes the Five Classics in
Chinese literature. He believed that proper moral
behavior is best practiced, than morality being
made a rule.
 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Famous For: transcendental idealism &
René Descartes (1596-1650) metaphysics
Famous For: being the Father of Modern This 18th century German philosopher, Immanuel
Philosophy, “Cartesian” coordinate system & “I Kant, contends that “reason is the source of
think, therefore I am” morality.” His ideas continue to resonate in the
Rene’ Descartes influence on the world of halls of academic philosophy. The influence of
philosophy is evident at today’s universities. His these ideas is evident in present day thinking on the
book Meditations of First Philosophy is still being subject of ethics, epistemology, aesthetics, politics,
used. Perhaps this statement attributed to Descartes and metaphysics. In his publication of Critique of
will ring a bell, “I think, therefore I am.” Pure Reason, this was his attempt to combine
reason with experience to prove failures of
“traditional philosophy.”

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-

1900)
Famous For: life-affirmation & statement “God is
dead”
German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and his
ideas covered a lot ground and as a result, people
began to raise questions they normally would not.
The main crux of Nietzsche’s work was the idea of
life-affirmation, but he also presented ideas such as
Will to power, perspectivism, master-slave morality,
and the Apollonian/Dionysian dichotomy.
Albert Camus (1913-1960)
Famous For: absurdism & 1957 Nobel Prize for
literature
Albert Camus received a Nobel Prize for literature
in 1957. The award was given in recognition for
his attempt to create awareness of the plight of “the
human conscience”. Camus is associated with the
tenet known as “absurdism.” This French-Algeria
born philosopher was also an author and journalist.

Hannah Arendt (1906-1975)

C. S. Lewis (1898-1963)
Famous For: The Chronicles of Narnia,
“Screwtape Letters” & “Mere Christianity”
C.S. Lewis was an academic scholar and Christian
apologist. Some of his works are well known, these
include,The Chronicles of Narnia, The Screwtape
Letters and The Problem of Pain. He and J.R.R.
Tolkien were friends and part of the English
department at Oxford.
Famous For: being a political theorist & concept
of “Homo faber”
Hannah Arendt refused to be labeled as a
philosopher on the basis that her work revolved
around “men, not man.” Philosophy deals with
man in the singular, solo, which is different to what
she was, a political theorist, dealing with men and
the world around them. Hanna’s passion involved
work in the fields of authority, democracy, the
nature of power, politics, and totalitarianism.
 Bertrand Russell (1872-
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
1970)
Famous For: absolutism for the soveriegn &
Famous For: being one of the founders of analytic
political philosophy
philosophy
Thomas Hobbes is dubbed as the founder of the
Bertrand Arthur William Russell is remembered in
“social contract” tradition. This English philosopher
the field of philosophy as a proponent of analytic
wrote in the mid 17th century, Leviathan, which laid
philosophy. One of his essays has been labeled as
the groundwork for the introduction of the social
the ideal of philosophy, the essay is entitled On
contract theory. He also was an advocate of liberal
Denoting. The British wanted to go against
thought and “absolutism for the sovereign.”
idealism, Russell was their leader.

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) Famous For: Pascal’s law in mathematics &
Famous For: the philosophy of existentialism Pascal’s wager in philosophy
Jean Paul Sartre believed that “existence precedes The name of Blaise Pascal is frequently associated
essence.” Sartre did not shy from being linked to the with mathematics. As a philosopher, he proposed
ideal of existentialism. He applied his ideals on what we know as Pascal’s wager, in which people,
other areas of his life. in general, will bet their life on the existence or
non existence of God.

Michel Foucault (1926-1984)

Famous For: Structuralism and Genealogy
Albert Schweitzer (1875-
What does it take to make another man do your
1965)
bidding? This was the goal of Michel Foucault.
Famous For: the idea of the Reverence for Life
Most of his theories touched on the topic of the
Albert Schweitzer was a man with many facets.
“nature of power” and its purpose. His writings
His goal and philosophy of life was to have a
revolved around the social institutions and “human
“Reverence for Life”. He believed that civilization
science”. His published works, The Birth of the
had cast aside its foundation in ethics.
Clinic and The Order of Things helped highlight his
views on “structuralism.”

David Hume (1711-1776) Origen (c. 185-253)

Famous For: problem of causation & his book A Famous For: one of the early Church Fathers and
Treatise of Human Nature theologian
One of the pillars of the Scottish Enlightenment, Origen has been cited by scholars over the
philosopher David Hume is credited with the
“founding document of cognitive science” in his
book A Treatise of Human Nature. Hume made
every attempt to establish a naturalistic approach in
understanding “man”. One of his arguments,
“Reason is, and ought only to be slave of the
passions,” is a longstanding idea that says, “allow
desires to dictate reason.”
Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
Famous For: writing Common Sense during the
American Revolution
As a political activist, Thomas Paine is regarded
who helped two revolutionary wars. A pamphlet he
wrote in 1776, entitled Common Sense was
instrumental in igniting the fires of freedom and a
reason to revolt during the American Revolution.
Years later, he wrote Rights of Man that justified the
French Revolution.
John Dewey (1859-1952)
Famous For: for his ideas on pragmatism &
educational progressivism
One of the first men to present the idea of
pragmatism as a philosophical concept, Dewey also
espoused Reflective Thinking. He believed in the
philosophy of education, in which he views
education as a “social continuity of life.” This is
why he championed Educational Progressivism.
William James (1842-1910)
Famous For: the philosophy of religion and theory
of emotion
William James was part of the philosophical school
of pragmatism. More importantly was his
application of that school of thought on the
philosophy of religion. He also attempted to explain
why, if we see a snake, we fear the snake and run. In
centuries, by academics, pastors, priests, and
students. He wrote several treatises that covered
philosophical theology, exegesis of the bible and
textual criticism. He was influenced in his thinking
by both Plato and Aristotle. In his discussions and
writings, he always alluded to scripture, which he
believed is divinely inspired by God.
Henry David Thoreau (1817-
1862)
Famous For: his books Walden & Civil
Disobedience
The book Walden was Thoreau’s attempt to
express a desire towards living a simple life in
nature. Because of another book he wrote, Civil
Disobedience, he had been viewed as an anarchist.
Thoreau’s idea of giving up illusory ideals in
exchange for the true needs of life was something
he advocated throughout his life.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
Famous For: being the “most influential English
speaking philosopher of the 19th century”
John Stuart is regarded as “the most influential
English speaking philosopher of the 19th century”.
Mainly, he was a defender of political philosophy
and he comes from the school of utilitarianism. As
a member of the British parliament, he played a
role highlighting “liberal political philosophy.”
Erich Fromm (1900-1980)
Famous For: orientation of character
As a humanistic philosopher, Erich Fromm has
been linked to the school of critical theory. Some
of his exemplary ideas include “being and having
modes of existence.” Escape from Freedom is one
of Fromm’s books which tries to explaing man’s
changing view of freedom.
his theory of emotion, James contends that we see a
snake, we run; therefore, we fear the snake.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-
Famous For: Calvinism & Doctine of
1527)
Predestination
Famous For: Machiavellianism & The Prince
Calvin developed a point of reference in
Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli
Christianity the has been known as Calvinism. His
is considered the founder of political science and an
attempt to explain the “doctrine of predestination”
expert in political ethics. His main cointributions
as it pertains to God and salvation continues to be
include political philosophy and realism. His book,
debated to this day. The Congregational,
The Prince has been viewed as a masterpiece that
Presbyterian, and Reformed church base their
deals with political philosophy.
tenets on the teaching of John Calvin.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-

Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)
1855)
Famous For: War and Peace and Anna Karenina
Famous For: father of existentialism
As a social reformer and moral thinker, Leo
The philosophy of religion and the idea of
Tolstoy is known for his novels, War and Peace
existentialism are two schools of thought that has
and Anna Karenina. He helped shape the idea of
been linked to Kierkegaard. Most of his ideas
Christian anarchist thinking and even pushed the
revolve on the issue on how a person lives as an
idea of anarcho pacifism.
individual.

Parmenides (c. 515-450 BC)

Mozi (c. 470-391 BC)
Famous For: Eleatic school of philosophy
Famous For: Mohism
Parmenides founded the Eleatic school of
Chinese philosopher Mozi was the moving force in
philosophy sometime in the 5th century BC. He
the establishment of the school of Mohism. Mozi
presents us with two views of reality, “what is” and
was a proponent of moral philosophy and ethics.
“the way of opinion.” A quote from him is telling on
His teaching encouraged self-reflection and being
how he affected western philosophy, “Thought and
real, not just obedience and ceremony.
being are the same.”

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-

Famous For: Thomism and Summa Theologica 1797)
Even though he was a priest, Thomas Aquinas and Famous For: Feminist philosophy & A
his philosophy have influenced modern philosophy.
He was the father of Thomism, he believed that the
truth is true regardless of the source. His work in
Summa Theologica and Summa con Gentiles are
important sources of discourse that continue to be
used today.
Vinidication of the Rights of Woman
Mary Wollstonecraft believed that women should
be treated equally the same way and that the social
order should be based on reason. She is considered
as the earliest of feminist philosophers. Her book A
Vinidication of the Rights of Woman speaks of
women not being inferior to men.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Avicenna (c. 980-1037)

Famous For: Altruism & positivism
Comte was one of the founders of sociology and the
principle of positivism, better known as the positive
philosophy. Historians view him as the first of the
scientific philosophers. He also conceived the word
altruism, a doctrine that says people have an
obligation to help or serve others.
Famous For: The Book of Healing
Persian philosopher Avicenna was a proponent of
Islamic philosophy on which the Avicennian
philosophy is based. The Book of Healing is his
most famous work that has become an
encyclopedia on philosophy and science. In that
book he discusses the philosophy of science.

Emma Goldman (1869-1940) Epicurus (341-270 BC)

Famous For: anarchist political philosophy
Goldman comes from the philosophical school of of
anarchism.She was a vocal supporter of womens
rights and other social issues. The school of
anarchism believes a state is harmful, unnecessary,
and undesirable, making Goldman, anti-state.
Famous For: Epicurianism & Materialism
Epicurus’s philosophy is centered on two things,
“peace and freedom from fear” known as ataraxia
and “the absence of pain”, aponia. In his view, pain
and pleasure are barometers of good and evil. This
school of thought is known as Epicurianism.

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-

1951)
Saint Augustine of Hippo
Famous For: Philosophical Investigations &
(354-430)
fideism
Famous For: Catholic Church & City of God
Wittgenstein was a man who buried himself in the
The idea of the “Catholic Church” comes from the
philosophy of language, philosophy of
work of Saint Augustine. His writings, City of God
mathematics, and philosophy of mind. Two of his
and Confessions have influenced western philosophy
published works, Philosophical Investigations and
and are still read today. He believed that man is the
Tractatus are reflective of these beliefs he held.
unity of soul and body, a perfect combination.
His ideas include the “picture theory of language”
and “logical necessity” to name a few.