Introduction to

Electro Magnetics

1
 Magnetic Flux Φ [Wb] (Webers)
Magnetic Flux Density B [Wb/m2] = T (Teslas)
Magnetic Field Intensity H [Amp-turn/m]

   B  dA

2
Flux Linkage of a Solenoids
FOR A SUFFICIENTLY LONG SOLENOID…

B B = Magnetic flux density

inside solenoid
A = Solenoid cross
S sectional area
N = Number of turns
around solenoid

In the solenoid the individual flux

lines pass through the integrating
surface S more than once … flux linked by solenoid 3
 Inductors
… is a passive electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field
created by the electric current passing through it. (This is in equivalence to
the energy stored in the electric field of capacitors.)
IN GENERAL:

FOR A LINEAR COIL:

The magnetic permeability of the vacuum: [henry per meter]

An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in

units of henries. The henry (symbol: H) is named after Joseph Henry (1797–1878),
the American scientist who discovered electromagnetic induction independently of
and at about the same time as Michael Faraday (1791–1867) in England.

EQUIVALENCE OF UNITS:

4
Magnetic Circuit
• Electromagnetic system is an important element of all rotating
electric machinery and static devices like transformer.
• Role is to create & control electromagnetic fields for EMEC
process.
• EMEC happens with the help of magnetic field as a coupling
medium.
• The closed path followed by the magnetic flux is called a magnetic
circuit.
• Made up of materials having high permeability such as iron, soft
steel etc.

5
Magnetic Circuit
• Electromagnetic system
• Ferromagnetic core
• Exciting coil
• Coil has N turns
• Coil carries a current of I amps
• Magnetic field established
• Magnetic flux flows through
the core
• Small flux leaks through air

6
Magnetic Circuit
• The magnetic field intensity produced in the core is H and from ampere
circuital law,
.

• Magnetic field intensity H causes a flux density B to be set up in the

magnetic core. It is given by,
2

7
Magnetic Circuit
• Sub equation 1 in equation 2,

3
• Flux flowing through the core is given by,
. 4
• Where B is the average flux density and A is the area of cross section of
the core.
• Substituting equation 3 in equation 4, we get,




.

8
Magnetic Circuit and Electric Circuit

9
Comparison of Magnetic and Electric
Circuits
Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit

Hopkinson’s Law  ϕ Ohm’s Law 

ℓ ℓ
Reluctance, Resistance, R
μ. Α σ. A
Flux (ϕ Current (I)
MMF ( EMF (V)
Permeability (μ Conductivity (σ
Permeance ( ) Conductance (G)

10
Direction of Current in a Conductor
• No current through the conductor.

• Conductor carries current away from the reader.

• Conductor carries current towards the reader.

11
Right Hand Rule
• The direction of magnetic flux is found by using right hand rule.
• Rule says that if one holds the conductor in such a way that the
thumb points in the direction of current, then the closed fingers give
the direction of flux produced.

12
Faradays Law
• Whenever there is a variation of magnetic flux linking with a coil, an
EMF is induced in that coil.
• The magnitude of this EMF is proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkages.

13
Lenz’s Law
• Lenz’s law states that the induced EMF in a coil will induce a current
whose direction is such that it opposes the cause producing the EMF.

14
A ring is composed of three sections. The cross sectional area is 0.001 m2 for
each section. The mean arc lengths are la = 0.3 m, lb = 0.2 m and lc = 0.1 m. An
air gap length of 0.1 mm is cut in the ring. Relative permeability for sections a, b
and c are 5000, 1000 and 10000 respectively. Flux in the air gap is 7.5 X 10-4
Wb.

Find (i) mmf, (ii) exciting current if the coil has 100 turns, (iii) reluctance of the
sections.

15
Given Data

16
Solution
• Air‐gap and three sections form a series magnetic circuit.
• Flux in the air‐gap is same as that of the three sections.
• Hence total mmf is the sum of mmf for each part of the magnetic
circuit.

17
Solution

18
Solution

19
The magnetic circuit has dimensions: AC = 4 X 4 cm2, lg = 0.06
cm, lc = 40 cm and N = 600 turns. Assume the value of µr = 6000
for iron. Find the exciting current for BC = 1.2 T and the
corresponding flux and flux linkages.

20
Solution

21
• A wrought iron bar 30 cm long and 2 cm in diameter is bent into a
circular shape as shown in figure below. It is then wound with 600 turns
of wire. Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 0.5 mWb in
the magnetic circuit in the following cases:

(i) no air – gap

(ii) with an air‐gap of 1 mm

(µr of iron = 4000)

22
(i) No Air-Gap
. .
. .
.
.
.
.
. .

.
. . .

23
(ii) With Air-Gap
.
. .
.

0.5 10 30 10
. 1 10
600. . 1 10 4 10 4000

.
.
.

24
• The magnetic circuit shown below has steel core with dimensions as shown.
Mean length from A to B through either outer limb = 0.5 m
Mean length from A to B through central limb = 0.2 m
It is required to establish a flux of 0.75 mWb in the air‐gap of the central
limb. Determine the mmf of the exciting coil if the core material has
∞
Neglect fringing.

25
26
27
28
Self Inductance
• Consider a coil with N turns.
• When current i flows through it, a flux ɸ will be
produced.
• As per Faraday’s law,

• Flux ɸ is produced by current i and hence any change in ɸ is

caused by changes in i. Therefore,

• The inductance L of the inductor is,

• This is called the Self Inductance of the coil.

29
Mutual Inductance
• Consider 2 coils with self inductances L1
& L2 are kept close together.
• Coil 1 has N1 turns and coil 2 has N2 turns.

• Current i1 creates a flux ɸ1 in coil 1.

• This flux has got 2 components.
• ɸ1 1 links with coil 1 only.
• ɸ1 2 links with both the coils.
• Although both coils are physically separated, they are magnetically
coupled.

30
Mutual Inductance
• Voltage induced in coil 1 is,

• L1 is the self inductance of the coil.

• Voltage induced in coil 2 is,

• M is the mutual inductance between the 2 coils.

31
Mutual Inductance
• Now consider a current i2 flows through
coil 2 and produces a flux ɸ2.

• This flux has got 2 components.

• ɸ22 links with coil 1 only.
• ɸ 21 links with both the coils.

32
Mutual Inductance
• Voltage induced in coil 2 is,

• L2 is the self inductance of the coil.

• Voltage induced in coil 1 is,

• M is the mutual inductance between the 2 coils.

33
Mutual Inductance
• Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage
across a neighboring inductor.

• It is measured in henrys (H).

• The polarity of mutual voltage is determined by using dot covention.

• A dot is placed at one end of each coupled coils to indicate the direction
of the magnetic flux if current enters that dotted terminal of the coil.

34
Types of Induced EMF
• According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an EMF is
induced by changing the flux linkages in a coil. It can happen in two ways.

• EMF is induced either “moving the coil and keeping the magnetic field
stationary” or “moving the magnetic field and keeping the coil stationary”.

• EMF is induced by changing the flux linking with a coil without moving
either coil or magnetic field system.

35
Dynamically Induced EMF

• “Moving the coil and keeping the magnetic field stationary” or

“moving the magnetic field and keeping the coil stationary”.

• EMF induced by this way is called dynamically induced emf.

36
 Dynamically Induced EMF
,

, . .

• According to Faraday’s law,

. .
, . .

• Since dx/dt=velocity

37
 Dynamically Induced EMF
• Now the conductor moves at an angle ϴ with the direction of magnetic field.

.
, .
, . . .

• According to Faraday’s law,
. . .
, . . .

38
Statically Induced EMF
• EMF induced in a coil when both the coil and magnetic field system
are stationary but the magnetic flux linking with the coil changes is
called statically induced emf.

39
Types of Statically Induced EMF
• Self – Induced e.m.f.

• Mutually Induced e.m.f.

40
Self Induced EMF

• Self‐induced e.m.f. is the e.m.f.

induced in a coil due to its
own changing flux linked with it.

41
Self Induced EMF
• Direction of induced voltage is such that it opposes the cause
producing it.

• Rate of change of flux depends on rate of change of current.

• L is the self inductance of the coil.

42
 Mutually Induced EMF

• Mutually induced e.m.f. is the e.m.f.

induced in a coil due to the change
of flux produced by another coil
(kept close) linking with it.

43
 Magnetisation Curve
• The curve that shows the variation in magnetic flux density B with respect
to the variation in magnetic field intensity H in a ferromagnetic material.

44
 Hysteresis Loop
• A hysteresis loop shows the variation of the magnetic flux density (B) with respect to
the variation in magnetizing force (H).
• It is often referred to as the B‐H loop.

45
Hysteresis Loop
• Retentivity – It is the ability of a material to retain a certain amount of
residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after
achieving saturation.

• Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux – The magnetic flux density that

remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero.

• Coercive Force – The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be

applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero.

46
Hysteresis and Eddy Current Loss
• When a magnetic material is subjected to cyclic magnetization, two
kinds of power losses occur in it.

• Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss together called core loss.

47
 Hysteresis Loss
• Magnetic circuit is subjected to magnetic field reversals as it passes under
successive poles.

48
 Hysteresis Loss
• Some amount of power has to be spent to reverse the molecular magnets
in the armature core continuously.
• It is considered as loss.
• The loss of power in the core due to hysteresis effect is called hysteresis
loss.

49
 Hysteresis Loss
• It is given by Steinmetz formula.
.
,
Where 

• To reduce this loss, the magnetic core is made of such materials which
have a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co‐efficient e.g., silicon steel.

50
 Eddy Current Loss
• In addition to the voltages induced in the conductors, there are also
voltages induced in the magnetic core.
• These voltages produce circulating currents in the core.

51
 Eddy Current Loss
• It is given by
,
Where 

52
The core loss (hysteresis + eddy current loss) for a given
specimen of magnetic material is found to be 2000 W at 50 Hz.
Keeping the flux density constant, the frequency of the supply
is raised to 75 Hz resulting in a core loss of 3200 W. Compute
separately hysteresis and eddy current losses at both the
frequencies.

53
Leakage Flux
• The stray flux, which does not take part in the
energy conversion process, is called leakage
flux.

• This leakage flux can never be eliminated.

• The effect of leakage flux is incorporated in

machine models through the concept of the
leakage inductance.

54
 Fringing
• The flux in a magnetic circuit bulges (or fringes)
outwards while passing through an air‐gap.

• This results in non‐uniform flux density in the air‐

gap, enlargement of air‐gap area and reduction in
flux density in air‐gap.

• This phenomenon is called fringing. The effect of

fringing increases with the increase in air‐gap length.

55
Stacking Factor
• Magnetic cores are made up of thin, lightly insulated (coated with
varnish) laminations to reduce eddy current loss.

• As a result, the net cross sectional area of the core occupied by the
magnetic material is less than its gross cross section.

• Hence the ratio of net cross sectional area to the gross cross
sectional area of the core is called Stacking factor.

56
Properties of Magnetic Materials
• All materials are classified according to their relative permeability.

• µr slightly greater 
Paramagnetic
than 1
• µr slightly lesser than 
Diamagnetic
1
• µr much higher 
Ferro 
than that of free 
Ferrimagnetic
space

59
 Types of Magnetic Systems
• Singly Excited System
 A single exciting coil is used to produce the
magnetic field.
 Ex: Electromagnetic relay, solenoid coil
etc…
• Multiply Excited System
 More than one coils are used to produce
magnetic field.
 Ex: Motors, alternators etc…

65
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3.1 FORCES AND TORQUES IN MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS

Lorentz Force Law:

F  q (E  v  B )

For many charged particle

Fv   (E  v  B) N/m3 ( 
coulombs/m3)
Current density Jv A/m2 Fv  J  B

Current IJA A F  IB N/m

3-66
Example 3.1: A nonmagnetic motor containing a single-turn coil is
placed in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B0, as shown
in Fig. 3.2. The coil sides are at radius R and the wire carries
current I as indicated. Find the θ-directed torque as a function
of rotor position α when I=10 A, B0=0.02 T and R=0.05 m.
Assume that the rotor is of length l=0.3 m.
Very few problems can be solved using Lorentz force, where
current-carrying elements and simple structures exist.
Most electromechanical-energy-conversion devices contain
magnetic material and forces can not be calculated from Lorentz
force.
Thus, We will use ENERGY METHOD based on conservation of
energy.
Electrical terminals: e and i
Mechanical terminals: ffld and x
Losses separated from energy storage mechanism
Interaction through magnetic stored energy
Time rate of change of Wfld (field energy) equals to the difference
of input electrical power and output mechanical power for lossless
systems.

d W fld dx
 e i  f fld
dt dt
or

d W fld  i d  f fld dx

Force can be solved as a function of flux linkage λ and position x.

 3.2 ENERGY BALANCE
Energy neither created nor destroyed, it only changes the form.

Energy balance equation is written for motor action below

Energy input  Mechanical  Increase in   Energy 
 from electric    energy    energy stored   converted
       
 sources   output  in magnetic field  to heat 

For lossless magnetic-energy-storage system

d Welec  d Wmech  d W fld

d Welec : Differential electrical energy input
d Wmech : Differential mechanical energy output
d W fld : Differential change in magnetic stored energy
 3.3 ENERGY IN SINGLY-EXCITED MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS
Schematic of an electromagnetic relay. Figure 3.4
The magnetic circuit can be described by an inductance which is a
function of the geometry and permeability of the magnetic material.
When air-gap exist in most cases Rgap>>Rcore and energy storage
occurs in the gap.
Magnetic nonlinearity and core losses neglected in practical
devices.
Flux linkage and current linearly related.

  L( x) i
Energy equation

d W fld  i d  f fld dx

Wfld uniquely specified by the value of λ and x. Thus, λ and x are

called STATE VARIABLES.
Magnetic stored energy Wfld uniquely determined by λ and x
regardless of how they are brought to their final values.

W fld   dW fld   dW fld

path 2 a path 2b

0
W fld (0 , x0 )   i ( , x0 ) d
0
OR magnetic stored energy:

B 
W fld     H dB  dV
V0 
Integration paths for Wfld. Figure 3.5
Example 3.2:The relay shown on the figure is made of infinitely-
permeable magnetic material with a movable plunger, also of
infinitely-permeable material. The height of the plunger is much
greater than the air-gap length (h>>g). Calculate the magnetic
stored energy Wfld as a function of plunger position (0<x<d) for
N=1000 turns, g=2 mm, d=0.15 m, l=0.1 m, and i=10 A.
 Stored Energy in an Inductor

 voltage over an inductor

If L is not a function of time …

… where E is energy stored in the field of the inductor any instant in time

FOR A LINEAR COIL:

60
• The field winding of DC electromagnet is wound with 800 turns and has a
resistance of 40Ω when exciting voltage is 230 V and the magnetic flux
around the coil is 0.004 Wb. Calculate self‐inductance and energy stored in
magnetic field.

. 1
,
2
230
5.75 1
40 0.556 5.75
2
800 0.004
∴ 9.19
5.75
0.556

57
3.4 DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE AND TORQUE FROM
ENERGY

Consider any state function F(x1, x2), the total differential of

F with respect to the two variables x1 and x2

F F
d F ( x1 , x2 )  d x1  d x2
 x1 x2
 x2 x1
Similarly, for energy function Wfld(λ, x)

W fld  W fld
d W fld ( , x)  d  dx
 x
x 

d W fld ( , x)  i d  f fld dx
 W fld W fld
i f fld  
 x
x 
Once we know the energy, current and more importantly force
can be calculated.
For a system with rotating mechanical terminal

f fld  T fld x 
d W fld ( ,  )  i d  T fld d

W fld ( ,  )
T fld  
 
Example 3.4:The magnetic circuit below consists of a single-coil
stator and an oval rotor. Because the air-gap is nonuniform, the
coil inductance varies with rotor angular position, measured
between the magnetic axis of the stator coil and the major axis
of the rotor, as
L( )  L0  L2 cos (2 )
where where L0=10.6 mH and L2=2.7 mH. Note the second-
harmonic variation of inductance with rotor angle θ.
3.5 DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE AND TORQUE FROM
COENERGY

d W fld ( , x)  i d  f fld dx
Mathematically manipulated to define a new state function
known as the COENERGY, from which force can be obtained
directly as a function of current.

 (i, x)  i   W fld ( , x)
W fld

 (i, x)   di  f fld dx
d W fld

Note that energy and coenergy

equal for linear systems.
 
W fld 
 W fld
 (i, x) 
d W fld di  dx
i x
x i

 (i, x)   di  f fld dx
d W fld

 (i, x)
W fld  (i, x)
W fld
 f fld 
i x
x i

i
 (i, x)    (i, x) di
W fld
0
In field-theory terms, for soft magnetic materals
(B=0 when H=0)

 H0 
     B dH  dV
W fld  
V 0 

For permanent magnet materials (B=0 when H=Hc)

 H0 
     B dH  dV
W fld

V  Hc


Effect of x on the energy and coenergy of a singly-excited device: (a)
change of energy with  held constant; (b) change of coenergy with i held
constant. Figure 3.11
Example 3.5: For the relay below, find the force on the plunger as a
function of x when the coil is driven by a controller which
produces a current as a function of x of the form
x
i ( x)  I 0   A
d 
Example 3.6: The magnetic circuit in the figure is made of high-permeability
electrical steel. The rotor is free to turn about a vertical axis. The dimensions
are shown in the figure.
a) Derive an expression for the torque acting on the rotor in terms of the
dimensions and the magnetic field in the two air gaps. Assume the reluctance
of the steel to be negligible and neglect the effects of fringing.
b) The maximum flux density in the overlapping portions of the air gaps is to be
limited to approximately 1.65 T to avoid excessive saturation of the steel.
Compute the maximum torque for r1=2.5 cm, h=1.8 cm, and g=3 mm.
 3.6 MULTIPLY-EXCITED MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS

Many electromechanical devices have multiple electrical terminals.

USING ENERGY FUNCTON:
d W fld (1 , 2 ,  )  i1 d1  i2 d2  T fld d
2 0 10
W fld (10 , 20 , 0 )   i2 (1  0, 2 ,   0 ) d2   i1 (1 , 2  20 ,   0 ) d1
0 0

For magnetically linear systems

1  L11 i1  L12 i2
2  L21 i1  L22 i2

L22 1  L12 2  L21 1  L11 2

i1  i2 
D D

D  L11L22  L12 L21

Integration path to obtain Wfld(10, 20, 0).

 2 0 10
L11 ( 0 ) 2 L22 ( 0 ) 1  L12 ( 0 ) 20
W fld (10 , 20 ,  0 )   d2   d1
0 D( 0 ) 0 D( 0 )

L11 ( 0 ) 2 L22 ( 0 ) 2 L12 ( 0 )

W fld (10 , 20 ,  0 )  20  10  10 20
2 D( 0 ) 2 D( 0 ) D( 0 )

W fld
T fld  
 1 , 2
 USING COENERGY FUNCTON:

 (i1 , i2 ,  )  1 di1  2 di2  T fld d

d W fld
i2 0 i10
 (i10 , i20 ,  0 )   2 (i1  0, i2 ,    0 ) di2   1 (i1 , i2  i20 ,    0 ) di1
W fld
0 0

1  L11 i1  L12 i2

2  L21 i1  L22 i2

L11 ( 0 ) 2 L22 ( 0 ) 2
 (i10 , i20 ,  0 ) 
W fld i10  i20  L12 ( 0 ) i10 i20
2 2


W fld
T fld 
 i1 ,i2
 i12 d L11 ( ) i22 d L22 ( ) d L12 ( )
T fld    i1 i2
2 d 2 d d
For a general n electrical terminal

 1   L11 L12  L1n   i1 

   L L22  L2 n  i2 
 2    21 λ  L( ) I
      
    
n   Ln1 Ln 2  Lnn  in 

1 T 1 T d L( )
  I L( ) I
W fld T fld  I I
2 2 dθ
Example 3.7: In the figure, the inductances in henrys are given as
L11=(3+cos 2θ)x10-3; L12=0.3 cos θ; L22=30+10 cos 2θ. Find and
plot the torque Tfld(θ) for current i1=0.8 A and i2=0.01 A.
 3
T fld  (1.64 sin 2  2.4 sin  ) 10
3.7 FORCES AND TORQUES IN SYSTEMS WITH PERMANENT MAGNETS
Special case must be taken when dealing with hard magnetic material
because magnetic flux density is zero when H=Hc not when H=0.
•Consider fictitious winding
•In normal operation, the fictitious winding carries NO current
•Current in the winding can be adjusted to zero out the field produced by
permanent magnet in order to achieve the “zero force” starting point.
  (i f , x)   f di f  f fld dx
d W fld

 (i f  0, x) 
W fld    dW fld
 dW fld 
path 1a path 1b
x 0
 (i f  0, x)   f fld (i f  I f0 , x) dx    f (i f , x) di f
W fld
0 I f0

If0 is the current to zero-out the field.

0
 (i f  0, x) 
W fld   f (i f , x) di f
I f0

Integration path for calculating Wfld (if = 0, x ) in the permanent

magnet system of Fig. 3.17. Figure 3.18
Example 3.8: The magnetic circuit
is excited by a samarium-
cobalt permanent magnet and
includes a movable plunger.
Also shown is the fictitous
winding of Nf turns carrying a
current if which is included
here for the sake of the
analysis. The dimensions are:
Wm=2 cm, Wg=3 cm, W0=2 cm,
d=2 cm, g0=0.2 cm, and D=3
cm.
a) Find an expression for the
coenergy of the system as a
function of plunger position x,
b) Find an expression for the
force on the plunger as a
function of x,
c) Calculate the force at x=0 and Figure 3.19
x=0.5 cm.
A different solution for permanent magnet circuits:

 e   ( Ni ) eq e 
   R A   H c      R A   
 d   d d 

( Ni ) eq   H c d
Example 3.9: Figure shows an actuator consisting of an infinitely-permeable yoke
and plunger, excited by a section of NdFeB magnet and an excitation winding
of N1=1500 turns. The dimensions are: W=4 cm, W1=4.5 cm, D=3.5 cm, d=8 mm,
and g0=1 mm.
a) Find x-directed force on the plunger when the current in the excitation winding
is zero and x=3 mm.
b) Calculate the current in the excitation winding required to reduce the plunger
force to zero.
 3.8 DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
We are interested in the operation of complete electromechanical system and not just of the
electromechanical energy conversion system around which it is built.

For Electrical Terminal:

di d L( x) d x
v0  R i  L( x) i
dt d x dt
For multiple-excited system, we will have similar equation for each terminal
 For Mechanical Terminal:
Spring:

f K   K ( x  x0 ) K : Spring constant (N/m)

x
Damper:
K
dx
fD  B B : Damping constant (N.s/m)
dt B
Mass:
2
f fld
d x
f M  M M : Mass (kg)
d t2 M

d 2x dx
f fld M 2 B  K ( x  x0 )  f 0 f0
dt dt
Dynamic Equations (Electrical and Mechanical Equations Together):

d i (t ) d L( x) d x(t )
v0 (t )  R i (t )  L( x) i
dt dx dt

d 2 x(t ) d x(t )
f 0 (t )   M 2
 B  K ( x(t )  x0 )  f fld (i (t ), x(t ))
dt dt

i 2 d L( x)
f fld 
2 dx
These equations completely specify the behavior of electromechanical device. Solution
of these equations will describe the position x and the current i at any time t in the
system.
 For Rotational Mechanical Terminal:
Torsional Spring:

TK   K (   0 ) K : Torsional Spring constant (N.m/rad)

Friction:

d
TF   B B : Friction constant (N.m.s/rad)
dt
Inertia:

d 2
TJ   J 2 J : Inertia constant (kg.m2/rad)
dt

d 2 d
T fld J 2 B  K (   0 )  T0
dt dt
Example 3.10: Figure shows in cross
section a cylindrical solenoid magnet
in which the cylindrical plunger of
mass M moves vertically in brass
quide rings of thickness g and mean
diameter d. The permeability of brass
is µ0. The plunger is supported by a
spring with K constant. Its
unstretched length is l0. A mechanical
load force ft is applied to the plunger
from the mechanical system
connected to it. Assume that
frictional force is linearly proportional
to the velocity with coefficient B. The
coil has N turns and resistance R. Its
terminal voltage is vt and its current i.
Derive the dynamic equations of
motion of the electromechanical
system.
EXTRA Example: A two poles VR machine is shown in figure. Stator and rotor has
infinite permeability.
a) Find gap cross-sectional area as a function of θ.
b) Find the inductance for the machine.
c) Write down the dynamic equations.
d) Solve the dynamic equations to find the position of rotor as a function of time
initially starting from θ0=25 degrees.

Numerical Values:
N=100 turns, g=0.0005 m, d=0.1
m, r=0.04 m, J=0.05, B=0.02,
θ0=30, R=0.5 ohm, E=10 Volt.
es
r Ax
Roto
r

Stator Axes
0