13

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) believes that Information and Communications

Technology (ICT) has great potential to facilitate knowledge dissemination, improve

learning and assist in the development of more efficient education services. ICT can also

extend educational opportunities to marginalized groups, increase education quality and

reduce inequalities based on gender, class, race, age and disabilities (Vosloo, 2012).

According to Perron (2010), the economic rationale of ICT in education relates to

potential increase of efficiency and effectiveness in educational tasks, which will result in

laborsaving costs. Pedagogic rationale on the other hand, emphasizes the contribution that

ICT can make to the improvement of the quality of education by providing rich, exciting,

motivating and new environment for learning.

The World Bank points out that educators and policymakers agree that ICTs are of

paramount importance to the future of education and that ICT in education initiatives are

likely to successfully contribute to meeting the Millennium Development Goals (Hepp,

2004).

ICT can act as an agent for change (Beyers, 2000) by significantly enhancing

educational reform which enable teachers and learners to move away from traditional to

more innovative and effective approaches to teaching and learning. Thus, among the

multifaceted benefits of using ICTs are also that they motivate pupils, provide variety,

compensate for language deficiency, encourage active participation, reinforce learning,

increase application possibilities, enhance the applicability of the learning content provided

for the learning needs of individual pupils, and supplement the spoken word (Kruger,

2010).
 14

Finally, a careful deployment of ICTs can go a long way in bridging both the

quantitative (access) and qualitative (standard) gaps in secondary education because ICTs

could be used to make education accessible to more learners (Evoh, 2007).

Status of Science Education in the Philippines

Classrooms are scarce, but the situation for science laboratories is even worse. The

Department of Education reports a serious lack of science laboratories in both elementary

and high schools all over the country. Preliminary results from a survey done by Raymond

Pingol from the Versatile Instrument System for Science Education and Research

(VISSER) project show that only around 20% of high schools have laboratories with non-

traditional “modern” equipment. Unfortunately, these “modern” equipment are typically

no more than the combination of a computer and an LCD projector. The lack of science

education facilities is reflected on the poor quality of basic science and math education

seen by the low achievement scores of Filipino students in various tests. The passing rate

for the national achievement test (NAT) for high school is 46.38% in SY 2009-2010, which

is a slight decrease from 47.40% in SY 2008-2009. The last time we participated in

international surveys like the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study

(TIMSS), the Philippines ranked 34th out of 38 countries in HS II Math and 43rd out of 46

countries in HS II Science. We need radical solutions to reverse the current backward

science and technology situation of the country (Jalmasco, N. 2014).

 15

Digital Game and Digital Game-Based Learning Approach

This subsection discusses the difference between digital game and digital game-

based learning approach.

Digital Game. Any game played using electronic device, either online or stand-

alone. It is an interactive program enabling one or multiple players to engage with the

content primarily for entertainment purposes (Marston, H. 2016).

Digital Game-Based Learning Approach. Refers to the development and use of

computer games for educational purposes (Presky 2001). A type of game play that has

defined learning outcomes. Generally, digital game-based learning is designed to balance

subject matter with gameplay and the ability of the player to retain and apply said subject

matter to the real world. It is also an approach to teaching, where students explore relevant

aspect of games in a learning context designed by teachers (Shaffer, Halverson, Squire, &

Gee, 2005).

Youth’s Utilization of Digital Game

Reports on youth’s consumption of digital games are compelling, with studies such

as the Pew Internet & American Life Project indicating 99% of boys and 94% of girls

playing digital games (Lenhart et al., 2008). Equally compelling are reports on how much

time youth spend playing digital games, which ranges from approximately 7 to 10 hours

per week (Lenhart et al., 2008), with more recent estimates putting this number even higher

(Homer, Hayward, Frye, & Plass, 2012). Although there are gender differences in the

amount of time boys and girls play digital games (Homer et al., 2012), and in the types of
 16

games boys and girls prefer to play (Lenhart, Smith, Anderson, Duggan, & Perrin, 2015),

studies have not found significant gender differences in learning or motivational outcomes

in educational games (Annetta, Magnum, Holmes, Collazo, & Cheng, 2009; Papastergiou,

2009). Given this level of engagement that games generate for a broad range of individuals,

and considering the kinds of individual and social activities they afford, advocates have

argued that games are an ideal medium for learning (Gee, 2003, 2007; Prensky, 2003, 2005;

Squire, 2011). Currently, digital game plays common role to provide fun and relax because

the game can challenges the player to a digital control of the game on their own. As a result,

educators are interested into how to use the game to facilitate and enhance teaching and

learning in subject matters. Kumar (2000) suggested utilization of computer games as

instructional tools to stimulate intrinsic motivational factors that encourages curiosity and

creates the impression to the students by self-controlled learning. In additions, there were

several researches showed that digital games can promote students’ learning and their

positive attitudes (Sung and Hwang, 2012), support development of critical thinking

(Squire, 2006), and creativity (Annetta, Cheng, and Holmes, 2010). Compared to

traditional class, digital game can increase motivation that make students interested to

learning better than the traditional (Bergin and Reilly, 2005; U.S. Department of Education,

2010). Several recent studies have also reported that educational computer games have the

potential of promoting students’ learning motivation, which could result in good learning

achievement (Burguillo 2010; Liu and Chu 2010; Dickey 2010; Houssart and Sams 2008;

Huang 2010; Sung and Hwang 2013).

 17

The Twelve Elements of Digital Game

According to Marc Prensky, the Author of the Digital Game-Based Learning book

titled, Fun, Play and Games: What Makes Games Engaging (McGraw-Hill, 2001),

Computer and videogames are potentially the most engaging pastime in the history of

mankind. The following are the twelve (12) elements of digital game mentioned in his book

which is making digital game-based learning effective, and these are (1) Games are a form

of fun. That gives us enjoyment and pleasure; (2) Games are form of play. That gives us

intense and passionate involvement; (3) Games have rules. That gives us structure; (4)

Games have goals. That gives us motivation; (5) Games are interactive. That gives us

doing; (6) Games are adaptive. That gives us flow; (7) Games have outcomes and feedback.

That gives us learning; (8) Games have win states. That gives us ego gratification; (9)

Games have conflict/competition/challenge/opposition. That gives us adrenaline; (10)

Games have problem solving. That sparks our creativity; (11) Games have interaction. That

gives us social groups; and (12) Games have representation and story. That gives us

emotion.

History of Digital Game-Based Learning Approach

Digital Game-Based Learning Approach is still a radical idea. It is based on two (2)

key premises that are still not fully accepted in the training and adult learning community.

Firstly, the learners have changed in some fundamentally important ways, the majority of

the people who are learning and being trained today, people who in the year 2000 are

roughly under the age of 36 (the median age of the US corporate worker), are, in a very

real intellectual sense, not the same as those of the past. As a result, while there is a great
 18

deal of discussion about “how people learn,” there has been relatively little focus on how

these people learn. Secondly, “radical” premise is that these “under-36” individuals are of

a generation that when growing up deeply experienced, for the first time in history, a

radically new form of play, the presence of computer and video games and that, this new

form of entertainment has shaped their preferences and abilities and offers an enormous

potential for their learning, both as children and as adults. In Digital Game-Based Learning,

the immense changes in technology over the past 30 years, of which videogames are a

major part, have dramatically and, importantly, discontinuously changed the way those

people raised in this time period think, learn, and process information. Although to a

surprising extent unremarked upon, the change, has been so enormous that today’s younger

people have, in their intellectual style and preferences, very different minds from their

parents and, in fact, all preceding generations (Prensky, M. 2001).

Game-based learning approach has been extensively used by the military. In fact,

the US military is the world’s largest spender on, and user of, digital game-based learning

approach. The military uses games to train soldiers, pilots, sailors, tank drivers and

hovercraft operators to master their expensive and sensitive equipment. And because

modern warfare increasingly takes place on airplane, tank or battleship computer screens

without the operator ever seeing the enemy except as a symbol or avatar, simulations are

surprisingly close to actual combat (Go, C.A.L., Lee, W. 2007).

Richard Van Eck of the University of North Dakota said that, “Several reviews of

the literature on gaming over the last 40 years find that digital game-based learning

generally has positive effects.” Referring to the principle of situated cognition, Van Eck
 19

states that games are effective partly because the learning takes place within a meaningful

context. The subject matter is directly related to the environment in which students/players

learn. As such, the knowledge gained is not only relevant but applied and practiced within

that context. Researchers have also stated that play is a primary mechanism of learning and

socialization common to all human cultures, as well as a number of animal groups. A

specific example is a lion’s ability to learn to hunt through modeling and play, not through

direct instruction, which is the same principle employed in a game-based instructional

strategy (Rivera, M. 2016).

Digital Game-Based Learning Approach Key Features

According to Zin, N. & Wong, S. (2013), an important digital game elements are

motivation and entertainment as well as training to increase students’ skills such as problem

solving, discussion, critical thinking, and cooperation. Based on game requirement

document, history Digital Game-Based Learning software should apply the following

features and specifications: (1) Learning objectives must be stated clearly and should be

based on the national curriculum; (2) Skills and knowledge should be conceptualized into

meaningful environment; (3) Design must be immersive, motivating, engaging and

playability high; (4) Fulfill individual requirement; (5) Respect to history, do not change

the historical facts; (6) Provide reward and maintain competition and challenge to increase

students’ engagement; (7) Provide help system and feedback function; (8) The quality of

music and text delivery must be interesting; and (9) Game play must be easy and does not

require advanced knowledge to play games.

 20

Status of Digital Game-Based Learning Approach

Many of the proponents of game-based learning urge school officials and teaching

communities to adapt games to their lesson plans. While there is research supporting this

opinion, there are many problems with the current research. First of all, there is a lack of

cohesion in game-based learning approach research. The games that are created for

research are also rarely distributed or made public. Secondly, a large portion of the

available empirical evidence is poorly designed. Many of the studies use very small sample

sizes and do not use accurate control groups (Young et al. 2012). For example, how does a

game compare to the lecture of a very engaging teacher? Few studies control for a student’s

background in technology, which might affect his or her outcome. Since it is difficult to

perform research in schools, many of the research studies have strong selection bias as

students must volunteer to participate and selection of schools is limited (Squire 2011).

One literature review found that only 39 articles met their criteria for credibility out of 363

articles (Young et al. 2012). Lastly, there are no best practices for implementing game-

based learning approach. While there have been many instances of games facilitating

higher orders of learning, best practices for replicating that success are not established.

Game companies can contribute by providing modification tools in their games that allow

educators to shape games to fit their lesson plans. Research has repeatedly shown that

game-based learning works best with a teacher acting as a facilitator for reflection,

discussion, and critical thinking (Klopfer and Yoon 2005, Sandford et al. 2006, Squire

2011). However, teachers need to be shown how the game can work for them, rather than

forcing them to work with the game.

 21

Studies on Digital Game-Based Learning Approach

Basing from the study titled, Effects of Playing Computer Games on the Academic

Performance and Behavior of High School Students by Lojo, C. (2008), she concluded that

in the light of the findings derived from her study, the following were deduced: (1) Students

have good academic performance despite their involvement in playing computer games;

and (2) The positive outlook of the students pertinent to study habits as well as playing

habits resulted to good academic performance. Moreover, benefits associated with creative

and physical functioning of the students such as hand-eye coordination may be attributed

to their playing of computer games. After a careful review of the findings and analysis of

the data, she also presented the following recommendations: (1) The students should exert

more effort to improve their academic performance; (2) To prevent negative effects of

computer games or digital game-based activities in the academic performance, close

supervision and monitoring of parents and teachers are recommended; and (3) Integrate

computer games or digital game-based learning in the academic activities.

According to Khan, A., Farzana, H., & Muddassir, M. (2017), digital game-based

learning application has a positive influence on student engagement when they conducted

a study focusing on the impact of a game based learning (GBL) application using computer

technologies on student engagement in secondary school science classrooms. Their study

consisted of five stages: (1) examining the impact of Digital Game-Based Learning

(DGBL) and gamification on engagement, learning and gender difference, and literature

related to using DGBL models for instructional design; (2) planning learning activities and

developing a GBL application based on a specific content in Science; (3) conducting an

intervention with a sample of 72 participants of 8th grade (aged 12–15) in a low cost private
 22

school of Pakistan following quasi-experimental research framework; (4) observing

behavior and emotions of the participants during science lessons; (5) conducting pre and

posttests to assess the learning outcomes of participants followed by focus groups

discussion. Analysis from Friedman test, Mann-Whitney U test, and Wilcoxon Signed

Rank test show that the GBL application has a positive influence on student engagement.

However, GBL application was not equally effective for all students since girls

outperformed boys in terms of engagement and learning outcomes.

The study titled, Relationships between Students’ Motivation & their Learning of

Science after using the Digital Gamt-Based Learning Approach (Alien Rescue application)

conducted by Liu, Horton, Olmanson, & Toprac (2011) on a total number of 220 sixth

graders participated in the study. The analysis of the results showed that students

significantly increased their science knowledge from pretest to posttest after using the

program (F (1,142) = 320.94, p < .01, ES = .69), they were motivated and enjoyed the

experience, and a significant positive relationship was found between students’ motivation

scores and their science knowledge posttest scores (F (2, 129) = 23.17, p < .01). The

average gain score in the science knowledge test from pretest to posttest was 30.31 out of

100 with Mmale= 28.02 and Mfemale= 31.85. Although this difference between male and

female was not statistically significant, it showed female students, on average, had 3.83

higher gain points.

An extension study using the Alien Rescue application with a research study titled,

Relationship between Science Learning and Students’ Attitude towards Digital Game-

Based Learning Approach (Alien Rescue App) conducted by Kimmons, Liu, Kang, &

Santana ( 2012), they further examined the relationship between sixth graders’ science
 23

learning and their attitudes with a different student population (n=478). The findings

indicated that students’ science knowledge increased significantly from pretest to posttest

by 30 points (out of 100, t (478) = -31.28, p < .01). Moreover, female students, on average,

had higher gain scores than male students by 3 points. This finding indicated that program

use had a significant effect on student achievement. In addition, student attitude towards

the learning environment was associated with achievement (F (2, 467) = 3.35, p < .05).

Students with better attitudes also had significantly higher posttest achievement scores

(MlowAttitude = 85, and MhighAttitude = 88, p < .01), with the exception of the pretest

score. In both studies, qualitative data were also included. The analysis of student open

ended responses indicated students often used the word “fun” to describe their experience

with AR.

Reasons behind the Usage of BioMan Biology in teaching Biology

Standards-Based. BioMan Biology online application is a standards-based for

learning biology content. The developer, Brett Baughman is a Biology teacher who knows

the importance of covering state and national content standards (America), while engaging

students in meaningful learning. This site allows students to have fun learning through

interactive games and activities.

Students love computer games. One of the goals of this site is to help students to

learn in a way that they truly enjoy and make biology more fun.

Feedback. Providing feedback to students is critical to their learning, but giving

feedback on work can sometimes be very time consuming and sometimes not very

productive. The great thing about the games and quizzes on this site is that immediate
 24

feedback is given, so students know right away whether they have learned the material

correctly.

Designed by an experienced teacher. The developer, Brett Baughman have taught

a wide variety of courses, including Advanced Placement Biology, Biology, Marine

Biology, General Science and International Baccalaureate Biology. He also worked with

various student populations, having taught a spectrum of students ranging from at-risk to

college level. Brett Baughman created this site for the students to engage them in

interactive fun learning experiences that really help them to learn. According to Shultz, C.

(2012) Brett Baughman said that, “Digital games keep students connected. It's visual. It's

auditory. You move things around, you really have to interact. The games include quizzes,

so students' progress can be tracked as they play. Buzzers and beeps let students know if

they answer correctly. There are different ability levels for the games, which are aimed at

middle school students and older. It forces the engagement. It would be very helpful to

students who don't understand what's happening or don't like (science). It engages in many

ways."

It’s Free and It’s Fun. The users do not have to pay to use the site. It is completely

free and there are no subscriptions, sign-ups or complicated set-ups. In setting up the site,

the developer wanted anyone to be able to use it to learn and review biology content in a

fun and interactive way.

 25

Findings on Digital Game-Based Learning Approach

on the Cognitive Process of Students

Good games can be a tool for deep and meaningful transformative learning that

includes complex competencies, while the player is involved in an iterative cycle of goal-

based, interactive problem solving (Shute & Ke, 2012).

Digital game is relevant in all of the four learning phases of experiential learning

(Dieleman & Huisingh, 2006).

The presence of pedagogic principles in game design (Becker, 2007); digital games

enable extensive and multiple types of cognitive learning strategies (Shute & Ke, 2012)

and games providing key conditions in fostering sustainability learning (Fabricatore &

Lopez, 2012).

Several recent studies such as the educational computer games have the potential

of promoting students’ learning motivation, which could result in good learning

achievement (Burguillo 2010; Liu and Chu 2010; Dickey 2010; Houssart and Sams 2008;

Huang 2010; Sung and Hwang 2013). Compared to traditional class, digital game can

increase motivation that make students interested to learning better than the traditional

(Bergin and Reilly, 2005; U.S. Department of Education, 2010).

Rivera, M. (2016) stated that “Gaming is an educational tool that some educators

insist is beneficial to learning.” Rabu, S. (2017) claimed that, digital game-based learning

approach give the students the sense of enjoyment thus helping the students’ short-term

and long-term memories.

 26

According to Chen, Y. (2017), Game-based instruction would influence learning

achievement.

The Study of Wentworth, D. (2014), titled, Technology use and Academic

performance, he found out that as technology use continues its steady growth among

college students, both within and outside of the classroom, its effect on academic

performance becomes an increasingly important question to address. Cognitive theory and

multitasking research strongly support a negative effect while other studies have found

little to no effect. Using a large sample of students, this study attempted to address these

opposing results and help find clarity. He explored the relationship of the frequency of

students' use of technologies and their academic performance as measured by GPA, SAT

scores, study hours, and predicted course grade. In order to understand more his findings,

he also examined the role of gender and employment status in this relationship. His

hypotheses were partially supported, with frequency of technology use negatively related

to academic performance.

Findings on Digital Game-Based Learning Approach

on the Non-Cognitive Process of Students

Interest and Utility

There had been various literatures that were reported why digital games can be used

as an educational tool, like: digital games contain elements that foster intrinsic motivation

(Dickey, 2007). Legault and Green-Demers (2006) pointed out that lack of learning

motivation is the critical problem in the present educational environment.

 27

According to Chen, Y. (2017), Game-based instruction would affect learning

motivation.

A Study of the Correlation between Computer Games and Adolescent Behavioral

Problems by Solmaz, S., Noshiravan, K. et al. (2013). They found out that Computer games

lead to anxiety, depression, withdrawal, rule-breaking behavior, aggression, and social

problems in adolescents.

Anxiety and Fear

Prensky, M. (2001) quoted that “In simple terms a brain enjoying itself is

functioning more efficiently." Play is our brain’s favorite way of learning things and it is

the original way of learning things. Many scientists think of much of their work as play,

often linking the idea of play with high creativity.

Whitton, N. (2012) cited that, games can provide safe playful spaces in which

learners can make mistakes in a safe environment, free from external consequences; in

which failure is a recognized and accepted part of the process. Players can reflect on those

mistakes, experiment, explore, build things, and create their own communities and

mythologies.

According to Westera, W. (2015), in many educational games, extrinsic rewards

systems are used that are not relevant for the learning contents and tasks. The seriousness

of education conflicts with the pleasure of play. While education is readily associated with

an obligation - even forced by law - , homework, examinations, a necessity of life, and a

prerequisite for having a job, a salary and a career, games are associated with play, joy,

leisure and having fun.

 28

A Study of the Correlation between Computer Games and Adolescent Behavioral

Problems by Solmaz, S., Noshiravan, K. et al. (2013). They found out that Computer games

lead to anxiety, depression, withdrawal, rule-breaking behavior, aggression, and social

problems in adolescents.

Intellectual Accessibility

Salter, A. (2016) mentioned that, not only is the incorporation of games and

opportunity to shape content in a new light, it also allows the user to sharpen their digital

skills.

A Study of the Correlation between Computer Games and Adolescent Behavioral

Problems by Solmaz, S., Noshiravan, K. et al. (2013). They found out that Computer games

lead to anxiety, depression, withdrawal, rule-breaking behavior, aggression, and social

problems in adolescents.

Emotional Satisfaction

Collins, E. and Cox, A. (2014) found out that there’s a clear correlation between

playing games and handling stress better. The findings of Hwang et al. (2012) that by

adding instructional objectives and materials into digital games, students’ learning

motivation would be enhanced because of the challenging and enjoyable nature of games.

A Study of the Correlation between Computer Games and Adolescent Behavioral

Problems by Solmaz, S., Noshiravan, K. et al. (2013). They found out that Computer games

lead to anxiety, depression, withdrawal, rule-breaking behavior, aggression, and social

problems in adolescents.
 29

The findings of Khan, A., Farzana, H., & Muddassir, M. (2017) cited that, digital

game-based learning application has a positive influence on student engagement when they

conducted a study focusing on the impact of a game based learning (GBL) application

using computer technologies on student engagement in secondary school science

classrooms.

Cons of Digital Game-Based Learning Approach

Westera, W. (2015) says, we should recognize that the discipline of game-based

learning is still in its infancy. As a scientific discipline it is actually lagging behind an ever-

growing and flourishing game-based learning practice that manages to successfully deliver

a wide variety of creative game instances that are highly appreciated by their users. We

need to strengthen the scientific base of game-based learning and systematically enlarge

the body of evidence that explains what factors and conditions produces most favorable

outcomes. We should thereby not just be fixated on the pros of game-based-learning, but

also be open to the cons, and the conditions when not to use games for learning.

Nevertheless, game proponents contribute to a good cause, because it supports educational

innovation with emerging technologies. At the same time they should help strengthen the

scientific dimension by making claims that are based on evidence rather than potentialities,

beliefs or preferences

One of the researchers, VandeWalle, D. (1999) claimed that, there is a difference

between a performance orientation and a learning orientation. Digital game play tends to

focus on performance, which is linked with an attitude of achieving milestones and scores
 30

(in many cases under time constraints), swift completion of tasks, avoiding errors, and the

use of proven methods for reducing risks. A performance orientation draws players toward

activities that they are good at already. All these features are not necessarily beneficial for

learning. As opposed to performance, learning requires spending sufficient time for in-

depth understanding, and having sufficient opportunities for reflection, revision, self-

evaluation, and even the preparedness to make mistakes. Most game reward systems,

however, discourage making mistakes because of the penalty points involved. Hence, the

process of gaming may readily counteract the process of learning. Having completed a

serious game successfully with a high score doesn’t necessarily imply successful learning.

This discrepancy between learning and performance will be larger as games offer more

freedom of movement to the learners.

The findings Salen and Zimmerman (2004) also explained that, for most games it

is difficult to foresee or control the player’s game experiences, because of the large number

of game states and the even larger number of trajectories that a player could travel through

this state space. Even simple game rules may lead to emergence of unforeseen game states,

as can be observed in games such as chess, go and football. This means that it is difficult

to anticipate the diversity of game conditions that players are subjected to. Hence, a game

is not necessarily a well-controlled environment and different players will have different

experiences. From a pedagogical point of view this uncertainty is highly unfavorable,

because teachers are supposed to arrange and preserve the optimal conditions for their

students’ learning. Because every individual game run is different, it is also difficult to

establish the game’s effectiveness for learning. It is just not feasible to test for all possible

trajectories through the game. Neither would it be adequate to test the appropriateness o f
 31

a game’s “average pathway”, because the “average player” is non-existent. Now that

teachers cannot accurately predict what will happen in the game, education starts to

resemble a casino. The impracticability of preparing appropriate guidance for all cases

devalues the credibility of game-based learning. The only remedy would be to reduce the

player’s freedom of movement and include instructional components to prevent that

players would spend too much time to game activities that aren’t productive for the player’s

learning. In the ultimate case, however, educational games degrade to well-structured,

quiz-like tutorials that fail to capitalize the rich potential of gaming for learning. For being

effective means of learning, games should appropriately balance the freedom of movement

with supportive instructional events, thus balancing self-directedness and guidance.

A Study of the Correlation between Computer Games and Adolescent Behavioral

Problems by Solmaz, S., Noshiravan, K. et al. (2013). They found out that Computer games

lead to anxiety, depression, withdrawal, rule-breaking behavior, aggression, and social

problems in adolescents.

Relationship between Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Processes

The study titled, “A comparative Study of Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Factors

Relationship to Academic Success for Foreign Master’s Students” conducted by

Stephenson, L. (2004), revealed that there is no relationship between the cognitive and non-

cognitive factors towards academic success for foreign master’s students at the University

of Maryland, College Park.

Heckman and Kautz (2012), claimed that measures of cognitive and non-cognitive

skills are capturing distinct concepts. Non-cognitive skills can be enhanced, and there are
 32

proven and effective ways to do so. Non-cognitive skills are shaped by families, schools,

and social environments. At any age, non-cognitive skills are stable across different tasks,

but performance on any task depends on multiple skills as well as the effort expended on

it. Effort, in turn, depends on incentives to perform the task. Since all measures of cognitive

and non-cognitive skills are measures of performance on some task, it is necessary to

standardize for incentives, effort, and other skills in measuring any particular non-cognitive

or cognitive skill, although this is not yet widely done. Despite these difficulties, reliable

measures of non-cognitive skills have been developed, and there is an active literature on

improving what is available. Though stable at any age, skills are not set in stone over the

life cycle. Both cognitive and non-cognitive skills can change. Parents, schools, and social

environments shape them, although there are important genetic influences. Skill

development is a dynamic process. The early years are important in laying the foundation

for successful investment in the later years. While there is hard evidence on the importance

of the early years in shaping all skills, many non-cognitive skills are more malleable than

cognitive skills at later ages.

Another study made by Ferrera, J. and Rodriguez, R. (2017), they claimed that there

is a positive and significant relationship between the non-cognitive skills and academic

achievement. However, this relationship is not significant when they consider different

groups of students. Specifically, they observe that there is no significant relationship

between the two variables studied when they only analyze male students or students

belonging to large families.

 33

Theoretical Framework

Theory of Interactive Cognitive Complexity

This is the main theory of this study which suggests that simulation games are more

effective than other instructional methods because they simultaneously engage trainees’

affective and cognitive processes (Tennyson & Jorczak, 2008). This theory is an

information processing model stating that learning is the result of interaction between

external and internal variables of the game player’s cognitive systems. Information enters

the cognitive system through sensory receptors; these receptors communicate with the

executive control. Internal processing then interacts with cognitive strategies, knowledge

base, and affect to inform the executive control and sensory receptors to produce behavior.

This theory is supported by the complexity model of learning system with specific feedback

prescriptions based on the type of learning desired. (Figure 1) developed by Tennyson and

Breuer (1997).
 34

Figure 1. Complexity model of learning system with specific feedback prescriptions based

on the type of learning desired.

This theory states that mechanisms of the mind ran parallel and adapted constantly

to a changing environment. The model was created to satisfy three requirements: account

for linear and non-linear elements of learning, address the interaction of knowledge and

strategy use in complex cognition, and include affective processes such as motivation and

anxiety. The model relied on Gagne’s (1970) varieties of learning outcomes. The model

assumed several interactive systems including a sensory register (where environmental

information enters the system), an executive control that controls perception, attention, and

resources (i.e., working memory), a knowledge base (i.e., long term memory), an affective

component for attitudes and motivation, and an internal processor. The internal processor
 35

interacted with most of the other systems to construct, integrate, and differentiate

knowledge. This model incorporates many variables known to affect feedback efficacy

such as task demands, internal and external feedback information, prior knowledge, learner

ability, motivation, and arousal.

DepEd Order No. 42, s. 2016 gave emphasis on the Differentiated Instruction

wherein All K to 12 teachers are encouraged to differentiate their teaching in order to help

different kinds of learners meet the outcomes expected in each lesson. Differentiation or

differentiated instruction means providing multiple learning options in the classroom so

that learners of varying interests, abilities and needs are able to take in the same content

appropriate to their needs, differentiation is instruction that aims to maximize each

student’s growth by recognizing that students have different ways of learning, different

interests, and different ways of responding to instruction.

Theory of Connectivism

The theory made by George Siemens (2005) and Stephen Downes (2010) on

Connectivism is also being considered as basis for the development of this study. It has

been coined as a new learning theory for the digital age. A personal learning theory for the

networked student, where there are three basic tenets: (1) Learning is a continual process;

(2) Know-how and know-what are being superseded by know-where; and (3) Technology

is changing our brains.

The theory views learning as a network phenomenon which encompasses (1)

Openness, where the network has no border; (2) Autonomy, which each individual member

of the network will respond according to their personal objectives, priorities and values;

(3) Diversity, is when knowledge is constructed best with variety of perspectives and
 36

inputs; and lastly, (4) Connectedness or Interactivity, where knowledge emerges in a

network from the interaction of its members.

Determining the effects of digital game-based learning approach on the cognitive

and non-cognitive processes of diverse learners in learning General Biology 1 concepts can

be compounded on the principles of connectivism where learning and knowledge rest in

diversity of opinions, a process of connecting specialized nodes and information resources

that may reside in non-human appliances, capacity to know more is more critical than what

is currently known, nurturing and maintaining connections between ideas and concepts is

a core skill, currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connective

learning activities, decision-making is itself a learning process and choosing what to learn

and the meaning of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality

while there is a right answer now but it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the

information thus affecting the decision. Connectivism provides insight into learning skills

and tasks needed for learners to flourish in a digital era.

Theory of Connectionism

This study was guided by the theory of Edward Thorndike in his Theory of

Connectionism (Weibell, C. J. 2011), that learning is the result of associations that are

continuously forming between stimuli and responses. These associations become stronger

or weaker by rate of recurrence of the paired stimuli that caused them.

Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism therefore means that memory is triggered by

stimuli and responses. If that is so, someone who has the access to that information can
 37

trigger certain memories in another individual by replication of that particular stimulus and

response.

A theory that proposes that all learning consists primarily of the strengthening of

the relationship between the stimulus and response. In developing this theory, Thorndike

proposed three laws: the Law of Effect, the Law of Exercise and the Law of Readiness.

The researcher considered this concept to her study in finding the effects of the use

of digital game-based learning approach on the cognitive and non-cognitive processes of

diverse learners, thus enabling her to base the end result of the study as a basis with regards

to the digital game, the BioMan Biology App as the stimuli; its effect to the students’

cognitive and non-cognitive processes in learning General Biology 1 or the end result of

the study.

The three laws proposed by Thorndike are also applicable for the development of

the study. The Law of Effect is applicable to assess the effect of the digital game-based

activity whether positive or negative on the students’ cognitive and non-cognitive

processes and if negative results occur in the findings of the study, therefore, Thorndike’s

Law of Exercise could be used to understand that the response of the students should be

proper, effective and efficient usage of the digital game-based such as self-discipline and

focus more on the activity. If all of these would be attained, the Law of Readiness stage by

which students could cope with the challenges and negative effects brought by the digital

game-based activity.
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Conceptual Framework

This study determined the effects of digital game-based learning approach on the

cognitive and non-cognitive processes of diverse learners. For better understanding of the

study, a paradigm is used by the researcher.

General Biology 1
Curriculum Digital
Contents: Game-Based Cognitive

Influence on the
Incorporated
Learning Process of
A. Cell Approach diverse learners
in

- Prokaryotic Cell,
Eukaryotic Cell &
Cell Theory
thru

-Cell Organelles &

Structures, Cell BioMan
Types & Cell Biology
Modifications
B. Biological
Molecules
Non-Cognitive
C. Energy
Process of
Transformation
diverse learners
Photosynthesis &
Respiration

Figure 2. The Research Paradigm

Figure 2. Shows the paradigm of the study where contents of the General Biology

1 curriculum such as: Cell, Biological Molecules and Energy Transformation are all

incorporated in the digital game-based app titled, BioMan Biology. The contents are

presented within the digital game as follows: (1) Prokaryotic Cell, Eukaryotic Cell & Cell

Theory; (2) Cell Organelles & Structures, Cell Types & Cell Modifications; (3)
 39

Photosynthesis & Respiration; and (4) Biomolecules. The cognitive process of the students

was evaluated based on their pretest and posttest scores. There were 4 different sets of 20-

item multiple choice questions adopted form the BioMan Biology App with a total of 80-

item multiple choice questions. The students’ non-cognitive process towards the digital

game-based learning approach was evaluated using the inventory checklist on attitude

introduced by Bauer (2008) of the University of New Hampshire. The checklist is made of

twenty (20) polar adjectives that can describe digital game-based learning approach as to

(a) Interest and Utility; (b) Anxiety and Fear; (3) Intellectual Accessibility; and (4)

Emotional Satisfaction.