ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING BOOKS

AHMED SAYED

Chapter 1

Power System Elements

AHMED SAYED
 Chapter 1
Power System Elements
INTRODUCTION:
Electrical energy is produced through an energy conversion process. The
electric power system is a network of interconnected components which
generate electricity by converting different forms of energy, (potential
energy, kinetic energy, or chemical energy are the most common forms
of energy converted) to electrical energy; and transmit it to load centers
to be used by the consumer. The production and transmission of
electricity is relatively efficient and inexpensive, although unlike other
forms of energy, electricity is not easily stored and thus must generally
be used as it is being produced. As shown in fig. (1-1), this figure
represents a simple overview to the electric power system.

Fig. (1-1)
The electric power system consists of three main subsystems:
 • The generation subsystem.
• The transmission subsystem.
• The distribution subsystem.

Electricity is generated at the generating station by converting a primary

source of energy to electrical energy. The voltage output of the
generators is then stepped-up to appropriate transmission levels using a
step-up transformer. The transmission subsystem then transmits the
power close to the load centers. The voltage is then stepped-down to
appropriate levels. The distribution subsystem then transmits the power
close to the customer where the voltage is stepped-down to appropriate
levels for use by a residential, industrial, or commercial customer. In this
chapter, a brief description of the common methods of converting energy
to electric power, and each power subsystem will be discussed.

Fig. (1-2)
The Generation Subsystem
• Electrical Generator:
Electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy is done by a motor; motors and generators have many
similarities.

A generator forces electric charges to move through an external

electrical circuit, but it does not create electricity or charge, which is
already present in the wire of its windings. It is somewhat analogous to a
water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water
inside.

The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam

engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal
combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any
other source of mechanical energy.

The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered

during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael
Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is generated by
the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a
magnet.

For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to

consumers. The other processes, electric power transmission, electricity
distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped
storage methods are normally carried out by the electrical power
industry. Electricity is most often generated at a power station by
electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by
chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as
the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are many other
technologies that can be and are used to generate electricity such as solar
photovoltaic and geothermal power.
 .

Fig. (1-3) NRC image of Modern Steam Turbine Generator.

Structure:

The two main parts of a generator or motor can be described in

either mechanical or electrical terms:

Mechanical:

: Rotor

Non-stationary part of a rotary electric motor,

electric generator or alternator, which rotates
because the wires and magnetic field of the motor
are arranged so that a torque is developed about
the rotor's axis.

Stator:

The stationary part of a rotor system, such as in an electric generator or

electric motor. Depending on the configuration of a spinning
electromotive device the stator may act as the field magnet, interacting
with the armature to create motion, or it may act as the armature,
receiving its influence from moving field coils on the rotor.
The first DC generators put the field coils on
the stator, and the power generation or motive
reaction coils on the rotor. An AC alternator
placing the field coils on the rotor allows for an
inexpensive slip ring mechanism to transfer
high-voltage, low current power to the rotating
field coil.

Electrical:

: Armature

In contrast, must carry current so it is always a conductor or a

conductive coil, oriented normal to both the field and to the direction of
motion, torque (rotating machine), or force (linear machine). The
armature's role is two-fold. The first is to carry current crossing the field,
thus creating shaft torque in a rotating machine or force in a linear
machine. The second role is to generate an electromotive force (EMF).

In the armature, an electromotive force

is created by the relative motion of the
armature and the field. When the
machine is acting as a motor, this EMF
opposes the armature current, and the
armature converts electrical power to
mechanical torque, and power, unless
the machine is stalled, and transfers it to
the load via the shaft. When the
machine is acting as a generator, the
armature EMF drives the armature current, and shaft mechanical power is
converted to electrical power and transferred to the load. In an induction
generator, these distinctions are blurred, since the generated power is
drawn from the stator, which would normally be considered the field. A
growler is used to check the armature for shorts, opens and grounds.

: Field

A field coil is the magnetic field component of an alternator,

generator, dynamo, motor or rotary converter. The phrase is also often
used in the plural form, as field coils.
The field coils can be mounted on either the rotor or the stator,
depending on whichever method is the most cost-effective for the device
design.

Bipolar and multi polar field

The stepping stone between these two major types was the consequent-
pole bipolar generator, with two field coils arranged in a ring around the
stator.

This change was needed because higher voltages allow current to flow
greater distances over small wires. To increase the output voltage, a DC
generator must be spun faster, but beyond a certain speed this is
impractical for very large power transmission generators.

Consequent field bipolar generator Salient field bipolar generator

Fig. (1-4) Bipolar and multi polar field.

By increasing the number of pole faces surrounding the Gramme ring,

the ring can be made to cut across more magnetic lines of force in one
revolution than a basic two-pole generator. Consequently a four-pole
generator could output twice the voltage of a two-pole generator, a six-
pole generator could output three times the voltage of a two-pole, and
so forth.
 This allows output voltage to increase without also increasing the
rotational rate.

In a multipolar generator, the armature and field magnets are

surrounded by a circular frame or "ring yoke" to which the field
magnets are attached. This has the advantages of strength, simplicity,
symmetrical appearance, and minimum magnetic leakage, since the
pole pieces have the least possible surface and the path of the magnetic
flux is shorter than in a two-pole design

Types of Generator:

1. AC Generator:
• Synchronous generator
• Induction generator
2. DC generator:
• Series generator
• Shunt generator
• Compound generator

Synchronous AC generator:

A "synchronous" generator runs at a constant speed and draws its

excitation from a power source external or independent of the load or
transmission network it is supplying. A synchronous generator has an
exciter that enables the synchronous generator to produce its own
“reactive" power and to alsoregulate its voltage. Synchronous
generators can operate in parallel with the utility or in "stand-alone" or
"island" mode. Synchronous generators require a speed reduction gear.
 Fig. (1-5) Synchronous AC generator construction

Induction AC generator:

An "induction" generator is essentially a special purpose motor that is run

slightly above synchronous speed by the turbine. Induction generators
receive their excitation from the grid, or electric utility and they have no
means of producing or generating voltage until such time the generator is
connected to the grid. Induction generators are direct-drive. The
frequency and voltage of the power generated with induction generators
are governed by the frequency and voltage of the incoming electric utility
line. Induction generators can ONLY be run in parallel with the grid,
which means when the electric grid goes down, or there is a blackout.

Series-wound generator:

In the series-wound generator the

field windings are connected in
series with the armature. Current
that flows in the armature flows
through the external circuit and
through the field windings. The
external circuit connected to the
generator is called the load circuit
a series-wound generator uses
very low resistance field coils, which consist of a few turns of large
diameter wire. The voltage output increases as the load circuit starts
drawing more current. Under low-load current conditions, the current
that flows in the load and through the generator is small.

Shunt wound DC generator:

In this field winding is connected in

parallel with the armature conductors and
have the full voltage of the generator
applied across them. The field coils
consist of many turns of small wire. They
are connected in parallel with the load
Current in the field windings of a shunt-
wound generator is independent of the
load current (currents in parallel branches
are independent of each other).

Compound-wound DC generator:

Compound-wound generators have a

series-field winding in addition to a
shunt-field winding, as shown in figure.
The shunt and series windings are wound
on the same pole pieces. They can be
either short-shunt or long-shunt as shown
in figures. In a compound generator, the
shunt field is stronger than the series
field. When series field aids the shunt
field, generator is said to be
commutatively-compounded. On the
other hand if series field opposes the
shunt field, the generator is said to be
differentially compounded.

In the compound-wound generator when load current increases,

the armature voltage decreases just as in the shunt-wound
generator. This causes the voltage applied to the shunt-field
winding to decrease, which results in a decrease in the magnetic
field. This same increase in load current, since it flows through the
series winding, causes an increase in the magnetic field produced
by that winding.
By proportioning the two fields so that the
decrease in the shunt field is just
compensated by the increase in the series
field, the output voltage remains constant.
This is shown in figure, which shows the
voltage characteristics of the series-, shunt-,
and compound-wound generators. As you can
see, by proportioning the effects of the two
fields (series and shunt), a compound-wound
generator provides a constant output voltage
under varying load conditions. Actual curves
are seldom, if ever, as perfect as shown.

The Transmission Subsystem.

The electrical power produced at generating stations is transported or
moved to areas close to load locations by the transmission subsystem.
Transmission lines are a major component of this subsystem.

Transformers:
Electrical transformers are used to "transform" voltage from one
level to another, usually from a higher voltage to a lower voltage. They
do this by applying the principle of magnetic induction between coils to
convert voltage and/or current levels.

They are used for sub transmission and transmission of electrical

power in high and mid voltage. They are used at transformer substations,
generation plants and big companies. They are manufactured in powers
from 1.25 to 20 MVA, in tensions of 13.2, 33, 66, and 132 kV and
frequencies of 50 and 60 Hz.

In this way, electrical transformers are a passive device which

transforms alternating current (otherwise known as "AC") electric energy
from one circuit into another through electromagnetic induction. An
electrical transformer normally consists of a ferromagnetic core and two
or more coils called "windings". A changing current in the primary
winding creates an alternating magnetic field in the core. In turn, the core
multiplies this field and couples the most of the flux through the
secondary transformer windings. This in turn induces alternating voltage
(or emf) in each of the secondary coils.

Electrical transformers can be configured as either a single-phase or

a three-phase configuration. There are several important specifications to
specify when searching for electrical transformers.

These include: maximum secondary voltage rating, maximum

secondary current rating, maximum power rating, and output type. An
electrical transformer may provide more than one secondary voltage
value. The Rated Power is the sum of the VA (Volts x Amps) for all of
the secondary windings. Output choices include AC or DC.

Types of transformers:
In general, transformers are used for two purposes: signal matching and
power supplies.

1 - Power Transformers

Power transformers are used to convert from one voltage to another, at

significant power levels.

2- Step-up transformers

A "step-up transformer" allows a device that requires a high voltage

power supply to operate from a lower voltage source. The transformer
takes in the low voltage at a high current and puts out the high voltage at
a low current.
3- Step-down transformers

A "step-down transformer" allows a device that requires a low voltage

power supply to operate from a higher voltage. The transformer takes in
the high voltage at a low current and puts out a low voltage at a high
current.

4- Isolation transformers

An "isolation transformer" does not raise or lower a voltage;

whatever voltage comes in is what goes out. An isolation transformer
prevents current from flowing directly from one side to the other. This
usually serves as a safety device to prevent electrocution.

5- Variable auto-transformers

step-up transformerA "variable auto-transformer" (variac) can act like a

. It has a big knob on top that allows you to dial step-down transformeror
in whatever output voltage you want.

Note: a variable auto-transformer does not provide isolation from line

. isolation transformercurrent. For that you need an

6- Inverters

An "inverter" takes a DC power source and boosts it up to a higher

voltage. The most common type of inverter takes power from an
automobile and cranks out 110 VAC to run appliances and power tools.
Inverters are also used to operate fluorescent lamps from battery power.
Technically, an inverter isn't a transformer; it contains a transformer (and
lots of other stuff).

7- Signal Transformers

"Signal transformers" also take one thing in and transform it to another

thing out. But in this case, the power levels are low, and the transformed
thing carries some type of information signal.
Construction:
1- Cores

There are four types of cores: laminated steel, solid, torodial, & air cores.

* Laminated steel:
Laminated refers to the laminated-steel
cores. These steel laminations are insulated with
a non-conducting material, such as varnish, and
then formed into a core that reduces electrical
losses.

* Toroidal cores:
Toroidal units typically have copper
wire wrapped around a cylindrical core so the
magnetic flux, which occurs within the coil,
doesn't leak out, the coil efficiency is good, and
the magnetic flux has little influence on other
components.

* Solid cores:

cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power ironPowdered

supplies) that operate above main frequencies and up to a few tens of
with high permeabilitykilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic
VHF . For frequencies extending beyond the resistivitybulk electrical
materials called ceramic, cores made from non-conductive magnetic band
are common.ferrites

* Air cores:

The air which comprises the magnetic

circuit is essentially lossless, and so an air-core
in hysteresistransformer eliminates loss due to
the core material. The leakage inductance is
inevitably high, resulting in very poor
regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable
for use in power distribution. They have
, and are bandwidthhowever very high
frequently employed in radio-frequency applications, for which a
satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping
the primary and secondary windings.

2- Winding

Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

Cut view through transformer windings. White: insulator. Green spiral:
oxygen-free . Black: Primary winding made of Grain oriented silicon steel
. Red: Secondary winding. Top left: Toroidal transformer. Right: copper
C-core, but E-core would be similar. The black windings are made of
film. Top: Equally low capacitance between all ends of both windings.
Since most cores are at least moderately conductive they also need
insulation. Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of the secondary
winding needed for low-power high-voltage transformers. Bottom left:
would lead to increase of capacitance. leakage inductanceReduction of

3- Coolant

High temperatures will damage the winding

insulation. Small transformers do not generate
significant heat and are cooled by air
circulation and radiation of heat. Power
transformers rated up to several hundred kVA
can be adequately cooled by natural
air-cooling, sometimes assisted by convective
fans.

In larger transformers, part of the design

problem is removal of heat. Some power
transformer oiltransformers are immersed in
that both cools and insulates the windings.

that remains stable at transformer mineral oilThe oil is a highly refined

operating temperature. Oil-filled transformers may be equipped with
, which detect gas evolved during internal arcing and Buchholz relays
rapidly de-energize the transformer to avert catastrophic failure.

Cooled dry transformers are preferred for indoor applications even at

capacity ratings where oil-cooled construction would be more
economical, because their cost is offset by the reduced building
construction cost.

Properties of transformer
Transformers have many properties due to construction. The Ideal
transformer is lossless, but the losses in a transformer will be elaborated
later as well.
Here we have a simplistic model of our idealized transformer. N1 and N2
are the number of turns for each winding, e1 and e2 are the voltages in the
windings, and is the flux.

, And Secondary Induced E.M.F E.M.FPrimary Induced

is the , where Proportionality of the Transformer

Transformation Ratio.
Voltage and current relationship

which is the angular , where Changing Flux relationship

is the time at which the is the source frequency, frequency in radians/second,
is the magnetizing Flux density. measurement takes place, and

Load Impedances
, Induced Primary E.M.F.
And the R.M.S. value
 Overhead Transmission Lines:

An overhead power line is an electric power transmission line suspended

by towers or poles. Since most of the insulation is provided by air,
overhead power lines are generally the
lowest-cost method of transmission for
large quantities of electric power.

Towers for support of the lines are made

of wood (as-grown or laminated), steel
(either lattice structures or tubular poles),
concrete, aluminum, and occasionally
reinforced plastics.

The bare wire conductors on the line are

generally made of aluminum (either plain
or reinforced with steel or sometimes
composite materials), though some copper
wires are used in medium-voltage distribution and low-voltage
connections to customer premises.

Overhead power transmission lines are classified in the electrical power

industry by the range of voltages:
-Low voltage – less than 1000 volts, used for connection between a
residential or small commercial customer and the utility.

-Medium Voltage (Distribution) – between 1000 volts (1 kV) and to

about 33 kV, used for distribution in urban and rural areas.

-High Voltage (Sub transmission if 33-115kV and transmission if

115kV+) – between 33 kV and about 230 kV, used for sub-transmission
and transmission of bulk quantities of electric power and connection to
very large consumers.

-Extra High Voltage (Transmission) – over 230 kV, up to about 800 kV,
used for long distance, very high power transmission.

-Ultra High Voltage – higher than 800 kV.

Structures:
Structures for overhead lines take a variety of shapes depending on the
type of line. Structures may be as simple as wood poles directly set in
the earth, carrying one or more cross-arm beams to support conductors,
or "armless" construction with conductors supported on insulators
attached to the side of the pole. Tubular steel poles are typically used in
urban areas.

High-voltage lines are often carried on lattice-type steel towers or

pylons. For remote areas, aluminum towers may be placed by
helicopters. Concrete poles have also been used. Poles made of
reinforced plastics are also available, but their high cost restricts
application.

Each structure must be designed for the loads imposed on it by the

conductors. A large transmission line project may have several types of
towers, with "tangent" ("suspension" or "line" towers, UK) towers
intended for most positions and more heavily constructed towers used
for turning the line through an angle, dead-ending (terminating) a line,
or for important river or road crossings.

Depending on the design criteria for a particular line, semi-flexible

type structures may rely on the weight of the conductors to be balanced
on both sides of each tower. More rigid structures may be intended to
remain standing even if one or more conductors is broken. Such
structures may be installed at intervals in power lines to limit the scale
of cascading tower failures.

Foundations for tower structures may be large and costly, particularly

if the ground conditions are poor, such as in wetlands. Each structure
may be considerably strengthened by the use of guy wires to resist
some of the forces due to the conductors.

Power lines and supporting structures can be a form of visual pollution.

In some cases the lines are buried to avoid this, but this is more
expensive and therefore not usual.
Insulators:
Insulators must support the conductors and
withstand both the normal operating voltage
and surges due to switching and lightning.
Insulators are broadly classified as either pin-
type, which support the conductor above the
structure, or suspension type, where the
conductor hangs below the structure. Up to
about 33 kV (69 kV in North America) both
types are commonly used.

At higher voltages only suspension-type

insulators are common for overhead
conductors. Insulators are usually made of wet-process porcelain or
toughened glass, with increasing use of glass-reinforced polymer
insulators.

Suspension insulators are made of multiple units, with the number of unit
insulator disks increasing at higher voltages. The number of disks is
chosen based on line voltage, lightning withstand requirement, altitude,
and environmental factors such as fog, pollution, or salt spray. Longer
insulators, with longer creep age distance for leakage current, are
required in these cases. Strain insulators must be strong enough
mechanically to support the full weight of the span of conductor, as well
as loads due to ice accumulation, and wind.

Porcelain insulators may have a semi-conductive glaze finish, so that a

small current (a few mille amperes) passes through the insulator. This
warms the surface slightly and reduces the effect of fog and dirt
accumulation. The semiconducting glaze also insures a more even
distribution of voltage along the length of the chain of insulator units.

Insulators for very high voltages, exceeding 200 kV, may have grading
rings installed at their terminals. This improves the electric field
distribution around the insulator and makes it more resistant to flash-over
during voltage surges.
 Conductors:
Aluminum conductors reinforced with steel
(known as ACSR) are primarily used for
medium and high voltage lines and may
also be used for overhead services to
individual customers. Aluminum
conductors are used as it has the advantage
of better resistivity/weight than copper, as
well as being cheaper. Some copper cable is
still used, especially at lower voltages and for grounding.

Bundled conductors are used for voltages over 200 kV to avoid corona
losses and audible noise. Bundle conductors consist of several conductor
cables connected by non-conducting spacers. For 220 kV lines, two-
conductor bundles are usually used, for 380 kV lines usually three or
even four. American Electric Power is building 765 kV lines using six
conductors per phase in a bundle. Spacers must resist the forces due to
wind, and magnetic forces during a short-circuit.

Overhead power lines are often equipped with a ground conductor (shield
wire or overhead earth wire). A ground conductor is a conductor that is
usually grounded (earthed) at the top of the supporting structure to
minimize the likelihood of direct lightning strikes to the phase
conductors. The ground wire is also a parallel path with the earth for fault
currents in earthed neutral circuits. Very high-voltage transmission lines
may have two ground conductors. These are either at the outermost ends
of the highest cross beam, at two V-shaped mast points, or at a separate
cross arm.

Older lines may use surge arrestors every few spans in place of a shield
wire, this configuration is typically found in the more rural areas of the
United States. By protecting the line from lightning, the design of
apparatus in substations is simplified due to lower stress on insulation.
Shield wires on transmission lines may include optical fibers (OPGW),
used for communication and control of the power system.
 The distribution subsystem.
Bus Bars:

Introduction

The word bus bar, derived from the Latin word omnibus ('for all'), gives
the idea of a universal system of conveyance. In the electrical sense, the
term bus is used to describe a junction of circuits, usually in the form of a
small number of inputs and many outputs. 'Bus bar' describes the form
the bus system usually takes, a bar or
bars of conducting material.

In any electrical circuit some electrical

energy is lost as heat which, if not kept
within safe limits, may impair the
performance of the system. This
energy loss, which also represents a
financial loss over a period of time, is
proportional to the effective resistance
of the conductor and the square of the
current flowing through it. A low
resistance therefore means a low loss;
a factor of increasing importance as
the magnitude of the current increases.

The capacities of modern-day electrical plant and machinery are such

that the power handled by their control systems gives rise to very large
forces. Bus bars, like all the other equipment in the system, have to be
able to withstand these forces without damage. It is essential that the
materials used in their construction should have the best possible
mechanical properties and are designed to operate within the temperature
limits laid down in BS 159, BS EN 60439-1:1994, or other national or
international standards.

A conductor material should therefore have the following properties if it

is to be produced efficiently and have low running costs from the point of
view of energy consumption and maintenance:

a) Low electrical and thermal resistance

b) High mechanical strength in tension, compression and shear

c) High resistance to fatigue failure

d) Low electrical resistance of surface films

e) Ease of fabrication

f) High resistance to corrosion

g) Competitive first cost and high eventual recovery value

This combination of properties is met best by copper. Aluminum is the

main alternative material, but a comparison of the properties of the two
metals shows that in nearly all respects copper is the superior material.

Types of Bus bars

Bus bars can be sub-divided into the following categories, with

individual bus bar systems in many cases being constructed from several
different types:

a) Air insulated with open phase conductors

b) Air insulated with segregating barriers between conductors of different

phases.

c) Totally enclosed but having the construction as those for (a) and (b)

d) Air insulated where each phase is fully isolated from its adjacent
phase(s) by an earthed enclosure. These are usually called 'Isolated Phase
Bus bars'.

e) Force-cooled bus bar systems constructed as (a) to (d) but using air,
water, etc. as the cooling medium under forced conditions (fan, pump,
etc.).

f) Gas insulated bus bars. These are usually constructed as type (e) but
use a gas other than air such as SF6.

g) Totally enclosed bus bars using compound or oil as the insulation

medium.

The type of bus bar system selected for a specific duty is determined by
requirements of voltage, current, frequency, electrical safety, reliability,
short-circuit currents and environmental considerations.
 Loads:
Electrical load is an item in a network and consumes electrical power.
Electrical load is everything connects to the network and consumes
power.

Types of loads:-

We can classify loads to 2 main types

1- Industrial load:

This load depends on technology’s operation that used in industry and

types of machines. And there is special table’s shows the electrical loads
to each industry individually. That mean this loads are known and
selected by the manufacturer and this make the accounts and future
estimate for loads is easy.

2- Not industrial loads :-

This induces all types of electrical loads such as: houses, malls schools,
hospitals universities , and it can classified to :

1- Lighting loads

2- Appliances loads such as dampers, alarm devices

Loads can also be classified into different types :

1-RESISTIVE LOAD: (heaters and incandescent lights)

The voltage and current peaks coincide and are therefore in phase and the
power factor is in unity.

2-INDUCTIVE LOAD: (Motors and transformers)

With an inductive load the current waveform is lagging behind the

voltage waveform, therefore, the voltage peaks and current peaks are not
in phase. The amount of phase delay is given by the cosine of the angel
(Cos) between the vectors representing voltage and current.
3-CAPACITIVE LOAD : (Capacitors, wiring, cable)

The capacitive load has a current waveform which is leading the voltage
waveform, therefore the voltage peaks and current peaks are not in phase.
The amount of phase delay is given by the cosine of the angle between
the vectors representing voltage and current.

Phases of estimate the electrical loads:

1- elementary phase :

we use the spaces diagram and by this phase we can identify the total
loads in the project and from this we can know the electrical demands
such as trans former .

2- First design phase :

in this phase the electoral survives needs blue prints of single line
diagram and choice of suitable voltage to distribution is identified and we
also determined the space of electrical rooms and a ways of cables
extended.

3- Advanced single phase

We calculate cross section Area of cables according to the previous phase

calculate
and we dissertate the Areas of main disruption boards and this depending
on the earthling .

4- Final design:-

When we finish the find designee of the project the electrical loads is
determined so we can determine the sizes and capacitive of control board
of machines and breakers
Switch gears:
Disconnect Switches:
A disconnect switch is a mechanical device used to change connections
within a circuit or isolate a circuit from its power source, and is normally
used to provide isolation of the substation equipment for maintenance.
Typically a disconnect switch would be installed on each side of a piece
of equipment to provide a visible confirmation that the power conductors
have been opened for personal safety.

Once the switches are placed in the open position, safety grounds can be
attached to the de-energized equipment for worker protection. Switches
can be equipped with grounding blades to perform the safety grounding
function.
Disconnect switches are designed to continuously carry load currents and
momentarily carry higher capacity for short-circuit currents for a
specified duration (typically specified in seconds). They are designed for
no load switching, opening or closing circuits where negligible currents
are made or interrupted, or when there is no significant voltage across the
open terminals of the switch.

They are relatively slow-speed operating devices and therefore are not
designed for arc interruption. Disconnect switches are also installed to
bypass breakers or other equipment for maintenance and can also be used
for bus sectionalizing. Interlocking equipment is available to prevent
inadvertent operating sequence by inhibiting operation of the disconnect
switch operation until the fault and/or load currents have been interrupted
by the appropriate equipment.

Single-phase or three-phase operation is possible for some switches.

Operating mechanisms are normally installed to permit operation of the
disconnect switch by an operator standing at ground level.

The operating mechanisms provide a swing arm or gearing to permit

operation with reasonable effort by utility personnel. Motor operating
mechanisms are also available and are applied when remote switching is
necessary.

Disconnect switch operation can be designed for vertical or horizontal

operating of the switch blades.
Several configurations are frequently used for switch applications
including:

1- Vertical break.
2- Double break switches.
3- V switches.
4- Center break switches.
5- Hook stick switches.
6- Vertical reach switches.
7- Grounding switches.

Load Break Switches:

A load break switch is a disconnect switch that has been designed to

provide making or breaking of specified currents. This is accomplished
by addition of equipment that increases the operating speed of the
disconnect switch blade and the addition of some type of equipment to
alter the arcing phenomena and allow the safe interruption of the arc
resulting when switching load currents.

Disconnect switches can be supplied with equipment to provide a limited

load switching capability.

Arcing horns, whips, and spring actuators are typical at lower voltages.
These switches are used to de-energize or energize a circuit that
possesses some limited amount of magnetic or capacitive current, such as
transformer exciting current or line charging currents.
An air switch can be modified to include a series interrupter (typically
vacuum or SF6) for higher voltage and current interrupting levels.
These interrupters increase the load break capability of the disconnect
switch and can be applied for switching load or fault currents of the
associated equipment.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

1- Low Voltage Circuit Breaker

low voltage circuit breaker is divided to (M.C.B. and M.C.C.B.)

A circuit breaker is a circuit protection device that, like a fuse, will stop
current in the circuit if there is a direct short, excessive current or
excessive heat. Unlike a fuse, a circuit breaker is reusable. The circuit
breaker does not have to be replaced after it has opened. Instead of
replacing the circuit breaker, you reset it.

Circuit breakers can also be used as circuit control devices. By manually

opening and closing the contacts of a circuit breaker, you can switch the
power on and off.
Circuit breakers have five main components:
Components:
1- Frame.
2- Operating mechanism.
3- Arc extinguishers and contacts.
4- Terminal connectors.
5- Trip elements.

2-Medium and High Voltage Circuit Breaker

Classification of circuit breakers:

1. Air-break circuit breaker or miniature C.B

2. Oil circuit breaker
3. Minimum oil circuit breaker
4. Air blast circuit breaker
5. SF6 circuit breaker
6. Vacuum circuit breaker

High voltage CB medium voltage CB

Ratings of circuit breakers:

1-Rated voltage.

2-Rated insulation.

3-Rated frequency.

4-Rated normal current.

5-Rated short circuit breaking current.

6-Rated short circuit making current.

7-Rated opening sequence for auto-reclose CBs.

8-Rated transient recovery voltage for terminal faults.

9-CB interrupting time-its components in relation to fault clearing time.

Relays:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an
electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other
operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary
to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in
long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one
circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in
telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly
control an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control
power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor
device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect
electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power
systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protective relays".

Earthing
Types of Earthing:
1-Function Earth: Connecting the neutral to earth.

A functional earth connection serves a purpose other than providing

protection against electrical shock. In contrast to a protective earth
connection, a functional earth connection may carry a current during the
normal operation of a device. Functional earth connections may be
required by devices such as surge suppression and electromagnetic
interference filters, some types of antennas and various measurement
instruments. Generally the protective earth is also used as a functional
earth, though this requires care in some situations.

2-Protection Earth: used for human safety.

A protective earth (PE) connection ensures that all exposed conductive
surfaces are at the same electrical potential as the surface of the Earth, to
avoid the risk of electrical shock if a person touches a device in which an
insulation fault has occurred.
It ensures that in the case of an insulation fault (a "short circuit"), a very
high current flows, which will trigger an over current protection device
(fuse, circuit breaker) that disconnects the power supply.

Function Earthling Protection Earthing

 Chapter 2

Transformer Protection
 Chapter 2
Transformer Protection
Introduction
Transformers are a critical and expensive component of the power
system. Due to the long lead time for repair of and replacement of
transformers, a major goal of transformer protection is limiting the
damage to a faulted transformer. Some protection functions, such as over
excitation protection and temperature-based protection may aid this goal
by identifying operating conditions that may cause transformer failure.
The comprehensive transformer protection provided by multiple function
protective relays is appropriate for critical transformers of all
applications.

Construction of transformers
Transformers are formed from:

1-iron core 2-windings

3-tank 4-terminals
5-tap changer 6-oil
1-Iron Core:

Made of cold rolled silicon steel sheets 0.3mm to minimize losses

2-Windings:
High tension turns are made of copper wires of either circular cross
sections varnish isolated or rectangular cross sections isolated by sililose
paper. Low tension turns are made of either non insulated copper foils
with insulating paper in between or of rectangular wires insulated by
cylindrical paper sheets

3-Tank:
The transformer tank is made of corrugated steel . The corrugated tank
surface is itself the cooling surface. The tank is provided with an
additional steel reservoir for oil expansion, on which a piping device is
installed to transmit oil cock ,a hole for silica gel apparatus, and an oil
level indicator.

4-Terminals:

H.V. and L.V. terminals are brought out through porcelain bushings
according to the rated voltage. The insulators are fixed to the tank cover
in such a way to ensure replacement without dismantling the transformer
cover. Cable end boxes on either H.T. or L.T. side or both can be made if
required.

5-Tap changer:
tap changers are externally for allowing voltage regulation with ±5 % of
the rated value in 5 equal steps of ± 2.5 % each , the tap changer is
manually operated while current is off .

6-Oil:
transformers are filled with special oil of high insulating grade according to IEC
specification
 Transformer Categories and Type
For consideration of maintenance requirements, transformers can be
divided into the following categories:

• Insulating medium
• Construction
• Application and use
• instrumentation transformers:

1- Insulating Medium
The transformer’s insulating medium can be subdivided into two types:
dry and liquid filled.

1.1 Dry Type

Dry-type transformers are usually air cooled with winding insulation of

class A, B, C, or H. The dry-type transformer can be either self cooled or
forced air cooled.

Self-cooled:

A self-cooled transformer of the dry type is cooled by natural circulation

of air through the transformer case. The cooling class designation for this
transformer is AA

Forced air cooled:

A forced air-cooled transformer of dry type is cooled by means of forced

circulation of air through the case. Transformers of this type have air-
blast equipment such as fans with louvered or screened openings.

These transformers are rated at 133% of the rating of the self-cooled dry-
type transformers. The cooling class designation for this transformer is
FA. Dry type transformers can be obtained with both self-cooled and
forced air-cooled Rating. The designation for such a transformer is
AA/FA. Dry-type transformers can also be cooled by gas instead of air.
For such transformers, a sealed tank is required.
1.2 Liquid-Filled Transformer

In this type of transformer, the windings and core are totally immersed in
a liquid contained in the transformer tank. The tank is equipped with
cooling fins for circulation of the transformer liquid. The transformer
liquid provides an insulating medium for the coils as well as for
dissipation of heat. Two liquids have been used extensively in the past
for transformers: mineral oils and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),
commonly known as askarel. Askarel was extensively used in
transformers

for indoor applications because it is a nonflammable synthetic insulating

fluid. Askarel is a non biodegradable and toxic. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) banned the use of askeral in transformers and other
electrical equipment, and its availability for reuse or for use in new
applications is almost nonexistent. Newer fluids have been introduced,
such as silicone, RTemp, Wecosal, and Alpha 1 for replacement

of askarel. Others are still in developmental stages. Regardless of what

new fluids come on the market for transformer applications, they would
still have to be maintained and tested to assure transformer integrity.
Several cooling methods are used for liquid-filled transformers.

Self-cooled:

A self-cooled transformer uses the natural circulation of the insulating

liquid. Heat in the transformer tank is dissipated by convection currents
set up in the liquid, which circulates through the tank and cooling fins.
The cooling class designation for this transformer is oil natural, air
natural OA.

Forced air cooled:

In this type of transformer, air is forced over the cooling surface of the
tank to supplement the self-cooled rating. The supplemental air is
provided by fans that are mounted on the transformer tank and which can
be manually or automatically controlled. The cooling class designation
for this type of transformer is OA/FA.
Forced air cooled and forced oil cooled:
This transformer uses a pump to circulate oil through a heat exchanger to
increase heat dissipation, which supplements the self-cooling and forced
air cooling. The cooling class designation for this transformer is
OA/FA/FOA.

Water cooled:

This transformer uses water instead of air to provide the cooling. The
cooling system consists of a heat exchange by means of water pumped
through a pipe coil installed inside or outside the transformer tank. The
cooling class designation for this transformer is FOW.

2 - constructions
Transformers can be classified by tank construction and core
construction.

2.1 Tank Construction

Several types of transformer tank construction are used to prevent

exposing liquid to the atmosphere. These types are as follows:

Free breathing:

This type is open to the atmosphere (i.e., the airspace above the liquid is
at atmospheric pressure). The transformer breathes as the air pressure and
temperature change outside the tank. Some of these transformers can be
equipped with dehydrating compounds in the breather.

conservator or expansion-tank:

These transformers are equipped with small expansion tanks above the
transformer tank. The transformer tank is completely filled with oil, and
the transformer breathes by means of this small tank, usually through a
dehydrating compound. The purpose of the

small tank is to seal the transformer fluid from the atmosphere and to
reduce oxidization and formation of sludge.
Sealed tank:

These transformers are equipped with an inert gas, such as nitrogen that
is under pressure above the liquid in the transformer tank. Generally, the
pressure range for this type of transformer is −8 to +8 lb/in.2

Gas-oil sealed:

These transformers have an auxiliary tank to completely seal the interior

tank, containing transformer liquid, from the atmosphere.

Vaporization:

This type of transformer uses a special nonflammable insulating fluid,

such as fluorocarbon (General Electric R-113), which is nonflammable,
and a special condenser assembly welded on top of the transformer Tank.
The cooling tube ends are swaged and welded to tube headers. This
transformer uses the technique of sprayed liquid on core and coil
assembly (i.e., vaporization cooling known as pool boiling). The purpose
of the condenser is to cool the boiling vapor into liquid for continued
circulation of the fluid.

2.2 Core Construction

Transformers employ basically two types of core construction
techniques.

Core type:
In core-type construction, the transformer winding surrounds the
laminated core. The coils can be cylindrical, flat, or disk shaped. They
can be arranged to fit around the rectangle or square cross section of the
core circuit through the magnetic core. Most small distribution
transformers are of this construction.

Shell type:
In shell-type construction, the magnetic core surrounds the windings, the
primary and secondary windings may be interspaced side by side or
circularly stacked one above the other. Some large power transformers
have this form of construction. One advantage of the shell type is that it
offers a separate path for the zero-sequence currents through the core, as
compared to the core type in which the zero-sequence path exists only
through the transformer tank and end connections.

3- Application and Use

Transformers used for converting energy can be classified into five

categories according to their application and use.

3.1 Distribution Transformers

A distribution transformer has a rating from 3 to 500 kVA. There are
various types of distribution transformers, depending upon the cooling
and insulating medium, service application, and mounting method.
Transformers with voltage ratings of as high as 34,500 V are available.
Virtually all distribution transformers are self cooled

3.2 Network Transformer

This is considered a distribution transformer per National Electrical

Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards and has characteristics
similar o the distribution transformer. However, its application is
different. It has special and severe requirements for network service,
such as ventilation, vault size, submergibility, and short-circuit
requirements. Network transformers can have kVA ratings in excess of
500 kVA and primary voltage up to 23 kV.

3.3 Arc-Furnace Transformer

The arc-furnace transformer is a special purpose transformer used in

process industries. It is a low-voltage and high-amperage transformer
and is specially braced to withstand mechanical stresses caused by
fluctuating current requirements. Due to distorted waveform because of
arcs, it has extra winding insulation.

3.4 Rectifier Transformer

The rectifier transformer is also a special purpose transformer used in
the rectification of AC to direct current (DC) applications in the process
industry. these transformers are specially braced to withstand
mechanical stresses produced by high currents.
3.5 Power Transformer

The power transformer has a rating in excess of 500 kVA and is

primarily used transforming energy from generating stations to
transmission lines, from transmission lines to distribution substations,
or from utility service lines to plant distribution substations.

4- Instrument transformers :
1- Current transformers
2- Voltage transformers

1- Current transformers:

Current transformer is transformer with small rate power (burden) ,

whose primary windings are in series with the line circuit , and secondary
windings are connected to measuring instruments , electricity meters
relays or control devices , current transformers isolate the measuring of
protection circuits from the primary voltage and also protect the
apparatus corresponding to the over current response of the current .

2- Voltage transformers :
Voltage transformers are also of small power rate and operate at almost
no – load . they isolate the primary high voltage from the connected
measuring or protected circuits.
 Types of faults affecting power transformer:

Electrical faults which cause immediate serious damage but are generally
detectable by unbalance of current or voltage such as:

1- Short Circuit Fault

1- Phase to earth fault on the H.V. and L.V. external terminals.
2- Phase to phase fault on the H.V. and L.V. external terminals.
3- Phase to earth fault on the H.V. and L.V. windings.
4- Phase to phase fault on the H.V. and L.V. windings.
5- Short circuit between turns of H.V. and L.V. windings.

2- Externally Applied Conditions

Sources of abnormal stress in a transformer are:

a. overload
b. system faults
c. over voltage
d. reduced system frequency

2.1- Overload

Overload causes increased 'copper loss' and a consequent temperature

rise. Overloads can be carried for limited periods and recommendations
for oil-immersed transformers. The thermal time constant of naturally
cooled transformers lies between 2.5-5 hours. Shorter time constants
apply in the case of force-cooled transformers.

2.2- System faults

System short circuits produce a relatively intense rate of heating of the

feeding transformers, the copper loss increasing in proportion to the
square of the per unit fault current.

Maximum mechanical stress on windings occurs during the first cycle of

the fault. Avoidance of damage is a matter of transformer design
2.3- Over voltages

Over voltage conditions are of two kinds:

i. transient surge voltages
ii. power frequency over voltage
Transient over voltages arise from faults, switching, and lightning
disturbances and are liable to cause inter turn faults.
These over voltages are usually limited by shunting the high voltage
terminals to earth either with a plain rod gap or by surge diverters, which
comprise a stack of short gaps in series with a non-linear resistor.
The surge diverter, in contrast to the rod gap, has the advantage of
extinguishing the flow of power current after discharging a surge, in this
way avoiding subsequent isolation of the transformer.
Power frequency over voltage causes both an increase in stress on the
insulation and a proportionate increase in the working flux.
The latter effect causes an increase in the iron loss and a
disproportionately large increase in magnetizing current. In addition, flux
is diverted from the laminated core into structural steel parts.
The core bolts, which normally carry little flux, may be subjected to a
large flux diverted from the highly saturated region of core alongside.
This leads to a rapid temperature risen the bolts, destroying their
insulation and damaging coil insulation if the condition continues.
2.4- Reduced system frequency

Reduction of system frequency has an effect with regard to flux density,

similar to that of over voltage .
It follows that a transformer can operate with some degree of over
voltage with a corresponding increase infrequency, but operation must
not be continued with a high voltage input at a low frequency.
Operation cannot be sustained when the ratio of voltage to frequency,
with these quantities given values in per unit of their rated values,
exceeds unity by more than a small amount, for instance if V/f >1.1. If a
substantial rise in system voltage has been catered for in the design, the
base of 'unit voltage' should be taken as the highest voltage for which the
transformer is designed.
3- Core Faults
A conducting bridge across the laminated structures of the core can
permit sufficient eddy-current to flow to cause serious overheating.
The bolts that clamp the core together are always insulated to avoid this
trouble.
If any portion of the core insulation becomes defective, the resultant
heating may reach a magnitude sufficient to damage the winding.
The additional core loss, although causing severe local heating, will not
produce a noticeable change in input current and could not be detected by
the normal electrical protection; it is nevertheless highly desirable that
the condition should be detected before a major fault has been created.
In an oil-immersed transformer, core heating sufficient to cause winding
insulation damage will also cause breakdown of some of the oil with an
accompanying evolution of gas.
This gas will escape to the conservator, and is used to operate a
mechanical relay

4- Tank Faults
Loss of oil through tank leaks will ultimately produce a dangerous
condition, either because of a reduction in winding insulation or because
of overheating on load due to the loss of cooling. Overheating may also
occur due to prolonged overloading, blocked cooling ducts due to oil
slugging or failure of the forced cooling system, if fitted.

5- Transformer Overheating
The rating of a transformer is based on the temperature rise above an
assumed maximum ambient temperature; under this condition no
sustained overload is usually permissible.
At a lower ambient temperature some degree of sustained overload can
be safely applied. Short-term overloads are also permissible to an extent
dependent on the previous loading conditions.
The only certain statement is that the winding must not overheat; a
temperature of about 95°C is considered to be the normal maximum
working value beyond which a further rise of 8°C-10°C, if sustained, will
halve the insulation life of the unit.

Protection against overload is therefore based on winding temperature,

which is usually measured by a thermal image technique. Protection is
arranged to trip the transformer if excessive temperature is reached.

The trip signal is usually routed via a digital input of a protection relay
on one side of the transformer, with both alarm and trip facilities made
available through programmable logic in the relay.

Intercropping between the relays on the two sides of the transformer is

usually applied to ensure total disconnection of the transformer. Winding
temperature protection may be included as apart of a complete
monitoring package.
 Transformer Protection Overview

The type of protection for the transformers varies depending on the

application and the importance of the transformer. Transformers are
protected primarily against faults and overloads. The type of protection
used should minimize the time of disconnection for faults within the
transformer and to reduce the risk of catastrophic failure to simplify
eventual repair. Any extended operation of the transformer under
abnormal condition such as faults or overloads compromises the life of
the transformer, which means adequate protection should be provided for
quicker isolation of the transformer under such conditions.

Types of Transformer Protection:

1- Electrical Protection
2- Mechanical Protection

1-Electrical Protection :

Transformer internal faults can be detected by an increase in phase

currents and an increase in the differential current. When transformer
internal faults occur, immediate disconnection of the faulted
transformer is necessary to avoid extensive damage. Different types of
protection are normally used to detect these faults: over-current
protection for phase currents, differential protection for differential
currents.
Types of electrical protection:
1- Transformer Over Current Protection

1.1- Fuses

Fuses commonly protect small distribution transformers typically up to

ratings of 1MVA at distribution voltages.
In many cases no circuit breaker is provided,
making fuse protection the only available
means of automatic isolation. The fuse must
have a rating well above the maximum
transformer load current in order to withstand
the short duration overloads that may occur.
Also, the fuses must withstand the
magnetizing inrush currents drawn when
power transformers are energized. High
Capacity (HRC) fuses, although very fast in
operation with large fault currents, are
extremely slow with currents of less than three
times their rated value.
It follows that such fuses will do little to protect the transformer, serving
only to protect the system by disconnecting a faulty transformer after the
fault has reached an advanced stage.

1.2- Over current relays

With the advent of ring main units incorporating

SF6 circuit breakers and isolators, protection of
distribution transformers can now be provided
by over current trips(e.g. tripping controlled by
time limit fuses connected across the secondary
windings of in-built current transformers) or by
relays connected to current transformers located
on the transformer primary side.

Over current relays are also used on larger

transformers provided with standard circuit
breaker control.
 Improvement in protection is obtained in two ways; the excessive delays
of the HRC fuse for lower fault currents are avoided and an earth fault
tripping element is provided in addition to the over current feature.
The time delay characteristic should be chosen to discriminate with
circuit protection on the secondary side.
A high-set instantaneous relay element is often provided, the current
setting being chosen to avoid operation for a secondary short circuit. This
enables high-speed clearance of primary terminal short circuits.

2-Restricted Earth Fault Protection

Restricted earth fault relay is that relay which can be defined as half
differential relay. Figure Shows a connection diagram for the restricted
earth fault relay.

This definition is due to its connection. This is relay compare the current
flow in :

1- The neutral path of current transformer connected on the star side

of power transformer:

2- Current flow in the current transformer connected on the star point

of the power transformer.

- For internal faults ( between the two current transformers ), There is

differential current which is transformed to volt by a very high shunt
resister (metrosil) and this value of volt is sufficient for operation
of the relay.
 - For external faults (as example: outgoing feeders faults), the
differential current in this case is zero and the relay will not operate,
and no tripping for circuit breakers will occur.

3- Differential Protection
Differential protection is a unit-type protection for a specified zone or
piece of equipment. It is based on the fact that it is only in the case of
faults internal to the zone that the differential current (difference
between input and output currents) will be high.
However, the differential current can sometimes be substantial even
without an internal fault. This is due to certain characteristics of current
transformers (different saturation levels, nonlinearities) measuring the
input and output currents, and of the power transformer being protected.
with the exception of the inrush and overexcitation currents, most of the
other problems, can be solved by means of the percent differential relay,
which adds to the normal differential relay two restraining coils fed by
the zone-through current, by proper choice of the resulting percent
differential characteristic, and by proper connection of the current
transformers on each side of the power transforme

Iop = I1 - I2

Cause Of False Differential Current:

Certain phenomena can cause a substantial differential current to flow,
when there is no fault, and these differential currents are generally
sufficient to cause a percentage differential relay to trip.

However, in these situations, the differential protection should not

disconnect the system because it is not a transformer internal fault. Such
 phenomena can be due to the non-linearities in the transformer core.
Some of these situations are considered below.

1- Magnetizing inrush current in transformer :

When the transformer is connected to supply, a large (6 to 10 times
full load) current inrush takes place. This certainly causes operation
of differential relay current inrush takes place.
This certainly causes operation of differential relay though is no fault
in the transformer.

2- Current transformer saturation:

Current Transformer may be saturated when high external fault occur
causing false operation to the relay.

3- Tap changing:
The tap changing causes change in transformation ratio of a
transformer. There by the CT ratio do not match with the new tap
settings, resulting in current in pilot wires even during health
condition. This aspect is taken care of by biased differential relay.

4-Phase shift between primary & secondary sides:

Correct operation of transformer differential protection requires that
the transformer primary and secondary currents, as measured by the
relay, are in phase. If the transformer is connected delta/star balanced
three-phase through current suffers a phase change of 30°. If left
uncorrected, this phase difference would lead to the relay seeing
through current as an unbalanced fault current, and result in relay
operation.
Biased differential potection of transformer:
Large external fault may cause false operation of simple differential
relay. To make the differential relay more stable to external faults and
improve relay quality, its respectively to operation was increased by
inserting restraining coils.
Two restraining (Biasing) coils and one operating are used as shown in
figure. Restraining coils will opposite the operation of operating coil. The
relay will operate only when the operating force is higher than restraining
force.

Differential current must exceed a pre set value to trip the associated
circuit breaker(s). this value is the min value to operate the relay . In this
case the expected tripping characteristic is as shown in figure

If there is a ratio mismatch in current transformers ratio, In this case there

will be a small differential current in the load condition. This value is not
sufficient to operate the differential relay but in the case of external fault
condition this value may exceed the setting value and this leads to false
operation of the relay .
To prevent the false operation of directional relays due to external false ,
restrain current is used to resist the operation of the directional relay.
figure (41) shows a more stable characteristics.

This characteristics consists of two regions with two slaps .In this
characteristics when , the restrain current increases , the differential
current needed for operation will be very high .
Note :
Iop= abs( I1-I2 ) & IRes= ( abs( I1 )+abs( I2 ) ) / 2
5- Over Fluxing Protection:
Over fluxing arises principally from the following system conditions:
a. high system voltage
b. low system frequency
c. geomagnetic disturbances
The latter results in low frequency earth currents circulating through a
transmission system. Since momentary system disturbances can cause
transient over fluxing that is not dangerous, time delayed tripping is
required .
The normal protection is an IDMT or definite time characteristic,
initiated if a defined V/f threshold is exceeded. Often separate alarm and
trip elements are provided.
The alarm function would be definite time-delayed and the trip function
would be an IDMT characteristic .
 Geomagnetic disturbances may result in over fluxing without the V/f
threshold being exceeded.
Some relays provide a 5th harmonic detection feature, which can be used
to detect such a condition, as levels of this harmonic rise under over
fluxing conditions.

6- Tank-Earth Protection

This is also known as Howard protection. If the transformer tank is

nominally insulated from earth (an insulation resistance of 10 ohms being
sufficient) earth fault protection can be provided by connecting a relay to
the secondary of a current transformer the primary of which is connected
between the tank and earth.

2- Mechanical protection
There are several mechanical protection relays installed on the power
transformer, Almost the operation of these relays is instantaneously (no
time delay). As a target of this study, buchholz relay, winding
temperature indicator,oil temperature indicator, and pressure relief are
explained by their mechanical operation, and electrical circuit needed
for alarm and tripping circuits.

1- Buchholz Relay:

The Buchholz relay is installed at the middle of the connection pipe

between the Transformer tank and the conservator. There are a 1st stage
contact and a 2nd stage contact.

The 1st stage contact is used to detect minor faults. When gas produced
in the tank due to a minor fault surfaces to accumulate in the relay
chamber within a certain
amount ( 0.3Q-0.35Q ) or above, the float lowers and closes the contact,
there by actuating the alarm device.

The 2nd stage contact is used to detect major faults. In the event of a
major fault, abrupt gas production causes pressure in the tank to flow oil
into the conservator. In this case, the float is lowered to close the contact,
there by causing the Circuit Breaker to trip or actuating the alarm device.

2-Winding Temperature Indicator

By making a "Thermal Image" of the winding the Winding Temperature
Indicator, simulates the winding temperature. The temperature of the
winding depends on the transformer load (i.e. the current through the
winding) and the temperature of the cooling medium (the oil). These two
parameters are measured and made to interact in the instrument.
The oil temperature is measured as usual with a bulb in a pocket. The
measuring system also has a specially designed heating element, to
measure the transformer load. This heating element is a thermal model of
the winding. The heating element is connected to the current transformer
(CT) via a Matching Resistance or a Matching Unit, to allow setting the
correct winding temperature gradient.
The winding temperature indicator shown in
figure is consists of four contacts which are
normally open nd closes in series according to
pre set closing value(temperature). These
contacts can be assigned as follows:-

1-The first contact is used for automatic operation

of first fan group.

2- The second contact is used for automatic

operation of second fan group, this value is almost
higher than the first contact setting.

3- If the cooling fans are not sufficient to retain the btransformer

temperature to its normal value, the third contact is applied to feed
alarm circuit.
4- As a last step, the fourth contact is applied for tripping to prevent the transformer
from high temperatures.
3- Oil Temperature Indicator
Oil temperature indicator is similar to winding temperature indicator
except that it depends only on the temperature transferred by the bulb (no
current transformer is used). This consists only of two contacts.
These contacts are similar to the third and the fourth contacts of the
winding temperature indicator but with pre set values less than winding
temperature indicator by approximately 5 degree

4- Pressure relief
A pressure relief valve is a device designed to protect a power
transformers during overpressure event. An overpressure event refers to
any condition which could cause pressure in the transformer to increase
beyond the specified design pressure.
During internal faults of a power transformer, there will be an increase of
temperature associated with impurities in oil and some increase in
pressure. This pressure is sufficient to damage the transformer. The
pressure relief device is applied to prevent the transformer from this
dangerous
The pressure relief device consists of a spring which normally is
uncompressed an when the pressure increased in the transformer, the
spring is get compressed and give a path of gases to go out of the
transformer. Compressing the spring may close an electrical contact, and
this contact will give trip to circuit breakers associated with alarm.

Figure (48) shows the pressure relief device in the normal condition
(before the fault occurrence), while figure (49) shows the fault condition
at which the compressed gases are get out from the transformer.
 Chapter ( 3 )

Transformer Model
 Chapter ( 3 )
Transformer Model
What is ATPDraw?
ATPDraw_ for Windows is a graphical, mouse-driven preprocessor to
the ATP version of the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP). It
assists to create and edit the model of the electrical network to be
simulated, interactively.
In the program the user can construct an electric circuit, by selecting
predefined components from an extensive palette. The preprocessor then
creates the corresponding ATP input file, automatically in correct format.
Circuit node naming is administrated by ATPDraw and the user only
needs to give name to "key" nodes. ATPDraw currently supports about
70 standard components and 28 TACS objects. A simplified usage of
MODELS is also possible.
In addition, the user can create his own circuit objects using the Data
Base Module and the $INCLUDE option of ATP. Both single phase and
3-phase circuits can be constructed. Multiple circuit windows are
supported to work on several circuits simultaneously and copy
information between the circuits. Most types of edit facilities like
copy/paste, rotate, import/export, group/ungroup, undo and print are
available. Other facilities in ATPDraw are: a built-in editor for ATP-file
editing, support of Windows clipboard for bitmap/metafile, output of
Windows Metafile/Bitmap file format or PostScript files.

Simulation of electrical power system :

The main components of this system are

1- Generator
2- Transformer
3- Transmission line

4- Load
1- Generator:
IT is the most important part in power system which Convert mechanical
motion into electric power by prim-mover such as steam or water or wind.
And this the data of the generator in this system :

2- Transformer :

Used to transform voltage usually from a higher voltage to a lower voltage.

And this data of the transformer in this system :
3- Transmission line:

4- Load:
The data of the load in this system :
 During normal operation:
• Figure shows the radial power grid with no faults occurs neither on
high tension nor low tension.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) v:X0003A v:X0003B v:X0003C

voltage at high tension during the operation

10000

7500

5000

2500

-2500

-5000

-7500

-10000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the operation

120

60

-60

-120
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) c:X0004A-X0003A c:X0004B-X0003B c:X0004C-X0003C

Current at high tension during the operation

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0010A c:VB -X0010B c:VC -X0010C

Current at low tension during the operation

Waveforms show that no fault occur

For Internal Fault at low Tension :
During Single line to ground fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with a single line to ground
internal fault occurs at low tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file SL-G LV.pl4; x-var t) v:X0007A v:X0007B v:X0007C

voltage at high tension during the fault

1.50
*10^4

1.00

0.50

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file SL-G LV.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

400

300

200

100

-100

-200

-300

-400
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file SL-G LV.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0007A c:X0006B-X0007B c:X0006C-X0007C

Current at high tension during the fault

2500

1500

500

-500

-1500

-2500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file SL-G LV.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0014A c:VB -X0014B c:VC -X0014C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show SL-G fault

 During Double line to ground fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with double line to ground
internal fault occurs at low tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL-G LV.pl4; x-var t) v:X0007A v:X0007B v:X0007C

voltage at high tension during the fault

1.50
*10^4

1.00

0.50

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL-G LV.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

1200

600

-600

-1200
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL-G LV.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0007A c:X0006B-X0007B c:X0006C-X0007C

Current at high tension during the fault

2500

1500

500

-500

-1500

-2500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL-G LV.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0014A c:VB -X0014B c:VC -X0014C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show DL-G fault

 During Double line fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with double line internal fault
occurs at low tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL LV.pl4; x-var t) v:X0007A v:X0007B v:X0007C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL LV.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

1200

600

-600

-1200
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL LV.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0007A c:X0006B-X0007B c:X0006C-X0007C

Current at high tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL LV.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0014A c:VB -X0014B c:VC -X0014C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show DL fault

 During 3 Line fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with three line (3l-g) internal
fault occurs at low tension after 0.02 sec.
• At 3L to ground fault no current flow through ground so it acts as
3L fault (symmetrical fault).

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G LV.pl4; x-var t) v:X0003A v:X0003B v:X0003C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G LV.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G LV.pl4; x-var t) c:X0002A-X0003A c:X0002B-X0003B c:X0002C-X0003C

Current at high tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G LV.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0010A c:VB -X0010B c:VC -X0010C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show 3L (3L-G) fault

For Internal Fault at High Tension :
During Single line to ground fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with a single line to ground
internal fault occurs at high tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) v:X0001A v:X0001B v:X0001C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

7000

4500

2000

-500

-3000

-5500

-8000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0001A c:X0006B-X0001B c:X0006C-X0001C

Current at high tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0014A c:VB -X0014B c:VC -X0014C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show SL-G fault

 During Double line to ground fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with double line to ground
internal fault occurs at high tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file X.pl4; x-var t) v:X0001A v:X0001B v:X0001C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file X.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

1.200
*10^4
0.950

0.700

0.450

0.200

-0.050

-0.300

-0.550

-0.800
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file X.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0001A c:X0006B-X0001B c:X0006C-X0001C

Current at high tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file X.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0014A c:VB -X0014B c:VC -X0014C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show DL-G fault

 During Double line fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with double line internal fault
occurs at high tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file C.pl4; x-var t) v:GA v:GB v:GC

voltage at high tension during the fault

1.60
*10^4

1.07

0.53

0.00

-0.53

-1.07

-1.60
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file C.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file C.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-GA c:X0006B-GB c:X0006C-GC

Current at high tension during the fault

700

500

300

100

-100

-300

-500

-700
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file C.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0016A c:VB -X0016B c:VC -X0016C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show DL fault

 During 3 Line fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with three line (3l-g) internal
fault occurs at high tension after 0.02 sec.
• At 3L to ground fault no current flow through ground so it acts as
3L fault (symmetrical fault).

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file D.pl4; x-var t) v:GA v:GB v:GC

voltage at high tension during the fault

1.60
*10^4

1.07

0.53

0.00

-0.53

-1.07

-1.60
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file D.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

1.20
*10^4

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file D.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-GA c:X0006B-GB c:X0006C-GC

Current at high tension during the fault

700

500

300

100

-100

-300

-500

-700
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file D.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0016A c:VB -X0016B c:VC -X0016C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show 3L (3L-G) fault

For External Fault at low Tension :

During Single line to ground fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with a single line to ground
external fault occurs at low tension after 0 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file NO.pl4; x-var t) v:X0007A v:X0007B v:X0007C

voltage at high tension during the fault

1.50
*10^4

1.00

0.50

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file NO.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

400

300

200

100

-100

-200

-300

-400
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file NO.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0007A c:X0006B-X0007B c:X0006C-X0007C

Current at high tension during the fault

4000

3000

2000

1000

-1000

-2000

-3000

-4000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file NO.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0001A c:VB -X0001B c:VC -X0001C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show SL-G fault

 During Double line to ground fault :
• Figure shows the radial power grid with double line to ground
external fault occurs at low tension after 0 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file NDL-GSEC.pl4; x-var t) v:X0007A v:X0007B v:X0007C

voltage at high tension during the fault

1.50
*10^4

1.00

0.50

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file NDL-GSEC.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

1200

600

-600

-1200
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file NDL-GSEC.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0007A c:X0006B-X0007B c:X0006C-X0007C

Current at high tension during the fault

1.50
*10^4

1.00

0.50

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file NDL-GSEC.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0001A c:VB -X0001B c:VC -X0001C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show DL-G fault

 During Double line fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with double line external fault
occurs at low tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1200

600

-600

-1200
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0024A c:X0006B-X0024B c:X0006C-X0024C

voltage at high tension during the fault

10000

7500

5000

2500

-2500

-5000

-7500

-10000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

1200

600

-600

-1200
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) c:X0006A-X0024A c:X0006B-X0024B c:X0006C-X0024C

Current at high tension during the fault

1.50
*10^4

1.00

0.50

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file A.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0001A c:VB -X0001B c:VC -X0001C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show DL fault

 During 3 Line fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with three line (3l-g) external
fault occurs at low tension after 0 sec.
• At 3L to ground fault no current flow through ground so it acts as
3L fault (symmetrical fault).

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.5
*10^5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G SEC.pl4; x-var t) v:X0003A v:X0003B v:X0003C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

6500

4000

1500

-1000

-3500

-6000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G SEC.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G SEC.pl4; x-var t) c:X0002A-X0003A c:X0002B-X0003B c:X0002C-X0003C

Current at high tension during the fault

2.0
*10^4
1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G SEC.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0010A c:VB -X0010B c:VC -X0010C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show 3L (3L-G) fault

For External Fault at High Tension :
During Single line to ground fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with a single line to ground
external fault occurs at high tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file SL-G HV.pl4; x-var t) v:X0007A v:X0007B v:X0007C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file SL-G HV.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

150

100

50

-50

-100

-150
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file SL-G HV.pl4; x-var t) c:X0001A-X0007A c:X0001B-X0007B c:X0001C-X0007C

Current at high tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file SL-G HV.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0014A c:VB -X0014B c:VC -X0014C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show SL-G fault

 During Double line to ground fault :
• Figure shows the radial power grid with double line to ground
external fault occurs at high tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL-G HV.pl4; x-var t) v:X0007A v:X0007B v:X0007C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL-G HV.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

150

100

50

-50

-100

-150
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL-G HV.pl4; x-var t) c:X0001A-X0007A c:X0001B-X0007B c:X0001C-X0007C

Current at high tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL-G HV.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0014A c:VB -X0014B c:VC -X0014C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show DL-G fault

 During Double line fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with double line external fault
occurs at high tension after 0.02 sec.

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL HV.pl4; x-var t) v:X0007A v:X0007B v:X0007C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL HV.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

150

100

50

-50

-100

-150
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL HV.pl4; x-var t) c:X0001A-X0007A c:X0001B-X0007B c:X0001C-X0007C

Current at high tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file DL HV.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0014A c:VB -X0014B c:VC -X0014C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show DL fault

 During 3 Line fault :

• Figure shows the radial power grid with three line (3l-g) external
fault occurs at high tension after 0.02 sec.
• At 3L to ground fault no current flow through ground so it acts as
3L fault (symmetrical fault).

Waveforms on high and low tension:

1.20
*10^5

0.60

0.00

-0.60

-1.20
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G HV.pl4; x-var t) v:X0003A v:X0003B v:X0003C

voltage at high tension during the fault

9000

7000

5000

3000

1000

-1000

-3000

-5000

-7000

-9000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G HV.pl4; x-var t) v:VA v:VB v:VC

voltage at low tension during the fault

150

100

50

-50

-100

-150
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G HV.pl4; x-var t) c:X0002A-X0003A c:X0002B-X0003B c:X0002C-X0003C

Current at high tension during the fault

1500

1000

500

-500

-1000

-1500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
(file 3PH-G HV.pl4; x-var t) c:VA -X0010A c:VB -X0010B c:VC -X0010C

Current at low tension during the fault

Waveforms show 3L (3L-G) fault

 Chapter ( 4 )

Suggested Protection Algorithm

And Simulation Result
 Chapter ( 4 )
Suggested Protection Algorithm And Simulation
Result

What is MATLAB ?
MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a numerical computing environment and
fourth-generation programming language. Developed by MathWorks,
MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data,
implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing
with programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java, and
Fortran .

Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical computing, an

optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine, allowing access to
symbolic computing capabilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds
graphical multi-domain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic
and embedded systems .

In 2004, MATLAB had around one million users across industry and
academia MATLAB users come from various backgrounds of
engineering, science, and economics. MATLAB is widely used in
academic and research institutions as well as industrial enterprises .
MATLAB Program For Biased and Unbaised Differential Protection:

Unbiased program :

clc,clear;
load('e:\islg.mat');
r=(132)/(11.05);
%rename
iha=iXaHa; ihb=iXbHb; ihc=iXcHc;
ila=iVaLa./r; ilb=iVbLb./r; ilc=iVcLc./r;
%setting
sa=abs(iha-ila); sb=abs(ihb-ilb); sc=abs(ihc-ilc);
for i=1:800
ioa(i)=sum(sa(i:i+200))/200;
iob(i)=sum(sb(i:i+200))/200;
ioc(i)=sum(sc(i:i+200))/200;
end
for x=1:800
if ioa(x)>0.1 | iob(x)>0.1 | ioc(x)>0.1
disp('fault');
else
disp('normal');
end
end
setting=0.1.*ones(size(ioa(1:800)));
tx=t(1:800);
figure(1)
subplot(1,2,1)
plot(t,iha,t,ihb,t,ihc)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('high current(Amp)');
legend('phA','phB','phC')
subplot(1,2,2)
plot(t,ila,t,ilb,t,ilc)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('low current(Amp)');
legend('phA','phB','phC')
figure(2)
plot(tx,ioa,tx,setting)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('current(Amp)');
legend('operating current A ','setting')
figure(3)
plot(tx,iob,tx,setting)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('current(Amp)');
legend('operating current B','setting')
figure(4)
plot(tx,ioc,tx,setting)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('current(Amp)');
legend('operating current C','setting')
hold on
Fig(1).. The 3-ph current at high side and low side during single phase fault

Fig(2)... The current at phase A.

Fig(3) … The current at phase B. Fig(4) ... The current at phase C .

Biased program:
clc,clear;
load('e:\islg.mat');
r=(132)/(11.05);
%rename
iha=iXaHa; ihb=iXbHb; ihc=iXcHc;
ila=iVaLa./r; ilb=iVbLb./r; ilc=iVcLc./r;
%operation current
sa=abs(iha-ila); sb=abs(ihb-ilb); sc=abs(ihc-ilc);
for i=1:800
ioa(i)=sum(sa(i:i+200))/200;
iob(i)=sum(sb(i:i+200))/200;
ioc(i)=sum(sc(i:i+200))/200;
end
%restrain current
ra=abs((iha+ila)./2); rb=abs((ihb+ila)./2);
rc=abs((ihc+ilc)./2);
for i=1:800;
ira(i)=sum(ra(i:i+200))/200;
irb(i)=sum(rb(i:i+200))/200;
irc(i)=sum(rc(i:i+200))/200;
end
for x=1:1:800;
if (ioa(x))>(ira(x)) | (iob(x))>(irb(x)) |
(ioc(x))>(irc(x))
disp('fault')
else
disp('normal')
end
end
tx=t(1:800);
figure(1)
subplot(1,2,1)
plot(t,iha,t,ihb,t,ihc)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('high current(Amp)');
legend('phA','phB','phC')
subplot(1,2,2)
plot(t,ila,t,ilb,t,ilc)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('low current(Amp)');
legend('phA','phB','phC')
figure(2)
plot(tx,ioa,tx,ira)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('current(Amp)');
legend('operation current A','restrain current A')
figure(3)
plot(tx,iob,tx,irb)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('current(Amp)');
legend('operation current B','restrain current B')
figure(4)
plot(tx,ioc,tx,irc)
xlabel('time(sec)'); ylabel('current(Amp)');
legend('operation current C','restrain current C')
hold on
 Fig(1) ... The 3-ph current at high side and low side during single phase fault

Fig(2)... The current at phase A.

Fig(3) … The current at phase B. Fig(4) … The current at phase C .

This program used for all faults that occur in transformer …

Internal fault :
Double line to ground fault …

Fig(1) .. The 3-ph current at high side and low side during douple line (A&B)to
grond fault.

Fig(2)... The current at phase A . Fig(3) … The current at phase B.

Fig(4) … The current at phase C .

Double line fault …

Fig(1) ... The 3-ph current at high side and low side during douple line (A&B) fault.

Fig(2)... The current at phase A . Fig(3) … The current at phase B .

Fig(4) … The current at phase C .

Three line Fault …

Fig(1) ... The 3-ph current at high side and low side during 3- line (A&B&C) fault.

Fig(2)... The current at phase A

Fig(3) … The current at phase B. Fig(4) … The current at phase C .

External fault :
Single line to ground …

Fig(1) ... The 3-ph current at high side and low side during single line (A) fault .

Fig(2)... The current at phase A .

Fig(3) … The current at phase B . Fig(4) … The current at phase C

.
Double line to ground Fault …

Fig(1) ... The 3-ph current at high side and low side during douple line (A&B) to
ground fault.

Fig(2)... The current at phase A .

Fig(3) … The current at phase B . Fig(4) … The current at phase C .

Double line Fault …

Fig(1) ... The 3-ph current at high side and low side during douple line (A&B) fault.

Fig(2) … The current at phase A . Fig(3) … The current at phase B.

Fig(4) … The current at phase C.

Three line Fault …

Fig(1) ... The 3-ph current at high side and low side during 3- line (A&B&C) fault.

Fig(2) … The current at phase A. Fig(3) … The current at phase B.

Fig(4) … The current at phase C .

 Lab View

What is lab view ?

LabVIEW is a fully featured programming language produced

by National Instruments. It is a graphical language quite unique in the
method by which code is constructed and saved. There is no text based
code as such, but a diagrammatic view of how the data flows through the
program.

Thus LabVIEW is a much loved tool of the scientist and engineer who
can often visualise data flow rather than how a text based conventional
programming language must be built to achieve a task
LabVIEW programs are called virtual instruments, or VIs, because their
appearance and operation imitate physical instruments, such as
oscilloscopes and multimeters. LabVIEW contains a comprehensive set
of tools for acquiring analyzing, displaying, and storing data, as well as
tools to help you troubleshoot your code.
In LabVIEW, you build a user interface, or front panel, with controls and
Indicators. Controls are knobs, push buttons, dials, and other input
devices. Indicators are graphs, LEDs, and other displays. After you build
the user interface, you add code using VIs and structures
to control the front panel objects. The block diagram contains this code.
In some ways, the block diagram resembles a flowchart.
You can use LabVIEW to communicate with hardware such as data
acquisition, vision, and motion control devices, and GPIB, PXI, VXI,
RS-232, and RS-484 devices. LabVIEW also has built-in features for
connecting your application to the Web using the LabVIEW Web Server
and software standards such as TCP/IP networking and ActiveX.

LabVIEW VIs contain three components:

1-Front Panel .
2- Block diagram .
3- Control and Function Palettes .
The Main Parts of lab view :

Front Panel
You build the front panel with controls and indicators, which are the
interactive input and output terminals of the VI, respectively. Controls
are knobs, push buttons, dials, and other input devices. Indicators are
graphs, LEDs, and other displays. Controls simulate instrument input
devices and supply data to the block diagram of the VI. Indicators
simulate instrument output devices and display data the block diagram
acquires or generates.

Block Diagram
After you build the front panel, you add code using graphical
representations of functions to control the front panel objects. The block
diagram contains this graphical source code. Front panel objects appear
as terminals, on the block diagram. Block diagram objects include
terminals, sub VIs, functions, constants, structures, and wires, which
transfer data among other block diagram objects.
Control and Funtion Palettes
Open and Run Program

Help on Lab view .

The blueprint circuit used:.

Simulating sine signals are used as input for the circuit .

The Practical circuit :.
At simulating circuit the simulating signal is replaced by DAQ Assisent
which reads the input signals coming from the Transformer and then
faults are tested and indication lamps operate .
Normal operation :.
Internal fault at phase A :.
Internal fault at phase B :.
Internal fault at phase C :
External Fault :.
Inrush current
 Chapter (5)

Model Presentation
 Chapter (5)
Model Presentation
In this chapter divide and explain the main elements of hardware and
explain the connection of these elements

Main element used in hardware model:

1- Power transformer:

The power transformer has a rating in excess of 500 kVA and is

primarily used transforming energy from generating stations to
transmission lines, from transmission lines to distribution substations, or
from utility service lines to plant distribution substations.

The transformer used in this project is:

The rated data for this transformer is:

Primary voltage Secondary voltage

380 110
Star connection Delta connection
The turns ratio = 380/110

2- Current transformer:
Current transformer is transformer
with small rate power (burden) , whose
primary windings are in series with the
line circuit , and secondary windings
are connected to measuring
instruments , electricity meters relays
or control devices , current
transformers isolate the measuring of
protection circuits from the primary
voltage and also protect the apparatus
corresponding to the over current
response of the current .
Current transformer ratio = 200/5 Ampere
Burden used = 1
For check the current transformer ratio connect supply with variable load
and connect the current transformer and measure the current in the
secondary of C.T
 Primary current Secondary current C.T.R
7.5 .18 41.67
10 .24 41.67
12.5 .29 43.1
15 .34 44.1

So C.T.R=200/5 Ampere

3- Multifunction data acquisition (DAQ) devices:

Provide analog input and output, digital input and output, and
counter/timer circuitry

Applications for X series Multifunction Data Acquisition (DAQ) Devices:

Acquiring, Visualizing, and Logging Data

develop a user-defined measurement system by using intuitive graphical
programming software to build in the exact visualization, analysis, and
data-logging capabilities your application requires.

Control Systems
Use data acquisition hardware to connect sensors and actuators to your
computer to build an exact control system and set parameters for control
algorithms to create a custom user interface.
Test Automation
Automation is one of the main ways to achieve increased productivity
and reduced costs. Measure response with automated off-the-shelf
hardware and software.

Signal Generation
Generate a digital or analog signal - X Series multifunction data
acquisition devices provides up to four analog outputs and 48 digital
output lines on a single device.
The X series multifunction data acquisition devices are the perfect
platform for a broad range of applications, including basic data logging
to control and test automation, due to their successful integration of
high-performance analog, digital, and counter/timer functionality onto a
single device.

Hardware model divides into two main parts:

1- control circuit:
Control circuit consists of:

1-DAQ: Product three terminals for control circuit (+5v, GND,

digital signal)

2-Transistor: Work as switch to connect GND to electronic relay by

injecting base with digital signal.

3-electronic relay: Control the condition (stop-run) of the coil

of conductor.

4-N-C switch: Make reset for relay to stop energized after fault (trip).

5-lamp: 1-green lamp :( for normal operation)

2-red lamp: (for fault operation)
Normal operation

Trip operation
 Reset

Operation of control circuit:

When fault occurred, DAQ will produce digital signal to operate
transistor and connect GND to relay, relay will energized and change its
state from (1 to 2) to (1 to 3) thus will disconnect supply to contactor .
To reset the control circuit, can be push P0.0 to reset the system
2-power circuit:
1- Connection of transformer:
Star connection in (380 volt) and delta connection in (110 volt)

2- Connection of current transformers:

Burden connects to the secondary of current transformer and connects the

burden to DAQ

Saturation test:
Connect the primary of current transformer to variable load and connect
the burden in secondary of current transformer and connect oscilloscope
to the burden in parallel.

This figure before saturation occur

 This figure for saturation condition

In this figure increase the current in primary of current transformer

Resistance for the burden is 0.1 and 7w so the saturation occur at about
7.5

3- Connection of Multifunction data acquisition (DAQ) devices:

Connect secondary of current transformer to the DAQ in parallel

For select the analog signal input for the DAQ:

Insert three analog signal to Multifunction data acquisition (DAQ) (10
kHz), used (3kHz) for each one
So used two Multifunction data acquisition (DAQ) devices for insert six
analog input from six current transformers

AHMED SAYED