Louisiana State University

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LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School

1989

Rice Bran Stabilization by Improved Internal and

External Heating Methods.
Jiaxun Tao
Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College

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Tao, Jiaxun, "Rice Bran Stabilization by Improved Internal and External Heating Methods." (1989). LSU Historical Dissertations and
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Tao, Jiaxun, Ph.D.

T he L ouisiana S ta te U niversity and A gricultural and M echanical Col., 1989

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 RICE BRAN STABILIZATION BY IMPROVED
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL HEATING METHODS

A Dissertation

S u b m i t t e d t o t h e G r a d u a t e F a c u l t y of t h e
Louisiana State University and
Agricultural and Mechanical College
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the
r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e d e g r e e of
Doctor of Philosophy

in

T h e D e p a r t m e n t of F o o d S c i e n c e

by
Jiaxun Tao
B.S., N o r t h e a s t A g r i c u l t u r a l College, 1977
M.S., C h i n e s e A c a d e m y of A g r i c u l t u r a l Science, 1983
Aug us t, 1989
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his most sincere

gratitude to his ma j or professors, D r . Ramu Rao and Dr.

Joseph A. Liuzzo for t h e i r patient g u i d a n c e , encouragement

and assistance during the course of this research and the

p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

Appreciation is extended to Dr* Freddie A. Martin,

Professor in the Department of Ag ro n o m y , who served as

m i n o r p r o f e s s o r on th e a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e and Dr. R o b e r t M.

Grod ne r, Professor in the Department of Foo d science, for

h i s s e r v i c e on t h e e x a m i n a t i o n c o mm it te e.

D r . Auttis M . M u l 1i n s , Professor and H e a d , Department

of Food science, is thanked for extending departmental

f a c i l i t i e s and p r o v i d i n g n e c e s s a r y fun ds t o a c c o m p l i s h this

research and also for his participation on the examining

committee.

The China National Rice Research Institute and The

Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science are thanked for

supporting the a u t h o r 's doctoral study through a

fe llowship.

T he author also thanks Dr* J o s e p h A. Musi ck , Resident

Director and Mr. Miller of the Rice Research Station,

Crow l ey , Louisiana, for p r o v i d i n g the e x p e r i m e n t a l samples.

T h a n k s a r e g i v e n to Dr. Lakshman Velupillai, for t h e use of

facilities in h i s Rice Processing La bo ra t or y. Dr. L u i s A.

ii
Escobar and Dr. Patricia Wozniak a re thanked for their

valuable suggestions on the experimental design of this

study. Tom Graham an d Linda Andrews are also thanked for

their kindly assistance in p r e p a r i n g t h i s m a n u s c r i p t .

A t last, t h e a u t h o r w i s h e s t o e x p r e s s his g r a t e f u l n e s s

to hi s mother, Mrs. Chuiying Hu-Tao, his elder sister Li-

juan Tao, brother in law, H a i k a n g Wang, for t a k i n g c a r e of

t h e a u t h o r ’s d a u g h t e r d u r i n g t h e f o u r - y e a r - l o n g p e r i o d w h e n

he w as out climbing and studying. The author thanks hi s

wife, Jiyang Chang an d his nine year old d a ug h t e r , Lynn

Tao, for t h e i r support, understanding, p a t i e n c e a n d love.

T h i s m a n u s c r i p t is d e d i c a t e d to t h e a u t h o r 's daughter,

Lynn.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S ...................................... iv

L I S T OF T A B L E S .......................................... vi

L I S T OF F I G U R E S ......................................... ix

A B S T R A C T ................................................ xii

I. I N T R O D U C T I O N ............................................... 1

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................... 4

R i c e and Ri ce B r a n .................................... 4

S i g n i f i c a n c e of the C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of R i c e Bra n on its S t a b i l i t y ..................15

R i c e B r a n S t a b i l i z a t i o n by
External Heating 25

I r r a d i a t i o n an d its A p p l i c a t i o n
for R i c e Br a n S t a b i l i z a t i o n .................... 35

Inter na l H e a t i n g and its A p p l i c a t i o n

for R i c e Br a n S t a b i l i z a t i o n .................... 37

III. M A T E R I A L S A N D M E T H O D S .................................4 2

P r o c u m e n t and M i l l i n g of R o u g h R i c e ............... 4 5

P r o x i m a t e A n a l y s i s ...................................48

P hy s i c a l a n d T h e r m a l Properties ................. 50

S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s ........................... 55
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

(Continued)

Chapter Page

III. S a m p l e A n a l y s e s ...................................... 61

S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s ................................ 63

H e a t T r a n s f e r A n a l y s e s ..............................63

IV. R E S U L T S A N D D I S C U S S I O N ................................. 69

M i l l i n g of R o u g h R i c e ............................... 69

P r o x i m a t e A n a l y s i s .................................. 71

Ph y s i c a l and T h e r m a l P r o p e r t i e s .................... 7 6

E f f e c t of S t a b i l i z a t i o n
T r e a t m e n t s on Bran S t a b i l i t y ................... 114

E f f i c i e n c y of He a t T r a n s f e r ........................138

T r e a t m e n t S e l e c t i o n ................................ 148

Treatment Optimization ........................... 149

V. S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N S ............................... 157

L I T E R A T U R E C I T E D ....................................... 161

V I T A ..................................................... 17 3

v
 LIST OF TABLES

Table page

Chapter I I I .

1. E x p e r i m e n t a l D e s i g n of M i c r o w a v e
H e a t i n g for Ric e B r a n S t a b i l i z a t i o n ...............57

C h a p t e r IV.

1. A v e r a g e P e r c e n t Bran Yie ld from M i l l i n g

of R o u g h R i c e ..........................................70

2. C o m p o s i t i o n of Ric e Br an F r a c t i o n s .................. 72

3. P r o x i m a t e A n a l y s i s of Long a n d M e d i u m
G r a i n Tr ue B r a n ....................................... 73

4. P a r t i c l e Si z e D i s t r i b u t i o n of W h o l e B r a n ............ 77

5. P a r t i c l e Si z e D i s t r i b u t i o n of Tr u e B r a n ............. 80

6. E f f e c t of G r a i n Ty p e on P h ys ic a l
P r o p e r t i e s of T r u e B r a n ..............................82

7. R e l a t i o n s h i p of P a r t i c l e S i z e to B u l k
D e n s i t y of True B r a n ................................. 84

8. R e l a t i o n s h i p of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t to Bulk
D e n s i t y of True B r a n ............................... 8 6

9. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on Bulk D e n s i t y
at I n d i c a t e d P a r t i c l e S i z e s of T r u e Bran . . . . 88

10. R e l a t i o n s h i p of P a r t i c l e Si z e to P o r o s i t y
of T r u e B r a n ........................................... 92

11. R e l a t i o n s h i p of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t to
P o r o s i t y of T r u e B r a n ................................ 9 3

12. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on
P o r o s i t y at I n d i c a t e d P a r t i c l e
S i z e s of Tr u e B r a n ....................................94

13. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on Bulk
and P ar t i c l e D e n s i t i e s of T r u e B r a n .............. 100

vi
 LIST OF TABLES
(Continued)

Table page

14. S p e c i f i c H e a t of R i c e B r a n .......................... 103

15. R e l a t i o n s h i p of T r u e Bran M o i s t u r e
C o n t e n t t o T h e r m a l D i f f u s i v i t y ................. 110

16. R e l a t i o n s h i p of T r u e Bran P a r t i c l e S i z e
t o T h e r m a l D i f f u s i v i t y .............................ill

17. B u l k Density, S p e c i f i c Heat, T h e r m a l

C o n d u c t i v i t y a n d D i f f u s i v i t y of R i c e
Br a n w i t h D i f f e r e n t M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t s .......... 113

18. Free Fat ty A c i d C o n t e n t of S t a b i l i z e d

T r u e Br an D u r i n g S t o r a g e ( L e m o n t ) ............... 115

19. R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s for FFA C h a n g e s

R e s u l t i n g from D i f f e r e n t S t a b i l i z a t i o n
T r e a t m e n t s ( L e m o n t ) ................................ 117

20. Free F a t t y A c i d C o n t e n t of S t a b i l i z e d
T r u e Bran D u r i n g S t o r a g e ( N a t o ) .................. 1 2 2

21. R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s for F F A C h a n g e s
R e s u l t i n g fro m D i f f e r e n t S t a b i l i z a t i o n
T r e a t m e n t s ( N a t o ) ...................................124

22. E f f e c t of S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s on
E q u i l i b r i u m M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t of T r u e
B r a n D u r i n g S t o r a g e (Lemont) ................... 125

23. E f f e c t of S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s on
E q u i l i b r i u m M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t of T r u e
B r a n D u r i n g S t o r a g e (Nato) ...................... 126

24. M e a n s of H u n t e r C o l o r V a l u e s of H e a t
S t a b i l i z e d Bra n ( L e m o n t ) .......................... 132

25. M e a n s of H u n t e r C o l o r V a l u e s of Hea t
S t a b i l i z e d Bran (Nato) ........................... 133

26. E f f e c t of S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s on
Br a n P r o x i m a t e C o m p o s i t i o n ( L e m o n t ) ............. 135

vii
 LIST OF TABLES
(Continued)

Table page

27. E f f e c t of S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s o n
B r a n P r o x i m a t e C o m p o s i t i o n ( N a t o ) ............... 136

28. P a r t i c l e S i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n in
M i c r o w a v e H e a t e d R i c e B r a n ...................... 139

29. H e a t P e n e t r a t i o n Data of O v e n Dried

R i c e B r a n ............................................ 140

30. H e a t P e n e t r a t i o n Data of S t e a m
R e t o r t e d R i c e B r a n ................................. 141

31. H e a t P e n e t r a t i o n Data of M i c r o w a v e
H e a t e d R i c e B r a n .................................. 14 5

32. C o m p a r i s o n of T h e r m a l E f f i c i e n c y of
T r e a t m e n t M e t h o d s .................................. 147

3 3. E f f e c t of M i c r o w a v e H e a t i n g T r e a t m e n t s
on R e s i d u a l P e r o x i d a s e A c t i v i t y
in Ric e B r a n ....................................... 150

34. R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s of R e si du a l
P e r o x i d a s e A c t i v i t y of
M i c r o w a v e H e a t e d B r a n ............................. 151

viii
 LI S T O F F I GU RE S

Figure page

C h a p t e r II.

1. S t r u c t u r e of th e R i c e G r a i n ........................... 7

2. P r i n c i p l e s of Ri ce M i l l i n g ........................... 11

C h a p t e r III.

3. S c h e m a t i c D i a g r a m for Ric e Bran

Stabilization 43

2. Apparatus to Mill R o u g h and B r o w n R i c e .......... 47

3. Apparatus to M e a s u r e S p e c i f i c H e a t ............... 52

4. A p p a r a t u s to Measure Thermal D i f f u s i v i t y ........ 53

5. A p p a r a t u s for the D e t e r m i n a t i o n of He a t
T r a n s f e r E f f i c i e n c y in E x t e r n a l H e a t i n g .......... 65

6. A p p a r a t u s for the D e t e r m i n a t i o n of H e a t
T r a n s f e r E f f i c i e n c y in I n t e r n a l H e a t i n g . . . . 66

7. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of M i c r o w a v e H e a t e d
B r a n T e m p e r a t u r e by E x t r a p o l a t i o n ............... 68

Chapter IV.

1. P a r t i c l e S i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n of
W h o l e B r a n ............................................ 78

2. P a r t i c l e S i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n of
T r u e B r a n ............................................. 81

3. R e l a t i o n s h i p of B u l k D e n s i t y to
P a r t i c l e Si z e in T r u e B r a n ......................... 85

4. R e l a t i o n s h i p of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t
to Bu lk D e n s i t y in T r u e B r a n ...................... 87

5. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on B u l k
D e n s i t y of T r u e Bran at I n d i c a t e d
P a r t i c l e S i z e s ....................................... 89

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES
(Continued)

Figure page

6. R e l a t i o n s h i p of P a r t i c l e Si z e t o P o r o s i t y
in T r u e B r a n ........................................ 9 5

7. R e l a t i o n s h i p of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t to
P o r o s i t y in Tr ue B r a n ..............................96

B . E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on
P o r o s i t y of Tr ue Bran at
I n d i c a t e d P a r t i c l e S i z e s ........................ 97

9. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on B u l k and
P a r t i c l e D e n s i t i e s of T r u e B r a n .................. 101

10. C o m p a r i s o n of C a l c u l a t e d V s E x p e r i m e n t a l
V a l u e s of S p e c i f i c H e a t of T r u e B r a n ........... 104

11. T i m e - T e m p e r a t u r e D a t a for T h e r m a l
D i f f u s i v i t y D e t e r m i n a t i o n ......................... 108

12. F r e e Fatt y A c i d C o n t e n t of S t a b i l i z e d
T r u e Bran D u r i n g S t o r a g e ( L e m o n t ) ............... 116

13. F r e e F a t t y A c i d C o n t e n t of S t a b i l i z e d
T r u e B r a n D u r i n g S t o r a g e ( N a t o ) ..................123

14. E f f e c t of S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s on
E q u i l i b r i u m M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t of T r u e
Br a n D u r i n g S t o r a g e (Lemont) ................... 127

15. E f f e c t of S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s on
E q u i l i b r i u m M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t of T r u e
B r a n D u r i n g S t o r a g e (Nato) ...................... 128

16. H e a t i n g C u r v e s of O v e n Drie d
T r u e B r a n ............................................ 142

17. H e a t i n g C u r v e s of S t e a m R e t o r t e d
T r u e B r a n ............................................ 143

18. H e a t i n g C u r v e s of M i c r o w a v e
H e a t e d T r u e B r a n .................................... 146

x
 LIST OF FIGURES
(Continued)

Figure page

19. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on
P e r o x i d a s e A c t i v i t y of Br a n
S t a b i l i z e d by M i c r o w a v e H e a t i n g ............... 154

20. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on Free
F a t t y A c i d s of B r a n S t a b i l i z e d by
M i c r o w a v e H e a t i n g ..................................155

xi
 ABSTRACT

Experimental evidence obtained from physic al , ther ma l

and nutritional studies hav e s ho w n that microwave heating

is a n e f f e c t i v e m e t h o d for t he i n a c t i v a t i o n of l i p a s e w h i c h

is responsible for rice br an degradation and instability.

Rice bran stabilized by microwave heating at 2450 MHz for

3 min was found to be v e r y stable. Free fat ty aci d (FFA)

content only i n cr ea se d from 4.0% to 4.9% in long g r a i n rice

b r a n and f r o m 4.6% to 6.2% in m e d i u m g r a i n rice bran, under

very unfavorable storage conditions (33 + 2°C, 75 + 5%

relative humidity) for four weeks. However, increases in

the untreated bran ranged from 4.0% to 68.3% and 4.6% to

56.8%, respectively.

Two commercial rice variet ie s, a long grain (Lemont)

and a medium grain (Nato), cultivated under controlled

conditions at the Rice Research Station, Louisiana

A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t a l Station, Crowley, Louis ia na , were

m i l l e d on a l a b o r a t o r y sc a l e S a t a k e mill to o b t a i n bra n for

this i n v e st ig at i on . The milling of rough rice yielded

7.22% and 7.09% bran for long grain and medium grain,

respectively. The bran was analyzed by standard methods

for its proximate c o mposition, and physical and ther ma l

p r o p e r ti es . The proximate analyses for long and medium

g r a i n bran, re spectively, were: moist u re , 11.2% a n d 10.8%;

p rotein, 16.07% and 16.20%; fat, 19.20% an d 21.97%; crude

xii
fiber, 8.49% and 8.41%; ash, 9.23% an d 9.46%; and nitrogen-

free extract, 4 7 .0 1 % and 44.07%. Likewise, the p h y si ca l

and thermal properties for these two varieties of rice

bran, r e s p e ct i ve ly , were; bulk density, 18. 20 lb/ft3 and

17.17 l b / f t 3 ; porosity, 73.0% and 72.1%; particle density,

67.60 l b/ft3 and 61. 2 0 lb/ft3 ; specific heat, 0.41 Btu/ lb

°F and 0.41 Btu/lb ° F ; thermal diffusivity, 5.17 x 10”3

f t 2/ h r and 5.29 x 10-3 ft 2/ h r ; a n d thermal conductivity,

3.85 x 1 0 -2 B t u / h r ft °F a n d 3.72 x 1 0 " 2 B t u / h r ft °F.

The bran was stabilized by four different methods

representing two external heating - oven drying an d steam

retorting, one inter na l - microwave heating and one non -

thermal processing - ir radiation. Oven drying wa s

conducted in a convection ove n at 1 3 5°C for two hours.

Steam retorting was performed at 121 °C and 15 psi for 5

min. Optimum processing conditions for microwave heating

of ric e bran with specific reference to an experimental

laboratory size microwave ov e n (340 watt, 24 50 MHz,

Thermador option 3) were: 21% mo is t u r e , 150 g r a m s bran per

batch and 3 min for heating. Irradiation was performed

with a 6 0 Co source with the bran being subjected to 1

megarad.

Th e rice b r a n s t a b i l i z e d by all four m e t h o d s w a s p a c k e d

in brown paper ba g s and stored in an e x t r e m e l y unfavorable

environment (33 + 2°C, 75 + 5% relative humi di ty ) to tes t

the efficacy of eac h of t he four stabilization methods.

xiii
The bran sa m p l e s w e r e a n a l y z e d for free fatt y a c i d s at the

end of e a c h w e e k for four weeks. Results showed that rict*

bran stabilized by microwave heating was as g o o d as steam

retorted bran in terms of free fatty acids. Oven dried

bran was found to be unstable under high temperature and

high humidity conditions an d was marginally acceptable at

room temperature while bran stabilized by irradiation wa s

u n s t a b l e u n d e r r o o m tempera tu re .

T he thermal efficiency of each of these methods was

evaluated by heat transfer analysis. Bran is a poo r

conductor of heat. C o n s e qu en tl y, oven drying and stea m

r e t o r t i n g d i d n o t p e r f o r m as e f f e c t i v e as m i c r o w a v e in heat

penetration. Microwave energy leads to d i s r u p t i o n of w e a k

hydrogen bonds because of dipole rotation of free water

molecules. Within the penetrating depth of microwave

energy, dipole moment causes molecular friction and heats

the b r a n u n i f o r m l y through ou t.

xiv
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

R i c e b r a n is a b y - p r o d u c t o b t a i n e d from m i l l i n g b r o w n

rice to produce white rice. Approximately 30-32 million

metric tons of bran are p r o d u c e d annually which comprises

about 7% of the 450 million metric tons of annu al world

r o u g h rice o u t p u t (USDA, 1986). Ri ce bran, w h i c h coul d be

a promising new source of human food, unfortunately, is

either underutilized, or is discarded. T h e proteins, oi ls

and carbohydrates of rice b r a n are an e x c e l l e n t sourc e of

nutritious food supplements for humans. It a l s o contains

abundant vitamins, amino a ci d s and phosphoric acid

compounds (Houston, 1972; Saunders, 1986). R i c e bra n also

has commercial potentials in m e d i c a l fields. The abundant

dietary fib e r of ri ce bran is now being explored as an

important ingredient of health foods. Because of its

ideal fatty aci d c om po s it io n, rice b r a n oil is c o n s i d e r e d

to be superior to other edible oil s (Houston, 1972), and

rice bran h as been reported to have functions to low er

serum cholesterol level ( Vi ja y a g o p a l a n a n d Kurup, 1972).

Th e main reas on for the fail ur e of using rice bra n

for food purposes is the tim e lag between its production

and u ti l i z a t i o n . If the oil is not e x t r a c t e d immediately

after its remov al from rice, it wi ll be hydrolyzed into

free fatty acids (FFA) and g l y c e r o l by t h e a c t i o n of ve r y

active lipas e enzymes. Th e rate of oil degradation and

1
FFA formation could be very high (about 5-7% per day and

up t o 70% in a month) u n d e r f a vo ra b le c o n d i t i o n s (Houston,

197 2) . Oxidation of FFA l e ad s to the production of

various odoriferous compounds such as aldeh yd e s, ketone,

etc. Bran oil with an excess of 10% FFA is unfit for

human consumption and due to t h e hi gh refining loss, br an

with more than 5% FF A w i l l be u n p r o f i t a b l e for e d i b l e oil

extraction (Investment A d v i s o r y C e n t e r of P a k i s t a n , 1978).

While many rice growing countries are suffering from the

lack of edible oils and protein products, rice br an oil

extraction and/or protein separation in these area s are

not properly applied because few effective bran

stabilizing procedures are adaptable to commercial

production.

Numerous attempts ha v e been made to stabilize rice

b r a n by v a r i o u s t h e r m a l m e t h o d s . Oven d r i e d b r a n nee ds to

be stored in s e a l e d containers to m a i n t a i n its stability.

This causes many pos t stabilization and transportation

p ro b l e m s . Fu rthermore, prolonged heating results in

significant nutrient losses. Steam retorting is costly

with sometimes inconsistent stabilization results, and

extrusion cooking is less f le x i b l e for ap pl i c a t i o n s .

Complete i n f o r m a t i o n of phys ic a l and t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s of

rice bra n is i m p o r t a n t in i m p r o v i n g c u r r e n t l y u s e d t h e r ma l

processing procedures of bra n s t a b i l i z a t i o n ; however, it

is not r e a d i l y available.
 Previous explorations of advantages of microwave

heating for bran stabilization were halted probably

because of hig h initial investment and/or unsatisfactory

preliminary experimental results. Howev er , microwave

heating has a significant advantage in tha t it can caus e

internal heating of particles within the energy

penetrating depth, and thi s trait makes it extremely

suitable for thermal processing of materials with low

thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y s u c h as rice bran. Besides, th e cost

of microwave heating equipment ha s been significantly

reduced r e c e n t l y b e c a u s e of the t e c h n i c a l a d v a n c e s mad e in

t h i s area.

In o r d e r to impro ve c u r r e n t l y u s e d p r o c e s s i n g m e t h o d s

for rice bran stabilization, this stud y w a s u n d e r t a k e n to

meet f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c object iv es :

(1) to d e t e r m i n e the s i g n i f i c a n t p h y s i c a l and thermal

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of rice bran;

(2) to evaluate the effects of different

stabilization treatments on bran stability,

q u a 1 ity and n u t r i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ;

(3) to i de n t i f y the most effective stabilization

procedures for rice bran; and

(4) to optimize the treatment variables of selected

s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s and m a k e suggestions.
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Rice and Rice Bran

Rice, as a member of th e g r a s s family, has been one

of man's staple foods s i nc e ancient times. Evidence of

the domestication of rice has been discovered by

archaeological studies on a Neolithic vestige in east

China d a t i n g b a c k t o a bo u t 5000 B.C. (You, 1979). Today,

two species of cultivated rice, Orvza sativa and Oryza

glaberrima are grown in a wide r an g e of ecological

regimes, from t ro p i c a l to t e m p e r a t e r e g i o n s d i s t r i b u t e d in

more than 100 countries.

Annual world rice production is around 460 million

metric tons in recent years (USDA, 1986). The Asian

countries lea d the world in rice h e c t a r e s w i t h about 9 0%,

followed by South America with 4.53%, Africa with 3.29%,

North America with 1.4%, E u r o p e w i t h 0.7% an d O c e a n i a w i t h

0.6% {Lu a n d C h a n g , 1980) . T h e a n n u a l U .S r i c e o u t p u t is

around 6 million metric tons. T h e U.S rice p r o d u c t i o n is

mainly conducted in five s t a t e s l i s t e d in d e s c e n d i n g o r d e r

of acreage as Arkan sa s, Louisiana, C a l i f or ni a, Texas and

Mississippi. In 1986, Louisiana produced 0.9 million

m e t r i c t o n s of rice (USDA, 1986).

Twenty-one species have been identified in the O r v z a

genus; however, on l y two of them are cultivated. Almost

4
all (95%) of t h e c u l t i v a t e d v a r i e t i e s fall in t h e species

of p. sativa. Th e prevalent view on rice variety

classification was established during 1930's , when ric e

varieties were grouped into 3 types, namely, Japonica.

Javanica and Indica. based on the morphological traits,

g r a i n t y p e s an d the g e n e t i c studies. T h i s s y s t e m ha s b e e n

accepted by most ri ce geneticists and breeders (Chang,

1976) . The genetic origination of the American rice

varieties is still not clear, though the isoz ym e polymor­

phism analysis revealed that most U.S. ri ce varieties

belong to the Japonica category (Glaszman, 1986).

Traditionally, t h e U.S ri c e v a r i e t i e s are g r o u p e d by g r a i n

shapes. Long grain, medium grain, and short grain are

three terms referring to different rice types

predominantly produced in the U n i t e d States. E a c h typ e is

associated with specific milling, cooking and processing

characteristics. The long-grain varieties are

characterized by a comparatively high amylose content and

a medium-gelatinizing temperature. Raw milled rice of

typical long-grain varieties usually cook dr y and flu ff y

when boiled or steamed. T y pi ca l sho rt and medium-grain

types, on the other hand, cook moist and chewy. This

relation of grain type with specific cooking and

processing uses and quality is n o w f i rm ly e s t a b l i s h e d for

U.S. produced rice. Varieties of each grain type must

conform within rather narrow l i m i ts to the si z e and shap e

specifications established for t h e type. Definitions and

procedures for d e t e r m i n i n g e a c h d i m e n s i o n ar e d e s c r i b e d by

A d a i r et a l . (1966). T h e si z e and s h a p e c l a s s e s u s e d as a

guide in the U.S. for brown-rice kernels at storage -

moisture lev el s were documented (Houston, 1972; Adair et

a l . 1966) .

The fruit of th e r i c e cro p is c a l l e d the grain, with

the pa lea an d the lemma as the tw o halves of the out er

cover. The grain has sever al layers and parts of

c o m p o n e n t s as s h o w n in F i g u r e II-l.

Grain composition and the correlation between

p h y s i c o c h e m i c a l , fu nc t i o n a l and nutritional properties of

the grain have been described in p r e v i o u s reviews (Houston

and Kohler, 1970; Juliano 1972, 1973, 1977a, 1977b, 1978

a n d J u l i a n o and Bechtel, 1985).

The covering shell or the o u t e r m o s t laye r is c a l l e d

the h u s k or h u l 1. Inwar d laye rs are the pericarp, test a

( t e g m e n ) , nucellus, aleurone, sub-aleurone layers, and the

inner-most layer, endosperm. The embryo of the dormant

rice grain is relatively small, and is located on the

ventral side of the c a r y o p s i s (Barber et al. 1976). Thi s

part of the rice comprises about 2-3% by weight of the

r o u g h rice (Juliano, 1972).

T he peric ar p, the se e d coat (tegmen or t e s t a ) , the

nucellus layer, and the aleurone l a ye r are th e main

components of the outer laye rs of brown rice which,

 7

Polio

PfnCO't
Scedcoo*
NuCtKuS
AI«uror.« Oye»
H u l l -<
Subol*u^>n«
laye» -E n d o s p e r m
SXych*
#ndOSO«^TT'

Sc uf €*>-"■
PVjfTWi'l
p £ m b r yO

Rod<c!«
Epibiov

S l* r
limmot

Roeh.llo

Figure 11- 1 . Structure o f the Rice Grain

(Juli ano and B e c h t e l , 1985)
together with the embryo fragments, are removed in the

milling process. These give rise to rice bran. Th e

descriptive term for bran suggested by the FAO is "a b y ­

product f r o m the m i l l i n g of rice, consisting of the o u t e r

bran layer s of the kernel w i t h p a r t of the ger m" (Houston,

1972) . The corresponding ter m for polish is the "by­

product from milling rice, consisting of th e in n e r b r a n

laye rs of th e ker ne l with part of the germ and a small

p o r t i o n of the s t a r c h interior" (Houston, 1972).

Several different types of bran should be distin­

guis he d. The us u a l m i l l i n g of o r d i n a r y rice p r o d u c e s the

most common ty pe - regular or f ul l - f a t bran. After oil

ex t r a c t i o n , bran is c a l l e d d e f a t t e d bran. When rough rice

is milled by hand-pounding or in small or primitive

huller-type mills the by-product is a mixture of tota l

hulls and bran. This corresponds to the U.S. product,

r i c e mill feed (Houston, 1972) . T h e bra n a c c o u n t s for 5-9%

of roug h ri ce weight in most milling processes (Houston,

1972). However, thi s p o r t i o n of the r i c e g r a i n comprises

17-30% of the total proteins in the w h o l e g r a i n , 95-100%

of t he oil, 60-70% of the vitam in s, and 7 0- 7 5 % of the

minerals including a hi g h percentage of calcium an d iron

(Rice B r a n Industries, Inc. 1987) .

L i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h the n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e of rice

bran has been published (Houston, 1972; Barber and

Benedito de Barber, 1980 and Saunders, 1986).

 9

Applications of rice bran in food and feed industries ar e

numerous. However, problems of bran u ti l i z a t i o n ,

including its stabilization, still remain. The

stabilization of rice b r a n wi ll be d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l in

t h e f o l l o w i n g chapters.

Rice Processing and Bran Production

After h a rv es ti ng , the rough rice is d r i e d and milled

to produce milled or white rice. The purpose of ric e

milling is to r e m o v e t h e h u l I s and b r a n a n d p r o d u c e m i l l e d

rice with a minimum of b r e a k a g e and with a minimum of

impur it ie s. The meaning of t h e term milling in th e rice

industry has two aspects: either removing the hulls from

t h e rou gh rice to p r o d u c e b r o w n rice, or r e m o v i n g the b r a n

l a y e r s f r o m the b r o w n ric e to p r o d u c e w h i t e rice. In s o m e

rice growing a r e a s , rice milling is accomplished by very

primitive methods su ch as pounding the rough ric e in a

wooden mortar and pestle followed by w in no wi ng . At the

other extremes are very modern methods where milling is

accomplished in large, highly automated plants with the

manifold operations being monitored fro m a c e n t r a l console

(Tolson and Robe, 1977). However, there are two basic

types of milli ng : (1) single step milling or " h u ll er

milling"; and (2) multi-step milling or multi-cone

m illi ng . In m u l t i - s t e p milling, hulls are first removed

by a r u b b e r h u l l e r and t h e n the b r o w n rice is s u b j e c t e d to

o n e or a s e r i e s of co ne m i l l s to r e m o v e t h e b r a n layers.

Rice mills are basically of two types: the abrasive

type and the f ri c t i o n type. In the a b r a s i v e type, bran is

removed by contact against a moving rough surface; and

with the friction mills, bran is removed by f r i ct io n

between the kernels which are subjected to a siight

press ur e. Shown in Figure II-2 are the two cases,

respectively. Both v e r t i c a l a n d h o r i z o n t a l a b r a s i v e m i l l s

are often e nc ou n te re d, in which a series of cones are

sometimes used in order to reduce the pressure in eac h

step, thus reducing the breakage of milled rice. Th e

friction type mills, on th e other hand, are capable of

p r o d u c i n g wel l m i l l e d rice in o n e pass. T h e y a l s o ha v e an

advantage in th a t there is a natu r al stopping point in

producing we ll milled *-ice b e c a u s e the endosperm par t is

relatively harder than the bran layer.

In some cases, milled rice is f u r t h e r s u b j e c t e d t o a

machine called a brusher or polisher to remove particles

of loo se bran by rolling the rice between leather strips

and a screen under very mild pressure. The remaining

loose bran is removed and the ri ce is given a more

polished s u rface.

The percentage of bran removed from rough rice is

referred to as "d e g r e e of milling". This parameter not

only indicates the quantity of milled rice produced from

r ou g h rice, but a l s o r e f l e c t s t h e e c o n o m i c and n u t r i t i o n a l

 BRAN LAYER

/ Tc^r ^
^ A M A S lV E SURFACE
— U l u LAYER

•ENDOSPERM

Abr as i ve M i l l i n g F r i c t i o n Mi 11ing

Fi gure 11 - 2 . P r i n c i p l e s o f Ri ce M i l l i n g , (Spadaro e t a l . 1980)

characteristics of the milled rice su c h as milled rice

q u a l i t y a n d n u t r i t i o n a l value.

There ar e t w o o t h e r typ es of m i l l i n g w h i c h e x i s t s in

c e r t a i n r i c e g r o w i n g areas, namely, p a r b o i l i n g m i l l i n g and

the solvent extractive milling. The p u r p o s e of t h e s e two

treatments is to impr ov e the nutritional property of

milled rice or to reduc e mill ing losses. At th e same

time, bran so obtained has been stabilized or defatted.

Detailed studies have be e n conducted and reports on the se

topics are numerous. Luh and Mickus (1980) reviewed the

parboiled rice and solvent extractive millings,

re sp e c t i v e l y .

Economic Importance of Rice Bran:

No rm a l l y , the coarse bran (bran from a b r a s i v e m i l l s

or friction mills) accounts for 6-11% of the brown rice

weight, and polish accounts for 2-3% (Palacpac, 1982). It

is estimated th a t more tha n 75% of rice produced in the

world is milled in so called single-step milling

procedures. Fr o m th e 4 09 million metric tons of rice

milled in 1983, abou t eight million metric tons of bra n

were produced from m u l t i - s t e p m i l l i n g ( S a u n d e r s ,1986).

The most prominent utilization of bran is e x t r a c t i n g

the oil from it, either for food uses or for in d us tr ia l

applications. It is estimated tha t about 100,000 metric

tons annually of edible oil are extracted from rice br an

in J a p a n (Sayre et al. 1985). A number of s t e a m c o n v e y e r

bran stabilization units are under operation in Burm a for

the purpose of obtaining edible bran oil to supply

domestic nee ds (Yokochi, 1972). Oil extraction fr om rice

bran is al s o widely conducted in India (Narain et al.

1979), Thail an d, S p a i n a n d Egy pt (Enochian et a l . 1980).

In the United States, the predominant use for rice

bran is as feed for stock and poultry. Br a n is mos t

widely used as feed for ruminants such as cattle, sheep,

water buffalo, an d bullocks, though it c a n al so be fed to

monogastric animals such as s w i ne and horses (Houston,

1972). In Thailand, rice b r a n h a s b e e n u s e d in fish feed

(F A O , 1964). It is also being used as an ingredient in

fish feed in the U.S., where fish farming is a growing

industry. For e x a m p l e , rice bran has been us e d to feed

crawfish in L o u i s i a n a (Anonymous, 1987).

Improperly stored bran undergoing fat deterioration

develops unpleasant odorous flavors, which limit s the food

utilization of bran. Nevertheless, new knowledge on the

role of plant fiber, especially soluble dietary fiber in

human metabolism has renewed in t e r e s t for exploring rice

bran fi b e r as a health food materi al . M ea nw h il e, the

u t i l i z a t i o n of rice bra n in v a r i o u s food p r o d u c t s has b e e n

g a i n i n g m o r e and m o r e a t t e n t i o n . The American Institution

of Baking has tested and recommended "stabilized" rice

bran in the baking of hamburger buns, specialty breads,

b i s c u i t s , c o o k i e s , crackers and p a s t a (Rice B r a n Industry

Inc., 1987). According to their e xp e r i m e n t s , the ro le

bran played in b a k i n g w o u l d be t o i n c r e a s e fi b e r an d lo w e r

calories while leaving the taste a nd texture essentially

u n a f f e c te d. Some additional potential food applications

w h i c h h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d by B a r b e r a nd B e n e d i t o de B a r b e r

(1980), and Saunders (1986) are as follows: a protein

supplement a nd binder ingredient for meat and sausage

products, a raw material for production of hydrolyzed

vegetable proteins, a breakfast cere al and snack food

ingredient, a carrier for artificial spices, a source of

inositol, and an ingredient in pickles.

G o o d q u a l i t y ric e b r a n tha t w a s s t a b i l i z e d a n d p a c k e d

in moisture-proof containers was reported to have be en

sold as a h e a l t h food in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s as e a r l y as 1941

(Cruz and West, 1941). Th i s w a s in a d d i t i o n to the use of

"tikitiki" (rice b r a n extract) extract, for the p r e v e n t i o n

and cu r e of Beriberi. W i d e s p r e a d use of b r a n e x t r a c t s to

prepare B-vitamin co n ce n t r a t e s , which occurred before

s y n t h e t i c v i t a m i n s w e r e availa bl e , is still e n c o u n t e r e d in

some ric e growing count ri e s. Extraction an d recovery of

phytin has been investigated by several investigators

(Auriol, 1941a, 194 lb; Emiliani and Fronticelli, 1938;

Talwalkar et al. 1965; Vanossi, 1953) for d i r e c t use or

preparation of the cyclic alcohol inositol to ser ve

pharmaceutical purposes. Phytin has been used as an

a n t i r a c h i t i c agent, and inosi to l as a vitamin.

Talwalkar et al. (1965) in In d i a developed a

procedure for recovering B-vitamins and tocopherol

concentrates, fatty acids, b e t a - s it o s t e r o l , and lecithin,

in a d d i t i o n to p h y t i n from bran. Th e e x p e r i m e n t a l results

obtained by Ventura (1974) showed that the inclusion of

rice bran or a hot water extract of ric e bran has a

preventative action on caries (dental decay). Recently,

Ebisuno (1986) reported that rice bran g iven to

hypercalciuric patients resulted in s i g n i f i c a n t reduction

in u r i n a r y calcium. A suggested possible f u n c t i o n of rice

bran in human diets is to reduce serum cholesterol and

phospholipids (Vijayagopalan and Kurup, 1972). Rice bran

was also fou nd to in c r e a s e water retention in t h e feces,

which can be beneficial to human health (Normand et al.

1987).

S i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R i c e B r a n

o n its S t a b i l i t y

H i s t o l o g i c a l Co m p o s i t i o n :

True bran consists of the pericarp a nd tegmen, the

laye r s covering the endosperm. Bran, as milled, al so

contains most of the germ and portions of the aleurone

layer, together with bits of hull and starch endosperm

(Houston, 1972). Histological composition of rice bran

w a s d i s c u s s e d by B a r b e r a n d B e n e d i t o d e B a r b e r (1980). In

the discrete consequence of particle sizes, th e main

particles found in bran stream were fragments of

f l o r e s c e n t glumes, f r a g m e n t s of s t e r i l e glumes, tr ichomes,

pedi ce l, peric ar p, starch endos pe r m, germ etc. Th e

particle siz e of various histological components varies

dramatically. The largest particles of florescent glumes

or w h o l e g e r m fall in a si z e ra n g e from 1.5 - 2.5 mm, but

the s m a l l e s t s t a r c h p a r t i c l e s are less t h a n 0 .0 9 5 mm.

During the process of milling, the outer layers of

rice grain are broken and all t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t i c l e s are

completely mixed together. This starts an d stimulates

v a r i o u s e n z y m e p r o m o t i n g react io ns , s u c h as, oil from rice

e mbryo, the aleurone and the sub-aleuron lay er m i x i n g and

r e a c t i n g w i t h lipases. T h e r e s u l t s ar e oil d e t e r i o r a t i o n .

B e c a u s e m o s t b r a n p a r t i c l e s are v e r y fine, th is m i x t u r e is

thorough and intimate. Th erefore, the rate of the

d e g r a d a t i o n r e a c t i o n of b r a n oil is v e r y high.

Chemical Composition:

T he composition of rice bran depends on a series of

factors associated with the rice grain its e lf as wel l as

the milling p r o c e s s . P r o x i m a t e a n a l y s i s d a t a of ric e bran

c o m p o s i t i o n v a r y w i t h i n a w i d e range. In gene r al , r e s ul ts

can on ly be considered representative of various milling

c o n d i t i o n s and s e r v e to sh o w the rang e of v a l u e s o b s e r v e d .

 Barber an d Benedito de Barber (1980) tabulated the

proximate results in w h i c h data from India, Italy, Japan,

M a la y s i a , P hilippines, Spain, Sri-Lanka an d the United

States were cited. Protein content in m u l t i - s t e p milled

bran varies from 11.5 to 17.2% on d r y b a s i s (d.b.); Crude

fat r a n g e d from 12.8 to 2 2.6% d.b. They also fo u n d 6.2 to

14.4% d.b. crude fiber, 8.0 to 17.7% d.b. ash a n d 33.5 to

53.5% d.b. nitrogen free extract. For th e huller typ e

bran, the p r o t e i n c o n t e n t wa s as low as 6.7% d.b., an d the

crude fat w a s 4.7% d.b.

Data of defatted br a n (Houston, 1972) mainly showed

that removal of fat generally tends to ra i s e the

p e r c e n t a g e of o t h e r co mp on en t s, though directly comparable

data were not available for accurate co mp ar is on . For

parboiled Lion, Houston et al. (1969) found 9.9 to 17.2%

d.b. (avg. 14.2%) protein for six commercial samples,

compared with 16.7% average for two samples of defatted

and 13.0% for two samples of commercial full-fat bran.

Six laboratory-milled samples (ordinary bran plus polish)

averaged 16.1% d.b. protein (ranged from 14.5 to 17.3%) .

Parboiling does not seem to decrease protein content.

Special milling st u d i e s were made by McCall (1 9 5 3 ), and

the re s u l t s showed that both variety and location hav e

significant i n fl ue nc e on the c o m p o s i t i o n of t r u e bran.

Reports from both Spain (Barber an d Benedito de

Barber, 1980) and Ita ly (Fossati et a l . 1976) illustrated

changes in composition of brans and white brans fro m

sequential s t e p s in m i l l i n g b r o w n rice in c o n e mills. The

results clearly demonstrated a general decrease in per­

centages of all components other than starch as one

proceeds from o u t e r to i nn e r l a y e r s of t h e kernel.

Investigations of proximate composition hav e als o

been performed on rice germ by several researchers

(Fossati et al. 1976; Leonzio, 1966; P r i m o et al. 1970 and

Rao et al. 1967). More nutrients were fou nd in germ

parti cl es . Reported ranges for various nutrients were:

17.3-26.4% d.b. for protein, 1 6. 6- 3 9 . 8 % d.b. for fat, and

34.7-69.3% d.b. for nitrogen-free extract. Generally

speak in g, ric e polish contains more nitrogen-free extract

and less fibe r than those of the b r a n , while the germ

c o n t a i n s m o r e c r u d e p r o t e i n and cru de fat.

Bra n contains valuable components such as proteins,

oils, vitamins and essential miner al s. These nutrients

provide numerous potential utilizations for the bran. On

the other hand, bran al so contains active enzymes,

microorganisms and insects. Enzymes, microorganisms and

i nsec ts are functional in the bran because of r e ad il y

available nutrie nt s . The enzymes are the major cau se

responsible for the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of b r a n .

Chemical Constituents:

Carbohydrates: Commercial ri ce bran contains some

starch particles due to the endosperm fragments present.

Percentages reported vary from 10 to 55% (McCall, 1953;

Pascual and Primo, 1955). T ot a l sugar content of rice

bran ranges from 3 to 5% (Pascual an d Primo, 1955). Bran

is rich in cellulose and hemicellulose ranging fro m 9.63

to 12.80% (Leonzio, 1966). The main parts of hemicel­

lulose are reducing sugars, primarily pentose (59.6%).

Others are xylose, arabinose, galactose an d uronic acid

(Matsuo and Namba, 1958). Rice b r a n a l s o c o n t a i n s 7.70 to

13.11% lignin (Leonzio, 1966).

T he d i e t a r y fib er c o n t e n t in b r a n h a s bee n s t u d i e d by

Saunders (1986) . Ric e bra n contains about 69% of the

dietary fiber c o n t e n t of t h e b r o w n rice (Juliano, 1985).

P r o t e i n s a n d O t h e r N i t r o g e n Co mp o u n d s : O n t h e whole,

rice contains less protein than other major cereals such

as wheat (Juliano, 1972); however, the mos t important

limiting amino acid, lysine, is more abundant in rice

grains th a n in other cereal grains (Pecora and Hundley;

195i; Rosenberg et a l . 1959). The albumin fraction has

been reported as the main carrier of lysine, which is

located primarily in the outer layer s of the kernel,

especially in the aleurone layer (Tamura and Kenmochi,

1963; Baldi et al. 1976). T herefore, rice bran protein is

thought to be superior to th a t of the grain, bot h

quantitatively and qualitatively. Amino acid composition

of rice b r a n v a r i e s w i t h i n wi de ranges, and this variation

may be attributed to analytical techniques used. Rice

varieties and types of bran are of lesser significance

(Houston et a l . 1969). Anti-nutrient factors in ric e bra n

i nclu de phytin and trypsin inhibitor. Anti-nutritional

properties of phytin contained in bran fib er have be en

reported (Juliano, 1985); while trypsin inhibitor exists

at a low level in ric e bran, and there fo re , is not a m a j o r

problem (Saunders, 1986). Phytin is located in

globoids in the aleurone protein bodies as potassium-

magnesium salts. Its phosphate group readily complexes

with cations such as calcium, zinc, and protein molecules

w i t h p o s i t i v e charges.

Lipids: About 80% of brown rice 1 ipids are in the

b r a n and polish. In d e g e r m e d b r o w n rice, a b o u t 7 0% of the

total l i p i d s are in th e o u t e r 8% fraction. The l i p i d s of

brown rice, bran and embryo have similar p h y s ic al

constants (Juliano, 1972 ). Rice bran lipid s are

classified into the g r o u p s of g l y c e r o l i p i d s , s t e ro l lipids

and s p h i n g o l i p i d s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , ric e oil is a good

source of edible oil for humans because it has an ideal

fatty ac i d c o m p o s i t i o n for h u m a n h e a l t h - low in s a t u r a t e d

fatty acids but high in long chain unsaturated fatty

acids. The most abundant fatt y a c i d in rice b r a n is o l e i c

acid (46-60%), fo l l o w e d by linoleic acid (29-42%), and

palmitic acid (12-16%) (Lugay a n d Julian o, 1964; C h a n g et

al. 1980) . While rice bran is subjected to a rapi d

deterioration because of the very active lipase enzyme

which acts on b r a n lipids, both oil a n d d e f a t t e d b r a n are

highly stable. A potent a n t i o xi da n t, oryzanol, is

reportedly present at 1-3% in b r a n lipi d (Tsuchiya et al.

1957) . The stability of ric e bran oil results from its

low content of relatively unstable linolenic a c i d and the

relatively high content of alpha-tocopherol, a n a t ur a l

antioxidant. Linolenic acid is highly susceptible to

oxidative changes tha t give rise to objectional flavors.

L i n o l e i c acid, on t h e o t h e r hand, is m o r e s t a b l e and is an

essential fatty a c i d in n u t r i t i o n a l proces s es .

Intimate mixing of bra n li pi d s and their hydrolytic

enzyme during milling causes bran deterioration.

E f f e c t i v e s t a b i l i z a t i o n c a n be a c h i e v e d by e i t h e r r e m o v i n g

bran oil or inactivating th e bran lipase. The stability

of ric e bran or bran oil is normally determined by the

percentage changes of free fatty acids during storage,

although the peroxidase activity is sometimes used as a

day to day indicator of bran stability (Barber and

Benedito de Barber, 1980; Randall et al. 1985). Free

f a t t y a c i d d e t e r m i n a t i o n s can be c o n d u c t e d by r o u t i n e A A C C

methods (AACC, 1976). Determining lipase activity is

a n o t h e r a p p r o a c h t o a s s e s s the b r a n s tability. Analytical

procedures were described by P a rr y et al. (1966) and

Funatsu et al. (1971). Rapid determination of lipa se

activity by fluorimetric assay has been reported by

Saunders and Heltved (1985). However, these methods hav e

not b e e n re cognized.

Vitamins and Mi ne r a l s : Ri c e bran contains abundant

B - g r o u p vita mi ns , w h i c h has b e e n wel l d o c u m e n t e d . Bran is

a l s o an e x c e l l e n t s o u r c e of v i t a m i n E . However, b r a n from

parboiled rice is poor in B-vitamins (Kik and Williams,

1945). It is c l e a r that m o s t v i t a m i n s are c o n c e n t r a t e d in

the outer laye rs of the kernel. Th e b r a n c o n t a i n s 78% of

the ric e kern el thiamine, 47% of the riboflavin, and 67%

of the niacin. A h i g h c o n t e n t of v i t a m i n E (149.2 y/g or

0.1492 IU/g dry weight) was reported (Juliano, 1972).

Minerals identified in r i c e bran have been tabulated

(Juliano, 1972). Phosphorus is one of the major mineral

constituents which accounts for 1/3 of the to t a l minerals

in bran. Phytate phosphorus is the major constituent of

the phosphorus compound in bran. It is e s t i m a t e d that the

minerals foun d in b r a n would be as m u c h as 3 times those

f ou n d in m i l l e d rice (Saunders, 1986).

Physical P r o p e r t i e s of R i c e Bran:

Ordinary rice bran is light tan, siightly oily,

unstable meal containing a wide range of particle sizes.

Br a n has a d e n s i t y of 3 6 . 8 - 4 0 . 0 g / 1 0 0 c m 3 , or 2 3 - 2 5 l b / f t 3

(Houston, 1972). T h e s e v a l u e s v a r y d e p e n d i n g on d i f f e r e n t

milling pr o ce s s e s . In a b r o a d e r extent, th e b u l k d e n s i t y

of b r a n w a s r e p o r t e d as r a n g i n g from 0.2 -0 .4 g / c m 3 (Barber

and Benedito de Barber, 1980). Data have been published

for b r a n fr om f ri c t i o n vs a b r a s i o n t y p e m i l l i n g m a ch in es ;

different cones (Barber a n d B e n e d i t o de Barber, 1980); raw

vs heat stabilized ric e (Barber a n d M aq u ie i r a , 1977) ; raw

v s p a r b o i l e d rice (Rao et al. 1967); a n d d e f a t t e d b r a n and

germ (Barber and Benedito de Barber, 1980). These

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e s h o w n that: (1) Friction-type machines

produce a bran of larger particle size than the abrasion

t y p e ; (2) There is no c l e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n f i ne n es s

and cone number; the percentage of fine particles

increases in the bran fraction of deep layers.

Distribution patterns for brans from different mills

differ markedly; (3) Moisture heat stabilization brings

about agglomeration of rice bran particles; and (4)

Commercial ric e germ comprises a wide range of sizes.

Bran exhibits moisture absorption and d e s o r p t ion

properties. The generally l ow e r equilibrium moisture of

bran compared to tha t for milled rice reflects the high

lipid content of bran. The values for polish, with

s l i g h t l y h i g h e r s t a r c h c o n t e n t t h a n bran, ar e n e a r e r thos e

fo r m i l l e d ri c e (Houston, 1972). T he e q u i l i b r i u m m o i s t u r e

c o n t e n t of b r a n w a s r e p o r t e d at r a n g e s f r o m 4.6 to 5.3% at

10% relative humidity to 16 to 18% at 90% relative

humidity (Karon and Adams, 1949).

Although, all successful bran stabilization

treatments reported in the literature are heating

treatments, litt le or no information about bran t h er ma l

p r o p e r t i e s such as s p e c i f i c heat, t h e r ma l c o n d u c t i v i t y and

diffusivity is available. Other physical properties of

the bran such as porosity an d particle density ar e also

meager in the literature. The on l y report on bra n

thermal conductivity and diffusivity was made by

Sreenarayanan and Chattopadhyay (1986) who reported a

thermal conductivity of 0.086 W / m °c a n d 9.34 x 1 0 -8 m 2/s

of t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y for rice bran.

Procedures us e d for bran bulk density determination

have not been reported in detail. Methods formerly used

in determining bulk density of various kinds of food

materials were those of volume determination. Important

ones include the platform sca le method for l ar g e objects

su c h as frui ts and vegetables; specific gravity balance

method fo r small fruits, peas a n d beans, kernels of corn,

e t c . ; s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y g r a d i e n t t u b e m e t h o d for i m p e r v i o u s

specimens an d other methods using various pycnometers

(Mohsenin, 1968 ) . Th e m e a s u r e m e n t p r o c e d u r e for g r a i n p e r

b u s h e l w e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n r e c o m m e n d e d b y t he U S D A (198 3)

is often used in determining the bulk density of various

c e re al grains. The ai r comparison pycnometer method for

volume determination is sometimes also used to determine

both the apparent and tr u e v o l u m e of a sample. This can

a l s o be u s e d as a m e t h o d to o b t a i n the p o r o s i t y index of a

sample (Mohsenin, 1968).

Da y (1964) d e s c r i b e d a s i m p l e d e v i c e to d e t e r m i n e the
porosity of agricultural materials which involves the

principles of Boyle's Law. Particle density m ay be

determined by the same methods used for bulk density

measurements or simply calculating fr o m bulk density and

porosity (Farrall, 1979).

Methods are available to d e t e r m i n e the specific heat

of food m a te ri al s, bo th theoretically (Charm, 1971) and

experimentally (Ohlsson, 1983). The most widely used

methods for determining specific heat are the adiabatic

calorimeter method with internal heating an d th e

differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) (Ohlsson, 1983).

Thermal diffusivity and ther ma l conductivity of food

materials can be determined by many means. Both steady-

state and unsteady-state (also c a l l e d "transient") methods

have been reported (Reidy, 1968). A m o n g many, the regular

phase method (Dickerson, 1965) and line h e a t source prob e

method (Sweat, 1974) are the t w o m o s t popular methods for

thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity

d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , respec ti ve ly .

Rice Bran Stabilization by External Heating

Th e potential of producing high quality edible oil

from rice bra n has long been r e c o g n i ze d; howe ve r, the

difficulties of bran stabilization have also been noted.

Instability of br an arises from the intimate mixture

of rice oil and in h e r e n t l i p as e fr o m cel l disruption

resulting fr om the m i l l i n g process. The oil in unmilled

p a d d y r i c e and b r o w n r i c e is r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e b e c a u s e oil

splitting enzymes are located primarily in t h e testa and

cross cells of the se ed coat, whereas most of the oil is

stored in the aleurone cells and germ (Desikachar, 1977).

As soon as this compartment has been disrupted, the

enzyme-promoted fat degradation begins. Neutral fat is

decomposed to glycerol and free fatty acids (FFA). The

rate of this oil degradation and FFA releasing could be

v e r y high, a b o u t 5-7% p e r s i n g l e d a y a n d as h i g h as 60-7 0%

per month (Desikachar, 1977). As FFAs increase, the

refining loss for edible oil production increases mor e

rapidly because refining loss is two to three times the

percentage of FFA (Enochian et a l . 1980). Refining of

crude oil with more than 10% FFA is considered un­

economical. Rice bran oil contains 1.5-2.0% FFA at

m illi ng , less than 5% FFA is desirable in crude oil for

economic refining purposes (I nvestment Advisory Center of

Pakistan, 1978).

On the other hand, when FFAs hav e been removed from

the ne u t r a l fat, they are exposed to the attacks from

other enzymes, for example, the rice germ lipoxigenase

further degrades the FFAs to s h o r t chain FF As a n d v a r i o u s

d e r i v a t i v e s such as aldehydes, a l c o h o l s and ca rb on y l s , and

the bran become odorously unacceptable (Mitsuda et al.

1968; Yamamoto et a l . 1980). Therefore, if the bran can

n o t be e f f e c t i v e l y s t a b i l i z e d in a s h o r t time a f t e r it has

been discharged from the milling process, opportunities

for numerous potential utilizations of bran will disap­

pear. Fortun a te ly , ri c e bran stabilization ha s bee n

studied, and results have revealed that effective

s t a b i l i z i n g p r o c e d u r e s c a n be de ve lo pe d.

L i p a s e Enzyme:

Biochemical studies on rice bran lipase have been

conducted by Funatsu et al. (1971) and Shastry and

Raghavendra Ra o (1971). The specific activity of the

purified enzyme is 4.7 units/mg prot ei n . It has a

molecular weight of 40,000 an d is foun d to be stable for

at lea st one month at 0-4°C when absorbed on calcium

p h o s p h a t e gel. It has t w o o p t i m a l p H ' s at 5.5 a n d 7.4-7 .6

and ha s Km values of 0.28 and 7.4 mM for beta-naphthy 1

laureate and tributyrides as a subst ra te . When in the

active state, it catalyzes hydrolysis of long and shor t

chain synthetic triglycerides and oil s from ri c e bran and

groundnut (Funatsu et al. 1971; S h a s t r y an d Raghavendra

Rao, 1971). Th e lipas e m a y be e i t h e r r e v e r s i b l y inhibited

or permanently d en a tu r e d . The lipase molecule may be

protected by free fatty acids at low moisture levels, a

phenomenon tha t do e s not occur in the presence of water

(Srimani et al. 1974). Heat drying prevents lip as e

activity when the moisture content in t h e b r a n is r e d u c e d

to 3-4% (Loeb and Mayne, 1952) . Heating b r a n in the

presence of moisture permanently denatures degradation

enzymes (Barber a n d B e n e d i t o de Barber, 1980), a n d as long

as th e bran re m a i n s sterile, enzyme activity does not

increase (Loeb and Mayne, 1952) . Studies have s h o w n that

heat resistance of ric e b r a n l i pa se d e p e n d s u p o n tempera­

t u r e and t i m e of t r e a t m e n t as well as on m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t ,

the latter being a critical param et er . Th e higher the

moisture content, t he low er the resistance (Barber and

Benedito de B a r b e r , 1980). They reported t h r e e g e ne ra l

types of external heating for b r a n stabilization by

inactivating l i pa se enzymes. These are: (1) dry heating

at atmospheric pressu re : (2) retained moisture heating,

which requires th a t the bran be heated under pressure to

prevent moisture loss unti l completion of the heating

phase; and (3) added moisture heating in which the

moisture content of the bran is increased during heating,

f o l l o w e d by drying.

Dry-Heating Methods:

Dry-heating stabilization is basically a process of

drying which results in i n a c t i v a t i o n of lip as e d u e to the

lack of water for h yd ro ly s is . The use of dry heat to

stabilize ri ce bran has been investigated extensively.

Recommended treatment conditions differ dramatically and

r e s u l t s are v e r y varia bl e . Experiments i n v o l v i n g the ove n

h e a t i n g of bra n at t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g f r o m 7 0 ° C to 200° C

and times ranging from 5 m i n to 6 hr s hav e bee n

encountered (Arnott and Lim, 1966; Barber et al. 1974;

G o m e z a n d Prims, 1953 and Loeb et al. 1949).

L oeb et al. (1949) showed that drying and holding

rice bran at 3% moisture inhibi ts lipase a ct iv i ty ; as

moisture content i n cr e a s e s from 3%; however, the ra te of

FFA formation increases. Loeb an d M a y n e (1952) and

Chattopadhyay and Srimani (1972) found that growth of

microorganism in bra n produced an increase in FFA.

R e d u c t i o n of m o i s t u r e to less th a n 11% p r e v e n t e d g r o w t h of

microorganisms in bran.

Many types of dr y heating methods have be e n tested.

These included: o p e n - p a n roasting, s t a t i o n a r y b e d heating,

steam-jacketed screw conveyer, flue gas jacketed scr ew

c o n v e y e r a n d f l u i d i z e d bed.

Open-Pan Roasting - Open-pan roasting of bran in a

shallow pan over an open fire is practiced in the

Philippines and mainland Chi na (Hawkey and Hawkey, 1978;

Bunnel, 1980). The C h i n e s e t oa s t the b r a n by s t i r r i n g it

in a s h a l l o w pan o v e r a r i c e - h u l l fire for 10-20 min, the n

pass the bran through a hammer mill. In addition to

s t a b i l i z i n g the bran, t h i s p r o c e d u r e h e l p s to r e l e a s e the

oil.

Stationary Bed - Adair (197 6) described a bra n

stabilizing system designed to handle the output of a

small ri c e mill. Th e method provided m od e r a t e , uniform

heat by spreading the bran in a thin layer on a meta l

plate heated by boiling water. This system is laborious

but requires litt l e ca p i t a l investment.

Steam Jacketed Screw Conveyer - A jacketed screw

conveyer heated by flue gas fr o m a rice-hull furnace has

been designed in T h a i l a n d (ASRCT, 1977). This mechanism

processed 75 kg of b r a n p e r h o u r w i t h an exi t temperature

of 110°C. T h e b r a n was r e l a t i v e l y stab l e for a month.

Oil-Jacketed Screw Conveyer - Kuppuswamy (1976)

described an oil-jacketed screw conveyer us e d to

stabilize rice bran. The oil jacket was heated to 160°C

with electrical immersion heaters. Br an remained in

contact with the heated surface for 5 min an d reached a

temperature of 110°C. It was th e n held in an i n s ul at ed

b o x for an u n s p e c i f i e d time b e f o r e storage.

Fluidized Bed - Ramkrishniah et al. (1973) used a

procedure that heats bran in a fluidized bed; 4 min at

1 05 ° C w a s r e p o r t e d to c a u s e e f f e c t i v e s t a b i l i z a t i o n for 20

days; however, the s t o r a g e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e no t reported.

Other Methods - A bran stabilizer using t he

principles of combined phase fluidization - a combination

of dense (sand) and dilute (bran) phase fluidized beds-

has been designed to facilitate heating of all bra n

particles uniformly with a higher heat transfer coeffi­

cient (Chand and Gupta, 197 5) . A residence time of one

second in t h e f l u i d i z i n g c o l u m n at 110° C is r e p o r t e d t o be

sufficient to stabilize the bran. The possibility of

applying frictional hea t to accomplish the objective has

been investigated (V ir ak ta m at h and D e s i k a ch ar , 1971);

however, the proposed procedures presented s e r io us

operational difficulties involving compacting and

h a r d e n i n g of the bran.

R e t a i n e d M o i s t u r e H e a t i n g Methods:

In these methods, the ambient bran moisture is

sufficient to aid in heat transfer, enzyme denaturation

and sterilization (Lin and Cater, 1973). When the

pressure is released after heating, part of the

superheated moisture evaporates rapidly, and l i t t l e or no

subsequent drying is necessary. There are two general

retained-moisture heating methods which have been

described: s e a l e d r o t a t i n g d r u m and e x t r u s i o n c o o k i n g .

Rotating Drum - Heating treatments in a s t e a m h e a t e d

rotary dryer (Rao et al. 1967) and drum shaped jacketed

operators with paddle stirrers (Baber and Benedito de

Barber, 1980), ranging in t e m p e r a t u r e s from 8 0 ° C to 125°C

and exposure from 10 m i n to 2 hr have been repor t ed . An

electrically heated drum facility has also been tested

when s t e a m wa s not available ( V i r ak ta ma th and De sikachar,

1971). In a system described by Sayre et a l . ( 1982), a

drum rotated at 8 rp m and powered by a 5 hp motor wa s

heated to 1 10°C-112°C. The drum was charged with 2 0 0 -2 50

kg of bran and the heated moisture allowed to escape

through an open vent. The vent was then sealed and the

drum pressure maintained at 5-7 ps i for about 5 min.

After the pressure was released, the b r a n w a s emptied and

all ow e d to cool and dry. An ent i re batch run req u ired

about 30 min, and moisture was reduced by about four

percentage points. The steam required was 30 kg or 12 5

g/kg bran, FF A i n c r e a s e d on l y a b o u t o n e p e r c e n t a g e point

d u r i n g s t o r a g e of t h e s t a b i l i z e d b r a n for 70 days.

Extrusion Cooking - Another retained-moisture heating

method with satisfactory stabilization results is the

extrusion cooking. The extrusion cookers, which do not

require added water, injected steam, or a source of

e x t e r n a l heat, c o o k by c o n v e r t i n g th e m e c h a n i c a l e n e r g y of

the drive screw into heat by friction and shear as

granular material is compressed and forced through an

orifice. This process has b e e n u s e d extensively to b l e n d

and cook cereal grains and oilseed crops in the

m a n u f a c t u r e of food and feed products.

Cheigh et al. (1980) reported results using an

improved extruder in stabilizing the bran. The extruder

was powered by 30 hp electric motor that turned a 1 0 -cm

diameter screw at 6 00 -1 10 0 rpm. Temperature at the

extrusion head was 130-146°C, and moisture wa s r e d u ce d

from 14 t o 6-9% in the e x t r u d e d product. Bulk density of

the bran was increased from 0.33 to 0.61 g/cm3 . Solvent

penetration and percolation rat es were increased in

solvent extraction of oil, resulting in greatly r e d uc ed

extracting time and improved oil recovery. FFA i n cr ea se d

only a small amount during four w e e k s of storage at 32°C

and 75% r e l a t i v e h umidity.

Randall et al. (1985) r e p o r t e d t h i s t y p e of rice b r a n

s t a b i l i z a t i o n on an e x t r u s i o n c o o k e r and fou nd t h e o p t i m u m

extrusion-cooking conditions for stabilization were:

i nitial b r a n moistu re , 12-13%; throug h pu t, 450-500 kg/hr;

extrusion t em pe r at ur e, 130°C and post-extrusion holding

time, 3 m i n at 97-99°C. Th e m a j o r problems for e x t r u s i o n

cooking stabilization is less flexibility and relatively

higher c o s t .

A d d e d M o i s t u r e Heating;

Various procedures have been developed for added -

moisture heat tr ea t m e n t . All apply steam to i n c r e a s e the

moisture c o n t e n t a n d to he a t the bran. In t h o s e cases in

which steam is not available, water presumably could be

added and allowed to equilibrate before application of

heat.

S c r e w C o n v e y e r s - In th is ty p e of h e a t i n g t r ea t me nt s,

saturated steam is applied in the first stage, where the

moisture is i nc r e a s e d from 11-12% to 16-17%, and the

temperature is e l e v a t e d to 95-100°C. The second stage is

the holding stage, where the t e m p e r a t u r e is m a i n t a i n e d at

a b o u t 10 0°C by e i t h e r st e a m j a c k e t i n g or i n s u l a t i o n of the

tube. The tota l heating ti me generally subjects bran to

live steam an d a temperature of 100°C for 1-5 min. The

next stage is drying with steam jacket temperatures of

1 2 0 — 140° C a n d f o rc e d a ir flow. Finally, the t r e a t e d bra n

must be cooled (Yokochi, 1972; Barber et al. 1974; Burn s

and Cassidy, 1949; Banarjee, 1977; Fito et al. 1974).

Various modifications have been used to obtain complete

mixing of the bran and stea m to obtain uniform moisture

and heat di s tr i b u t i o n . These in c l u d e d a steam-fluidized

bed, perforated-pipe s te a m distribution, and mechanical

mixing. According to Barber and Benedito de Bar be r

(1980), inadequate stabilization of b r a n u n d e r m o i s t he at

conditions does occur and thi s can be traced to u n e qu al

moisture distribution. The bran is so fine that water

penetration is d i f f i c u l t and c l u m p s w i t h a dry c e n t e r form

if a g i t a t i o n is inadequate.

Bur n s an d Cassidy (1949) patented a process in w h i c h

bran in a screw conveyer wa s subjected to steam i n je ct ed

through perforated pipes for 1.5 min, elevating the

moisture content by 3-5 percentage points. The bra n was

maintained at 102-104°C for 3 min, then cooled. Bran so

treated was reported to be very stable. Modifications

have been reported in th i s area by Banarjee (1977) and

F i t o et al. (1974).

Rotating Drum - In this type of bran stabilization,

bran is treated in a rotating drum in a batch-type

operation. Saturated s t e a m is injected into t h e d r u m for

3-5 min, t h e n t h e bra n is d r i e d to 10% m o i s t u r e at 55°C in

15-2 0 m i n and p a c k e d (Hawkey and Hawkey, 1978).

Extrusion Cooking - Williams a nd Bea r (1965) first

reported the extrusion cooking method used in ri c e bran

stabilization. In this stabilizing system, water and

steam were both injected into the barrel at different

locations to increase the moisture of the bran to 2 3-2 5%

a n d the t e m p e r a t u r e to 120-160°C. U p o n exit from the die,

the pressure release caused rapid f la s h i n g of the water.

A f t e r cooling, the bran contained 12% m oi s t u r e . T h i s kin d

of extrusion cooking is effective in stabilizing rice

bran; however, t h e cos t is high.

I r r a d i a t i o n a n d its A p p l i c a t i o n for

Rice Bran Stabilization

Irradiation is a p r o c e s s w h e r e i n foods a r e e x p o s e d to

certain ki n d s of ionizing radiation in order to obtain a

v a r i e t y of s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s , w h i c h i n c l u d e : d e s t r u c t i o n of

food spoilage micro o r ga ni s ms ; inactivation of food-borne

pathogens; inhibition of maturation which can cause

spoilage of raw fruits and vegetables; elimination of

inse ct i n f e s t a t i o n of foods a n d ; c h e m i c a l changes in foods

that m a y c o ns ti tu te a q u al it y improvement. Th e sources of

irradiation used fo r food processing are either

radioactive isotopes (cobalt-60 or cesium-137) or m a c hi ne

sources (X-rays or accele ra te d electrons). Cobal t- 60 has

been the ra dioisotope used for commercial p ro ce s s i n g of

food. Thi s radioisotope has a half-life of 5.27 years

(Urbain, 1986).

E x te ns iv e research has been done during the past 30

years on the effects of ionizing ener gy on foods. Numer­

ous reviews of this research have been p u b l i s h e d (Urbain,

1978 ; Diehl, 1983). High d o sa ge up to 107 rep was

d o c u m e n t e d for the need of enzyme d e s t r u c t i o n (Hall et al.

1986). However, the 1986 FDA r eg ul a t i o n on approved

d o s ag e for food i rradiation all ow ed no more tha n l kGy

(100 krad) to be appl ie d to fruits and vegetables for

inhib it io n of sprouting and d e i n fe st it i on (FDA, 1983).

I rradiation of rice bran has never been used alone

for the p u r po s e of stabilization, although s ug ge st i on s had

previously bee n made by several scient is ts (Loeb et al.

1949; David et al. 1965 and Murthy, 1966).

 37

Internal Heating and its Application for

Rice Bran Stabilization

Concept of Internal-Microwave Heating:

There ar e three types of in t e r n a l electric heating

commonly encountered: induction, d i e l e c t r i c and m ic ro w av e.

Differences among these inter na l h e a t i n g m e t h o d s are t h e i r

working frequencies and the energy sources in which a

m a g n e t r o n m a y or m a y not be included.

T he term microwave is applied to wave lengths from

about 30 cm to 1 mm, bordering the far-infrared region.

The output of sp e c i a l oscillators-magnetrons, klystrons

a n d o t h e r s g e n e r a t i n g m i c r o w a v e energy, ran g e f r o m 1-30 kw

and multiple tube assemblies are presently required for

larger i n s t a l l a t i o n s .

Microwave heating is c a u s e d by th e d i s r u p t i o n of w e a k

hydrogen bonds resulting from dipole rotation of free

water molecules and by electrophoretic migration of

dissolved ions in an electrical fie l d of rapidly changing

polar i ty , e.g., 2.45 billion cycles per second at 2,4 50

MHz (Mudgett, 1982) . This kind of high speed dipole

m o m e n t c a u s e s so c a l l e d m o l e c u l a r friction', an d p r o v i d e s

h e a t to the o b j e c t .

It is important to recognize that the microwave

heating characteristic of food products may vary con­

siderably with processing frequency, temperature, c h e mi ca l

composition and physical state of the products.

Accordingly, microwave processes must be developed on a

highly selective basis, with due consideration of mutu al

interaction between the product and the processing

e qu ip me nt .

Under a certain microwave electron-magnetic field,

the microwave heating characteristics basically depend on

t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d a b s o r p t i o n of m i c r o w a v e e n e r g y b y the

o bjec ts . T i m e - t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s w i t h i n th e p r o d u c t are

caused by (a) inter na l heat generation due to absorption

o f e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y fr o m the m i c r o w a v e field a n d (b) he at

transfer by conduction, convection, and evaporation.

Thus, electrical properties which influence the rate of

energy absorption and distribution of energy within the

product are of considerable importance in the design of

efficient microwave food p r o c e s s e s (Mudgett, 1982).

M i c r o w a v e H e a t i n g in t h e Foo d Industry:

Many industrial applications of inte rn al heating

e n e r g y in food p r o c e s s i n g ca n be found in pate nt s.

Tempering of foods by m e a n s of d i e l e c t r i c heating or

microwave i rradiation, compared to conventional thawing

techniques, p r o v i d e s n u m e r o u s a d va nt a g e s , including: shor t

treatment time, little or no weight loss, growth

inhibition of bacteria, and flexibility in t h e p r o d u c t i o n

(Anonymous, 1977).

Drying of fruit and vegetable products by microwave

energy have also yielded positive results with r e g a r d s to

the final quality. The quality loss, evaluated on the

basis of color change was relatively unimportant on the

whole (Bryg id yr et al.19 77 ; R z e p e c k a - S t u c h y , 1976).

Microbial reduction by microwaves, i.e.,

pasteurization and s te ri l i z a t i o n , has been studied in

numerous experiments involving many types of foods. So m e

publications described the effects of m i c r o w a v e treatment

in c o n t i n u o u s equipment, p a r t of w h i c h is or c o u l d be us ed

in industry (Ayoub et al. 1974: Boim and Golger, 1971;

En a m i and Ikeda, 1982; Mitsubishi Monsanto C h e m ic al

Co. ,1981) .

Nelson (1972, 1976) and Chugh et al. (1973) treated

wheat fl o u r by dielectric heating at v a r i o u s frequencies,

and fou nd tha t almost 100% of the mature rice beetles

(T r i b o l i u m c o n f u s u m ) in w h e a t w e r e s e l e c t i v e l y d estroyed.

Microwave heating takes place directly within the

media (food) and within the limits of microwave penetra­

tion. Since transfer of microwave power to heat takes

place within the heated food, microwave cooking is more

e f f i c i e n t tha n c o n v e n t i o n a l baking in w h i c h h e a t m u s t pas s

t h r o u g h t r a n s f e r media. Compared to c o n v e n t i o n a l cooking,

microwave heating wa s found to be much faster up to

certain load s i ze s and in relation to the wattage

utilized. T he c os t s w e r e less w i t h m i c r o w a v e heating and

the efficiencies we re greater than with conventional

heating (Van Zante, 1973). These a dv a nt a g e s , plus

probable reduction of food n u t r i e n t losses which normally

occur in conventional cooking, attract much i n t er es t

t o w a r d m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g today.

Microwave Heating for Rice Bran Stabilization:

Stabilizing rice bran by d i e l e c t r i c h e a t i n g has b e e n

reported by Sreenarayanan an d Chattopadhyay (1986). It

was reported th a t dielectric heating is capable of

inactivating bran lipase. However, the bran so t r e a t e d

was only stable when stored in sealed polyethylene

pouches.

Using infrared heating to stabilize rice bran ha s

been reported (Narain et al, 1979). They fou nd that

radiation with infrared waves had a very l i m it ed

penetrating depth of a bo u t 3 mm in bra n m a s s . Therefore,

although the enzyme had been i n a c t i v a t e d w i t h i n the d e p t h

of th e heat pe ne t ra ti on , no substantial stabilization of

t h e w h o l e b r a n b o d y c o u l d b e expected.

Using microwave energy to stabilize ri c e bran was

fi r s t reported by Liu et al. (1979), howev er , their

efforts were unsuccessful. R h e e a nd Yoon (1984) reported

the results of their s tu d y on rice br a n stabilization by

m i c r o w a v e energy. They found t h a t th e m i c r o w a v e t r e a t m e n t

did n ot affect acid values and e x t r a c t a b i l i t y of the rice

bran o i l ; however, the bran 1 ipase activity was arrested

by the treat me nt . Using peroxidase activity as the

indicator, they also f ou n d that the init ia l moisture

content, the weight of the bran an d the treatment time

( m ic ro w a v e dosage) were important variables for the

i n a c t i v a t i o n of b r a n l i p a s e by m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n

analysis. Saunders (1986) in his review of ric e br an

studies cited a personal communication from A u st ra l ia ,

which stated that bran can be stabilized by a microwave

tunnel ; however, detailed data were not provided.

Applying microwave heating systems to various industrial

usages has been limited because of the high cost of

m a g n e t r o n d u e to its s ho r t life. However, thi s is not the

situation now. T r e m e n d o u s progress m a d e in magnetron

production has e n a b l e d the manufacturers to provide a

guaranteed period of 5 to 10 years on their products

(Copson, 1975). The rap id r e d u c t i o n in the price of

microwave heating equipment because of economical mas s

p r o d u c t i o n of m a g n e t r o n s h a s ma d e it e c o n o m i c a l l y f ea si bl e

to us e microwave equipment for ric e bran stabilization.

Because of the higher efficiency of internal-microwave

h e a t i n g , and the c o n t i n u o u s rise o f u t i l i t y c o s t s an d the

decrease in m i c r o w a v e e q u i p m e n t p r i c e (Mudgett, 1982), the

shift of rice bran stabilization from various e x te rn al

h e a t i n g m e t h o d s to internal m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g is o b v i o u s l y

reasonable.
 C H A P T E R III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

T he experiments performed in t h i s investigation were

designed to i m pr ov e or modify currently us e d methods of

bran stabilization. The drawbacks of traditional heat

stabilization have already been discussed in previous

chapters. In o r d e r for t h e b r a n t o be f u l l y u t i l i z e d on a

commercial scale, various processing operations suc h as

handling, storage, drying, stabilization etc., are

necessary. Therefore, knowledge of physical, thermal,

chemical and nutritional properties of bran is e s s e n t i a l .

This basic information is not onl y of value to a

p roces so r, but also to food scient is ts , nutritionists and

dietitians who may explore these properties for better

processing operations and in the formulation of new

produ ct s. C on se q u e n t l y , through the m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e s e

physical and thermal properties of bran, it was believed

that several of them which influence the degree of

stabilization could be identified. From those results,

process parameters for stabilization of bran ca n be

o pt im i z e d . In order to accomplish these o b j e c t i v e s , the

experimental procedure consisted of the following ste ps

and is o u t l i n e d in F i g u r e m - i ;

(1) p r o c u r e m e n t and milling of rough rice for

obtaining b r a n ;

(2) p r o x i m a t e a n a l y s i s of bran;

42
F i g u r e IIX-1. S c h e m a t i c D i a g r a m for R i c e B r a n S t a b i l i z a t i o n

Rough Rice Lo n g G r a i n — "Lemont"

M e d i u m G r a i n — "Nato"

Milling Proximate Analysis

Milled Rice Rice Bran

(Discarded)
P h y s i c a l fc T h e r m a l
Property Analysis

P a r t i c l e Size.
Stabilization Bul k D e n s i t y
Treatments Porosity
P a r t i c l e D e ns it y
S p e c i f i c Hea t
Th. D i f f u s i v i t y

£
T h . Conductivity

1
Heating N o n - h e a t ing
I
E x te rn al Internal

f 1— t
Oven Steam Microwave 6 o Co
Drying Retorting Heating Irradiation

Stabilized Bran

Storage

Free F a t t y A c id s
Color

T
Product Analysis
Nutrients
♦
r ,7 —
i Heating i
f
tEf f iciencyi Statistical Analysis
‘ Analysis !
~SZ -
S e l e c t i o n of T r e a t m e n t

\
Optimization of Selected Treatment

43
 (3) determination of physical an d t h e r m a l properties

of bran;

(4) stabilization of b r a n with external and internal

heating;

(5) s t a b i l i z a t i o n of b r a n w i t h g a m m a i r r a d i a t i o n as a

n o n h e a t i n g method;

(6) s t o r a g e of s t a b i l i z e d bran;

(7) determination of stability of stored bran at

various ti m e intervals to evaluate the degree of

stabilization and also the efficacy of

s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t u s e d ; and

(8) s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e d a t a for r e c o m m e n d i n g

an experimentally validated stabilization

t r e a t m e n t of rice bran.

T he determination of physical and thermal properties

such as specific heat, thermal conductivity and

diffusivity of br a n were essential for understanding the

heat transfer phenomena in stabilization treatments. Th e

nutritional data suc h as protein, carbohydrate, fat and

ash content obtained by proximate analysis of the bran

samples before and after treatment were needed to select

the best stabilization treatment with minimum nutritional

losses.

Test procedures and number of samples were designed

to make statistically valid conclusions based upon

recommendations of professionals in th e LSU Experimental

Statistics De p ar tm en t. Analysis and treatments were

performed in t r i p l i c a t e and only in d u p l i c a t e w h e n sample

a v a i l a b i l i t y wa s the l i m i t i n g factor.

Procurement and Milling of Rough Rice

A review of literature indicated that the works

p e r f o r m e d and r e p o r t e d b y international investigators were

mostly on roug h rice varieties tha t were of economic

i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r regions. Unfortunately, it

was discovered that a similar situation existed in dat a

published within the United States. Data on the

stabilization of rice bran are very limited in scop e and

non-definitive. At the beginning of this i nv es t i g a t i o n ,

it was decided that bran from two commercially popular

r i c e v ar ie ti es , cultivated within L o u i s i a n a be s e l e c t e d as

test samples. Accordingly, after consultation with the

rice growers a n d millers, requests were made to p e r s o n n e l

at th e Rice Experiment Station in Crowley, Louisiana to

furnish rough rice "Lemont" for l o n g g r a i n a n d "Nato" for

m e d i u m g r a i n v a ri et ie s. Short grain rice was not included

in this stud y because it is not grown on a commercial

scale in th i s region. In o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e e f f e c t of

unknown variables in b r a n s a m p l e s on t r e a t m e n t r e s u l t s to

a minim u m, it w a s d e c i d e d to u s e recently harvested roug h

r i c e so th a t all p o s t - h a r v e s t h a n d l i n g of r o u g h ric e until

 46

b r o u g h t to ou r l a b o r a t o r i e s for f u r t h e r m i l l i n g w a s Known.

Hilling of Rough Rice:

Eight 2 0 - p o u n d lots of rough rice was milled by

Satake experimental equipment (Satake Engine Co. Ltd.

Tokyo, Japan). The Satake sheller (Model THU- 35 A) wa s

used to remove the hulls. Triplicate 500 -g rough rice

samples were first d e h u s k e d by t h e S a t a k e s h e l l e r to test

the rat e of d e h u l l i n g and b r e a k a g e in o r d e r t o a d j u s t the

m a c h i n e prope rl y. For the long g r a i n (Lemont) rou gh rice,

more than 97% was dehusked with a breakage rate of

approximately 3 0%. These two p a r a m e t e r s for m e d i u m g r a i n

(Nato) variety were 98% and 2%, r es p e c t i v e l y . The brown

rice samples obtained were fu r t h e r milled by a Satake

experimental brown rice p e a r l e r (fri ct io n type) to r e m o v e

the bran. In F i g u r e III-2 are s h o w n t h e S a t a k e m i l l s and

the adjust knob and l ev e r a g e arm on the sheller and the

p earler, respectively. A 9 7 . 3 5-g balancing weight was

placed on t h e v e r y end of th e leverage arm for t h e m e d i u m

grain rice, and the sa m e w e i g h t was placed at the middle

for th e long grain rice. Bran wa s sieved by a U.S.

series No. 30 screen. Particles passing through th is

screen were used as samples for the experiments. Milled

rice and broken rice particles were discarded.

Identification of v a r i o u s particles in b r a n fractions was

accomplished by the naked eye or occasionally with the

 nl $
■M
V

Sheller P ea r le r

Figure 111-2. Apparatus to Mill Rough and Brown Rice

’-■g
h e l p of a magnif ie r, a c c o r d i n g to the m o r p h o l o g i c a l traits

described by J u l i a n o (1972) and Houston (1972). In o r d e r

to prevent changes in t h e c o m p o s i t i o n after m i l 1i n g , bran

samples were stored at -80°C in an ultra low t e m p e r a t u r e

freezer (Revco model ULT 1790 D-N-M; Rheem manufacturing

Co. A s h ev il le , NC) unt il various treatments or analyses

were performed. Samples for p h y s i c a l property determina­

tions were placed in p o l y e t h y l e n e b a g s a n d s t o r e d at 4°C.

Cold samples remained in sealed containers unt il they

reached room temperature before analyses were conducted.

Samples used for heating cur ve a n a l y s i s w e r e a mixture of

both brans r e m a i n i n g from p r e v i o u s e x p e ri me nt s .

Proximate Analysis

Moisture:

The moisture content of the bran samples was deter­

m i n e d b y t h e h e a t i n g p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d by R a n d a l l et al.

(1985) using a gravity convection oven (Precision Mode l

17. GCA Co. Chicago, IL). Tw o g r a m s of b r a n samples were

dried at 110° C for 6 h r s and t h e p e r c e n t a g e of w a t e r loss

was calculated on wet weight basis for the moisture

content.

Percentage contents of nutrients other than moisture

w e r e c a l c u l a t e d on a d r y w e i g h t basis.
C r u d e Protein:

Total nitrogen content determination was done usin g

the method described by AOAC (1984). A conversion fact or

of 6.25 w a s a p p l i e d to c a l c u l a t e t h e p e r c e n t protein.

Crude F a t :

Crude fat was determined by the Soxhlet extraction

method described by the A A C C (1976). Six-gram samples of

bran were weighed into thimbles and then extracted for 6

h o u r s u s i n g h e x a n e as the e x t r a c t i n g solvent.

C r u d e Fiber:

Crude fibe r content was determined using the AOAC

(1984) procedure. To facilitate recovery of fiber, a

s ma l l q u a n t i t y of a s b e s t o s w a s p l a c e d at th e b o t t o m of the

filter during the a n a l y s i s .

Ashing:

Since bran has a hi g h lipid content, samples we re

ashed on an open flame prior to being placed into an

electric muffle furnace (Type 6000, Thermolyne Co.

Dubuque, IA). Samples were heated at 6 0 0 ° C u nt i l a white

g r e y c o l o r ash w a s obtained.

N - f r e e Extract:

Percentage nitrogen-free extract of bran samples w as

 50

determined by subtracting the percentages of other

nutrients (except that of moisture) from o n e hund re d .

Physical and Thermal Properties

Particle Size:

P a r t i c l e size d i s t r i b u t i o n of b r a n s a m p l e s w a s d e t e r ­

mined by the differential sie ve analysis procedure using

s t a n d a r d s i e v e s r e c o m m e n d e d by A S A E (1988). Particle size

distribution of microwave stabilized bran was tested by

shaking the bran through a seri es of standard s i e v e s on a

mechanical shaker (Potable sieve shaker, W.S. Tyler Co.

Inc. Mento, OH) for 5 min.

Bulk Density:

D e t e r m i n a t i o n of b u l k d e n s i t y w as d o n e a c c o r d i n g to a

procedure used for g r a i n r e c o m m e n d e d by U S D A (1983).

Porosity:

Porosity refers to the ratio of void volume of a

porous material to its total volume (Farrall, 1979). To

m e a s u r e porosi ty , t h e v o l u m e of w a t e r a d d e d to the bra n in

a volume-known container was recorded after all pores in

the bran were fill ed with water. The porosity of the

bran was obtained by c a l c u l a t i n g t he r a t i o of a d d e d w a t e r

v o l u m e to tot a l v o l u m e of the c o n t a i n e r a n d e x p r e s s e d as a

percentage.
Particle Density:
Particle density of bran samples was determined by

calculating the r at i o of b r a n w e i g h t to t h e v o l u m e of the

s ol i d p ar ti c l e s . Th e latter was obtained from the

p o r o s i t y de t e r m i n a t i o n .

S p e c i f i c Heat:

T he specific hea t of bran samples was determined by

the method developed by Goodrich (1985) using the

apparatus shown in Figu re III-3. Two original kind s of

bran (long and medium grain brans) and bran mixtures

adjusted to various moisture content lev el s were tested

for specific heat. Calculated values of s p e c i f i c heat of

bran were obtained by adding the products of the

p e r c e n t a g e c o m p o n e n t s of the b r a n w i t h t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g

specific heats according to the following formula (Charm,

1971):

Cp = 0 . 5 X f + 0.3 X s + 1.0 Xw (Equation. III-l)

where

Cp = s p e c i f i c heat;

X f = % fat;

X s = % solid;

X m = % moisture.
F i g u r e 1 1 1-3. A p p a r a t u s to M e a s u r e S p e c i f i c H e a t
 53

WATER HEA T E R
B A TH
STIR R E R
\
FO OD -

SAM PLE
FULL
LENGTH
PROBE
THERMOCOUPLES

STAINLESS
STEEL
TUBE

Figure 11 1- 4 . A p p a r a t u s t o M ea su re Thermal D iffu siv ity

Thermal Diffusivity:
The method use d to measure bran t h er ma l diffusivity

was based on the a p p l i c a t i o n of an e x p e r i m e n t a l apparatus

designed by Dickerson (1965) a n d is s h o w n in F i g u r e III-4.

The apparatus consists of a constant-temperature water

bath and a thermal diffusivity tu b e that wa s fil le d w i t h

bran samples. The tu be itse lf w a s fabricated from bras s

plate. Thermocouples were placed at the center and als o

on the surface of the tu be to provide a complete

temperature change history when the tube wa s i mm e r s e d in

water which was heated by a water bath (Constant

Temperature Water Bath, Blue M Electric Company. Blue

Island, IL. ) . The following equation (Dickerson, 1965)

was used to calculate the ther ma l diffusivity from data

collected by this experimental apparatus:

A * R2
a = ------------------- ( E q u a t i o n . I I 1-2)
4 (Tr - T 0 )

where

a = thermal diffusivity (in2/ min);

A = constant rat e of t e m p e r a t u r e increase (°C/min);

R = r a d i u s of t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y t u b e (inch);

(Tr - T0 ) = constant temperature difference between

th e out side s u r f a c e of the tube and the center of

the t u b e (°C).
Thermal Conductivity:

Thermal conductivity of bran samples was calculated

f r o m the experimental data of b u l k density, specific hea t

and thermal diffusivity based on th e following equation

(Singh, 1982):

a = --------------------

n • CP

( Equat io n III-3)

where

a = thermal diffusivity (ft^/ft)

< = th e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y (Btu/hr ft °F)

o = bulk density ( l b /f t3 )

Cp = s p e c i f i c hea t (Btu/lb °F)

Stabilization Treatments

Fou r different stabilization treatments representing

two ex t e r n a l heating - oven drying and steam retorting,

one inter na l h e a t i n g - m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g and a n o n - h e a t i n g

- 6 0 Co irradiation were used to stabilize bran by

inactivating the l i pa se enzyme. Detailed procedures for

t h e t r e a t m e n t s a r e d e s c r i b e d below:

Oven Drying:

O ne hundred gra m s of b r a n w a s s p r e a d on a flat plat e

with a thickness of less than 1 cm and wa s exposed to

 56

heat in a g r a v i t y c o n v e c t i o n ov e n at 1 35 ° C for 2 hrs.

S t e a m R e to rt in g :

On e h u n d r e d g r a m s of b r a n w a s s p r e a d on a flat p l a t e

and e x p o s e d to 15 psi s a t u r a t e d w a t e r s t e a m at 1 2 1 ° C for 5

min. To prevent the accumulation of condensed water on

the surface of the bran, the plate insi de the ret or t

f a c i l i t y w a s p l a c e d at an i n c l i n e d angle.

Microwave Heating:

Th e microwave heating experiment consisted of thre e

steps: experimental design, peroxidase assay and br a n

s t a b i l i z a t i o n by m i c r o w a v e heating:

(1) E x p e r i m e n t design:

C o m b i n a t i o n s of th r e e independent variables i n c lu d in g

moisture content (X3 ) , sample weight (X2 ) and treatment

time ( X 3 ) , each at five d i f f e r e n t levels, were studied as

listed in Table III-l. A central composite experimental

design, as described by Cochran and Cox (1957), was used

to estimate regression coefficient (B^, and B^j)

a c c o r d i n g t o th e mod el g i v e n as follows:

Y = B0 + B XX X + B 2 X 2 + B3 X3

+ B 12x lx 2 + B 13X 1X 3 + b 2 3 x 2x 3
+ BU X! 2 + B2 2 X2 2 + B3 3 X3 2 ;

(Equ at io n III-4)
 Table III-l. Experimental Design of Microvave Heating
for Rice Bran Stabilization

Levels

Variables Symbols -1.682 - 1 0 1 1.682

Moisture Content (%) Xj 9.0 12.0 16.0 21.0 24.0

Sample Weight (g) X2 20 50 100 150 180

MW. Heating Time (sec) X3 . 60 100 150 200 240

 where

Y = dependent variable (residual peroxidase

activity);

B i» B ii' and B ij = coded regression coefficients for

corresponding independent variables and their

interactions.

Twenty trials of microwave heating treatments were

performed for residual peroxidase activity on duplicated

samples. The experiment consisted of d u p l i c a t e d observa­

tions of complete two f a c t o r i a l s (eight trials), six

points outside of the c u b i c surface to measure the

response curvature (six trials) a n d six replicate center

points to estimate the experimental errors (six trials).

Statistical s i g n i f i c a n c e of the c o e f f i c i e n t was d e t e r m i n e d

by th e t - t e s t as:

t = B / S .D* (Equa ti on III-5)

where

S .D. = standard d e v i a t i o n ;

B = regression coefficient (B^, and B^j).

(2) P e r o x i d a s e assay:

P e r o x i d a s e a c t i v i t y w a s u s e d as a q u i c k indicator

of treatment effect immediately after microwave heating

because peroxidase assay is faster and simpler than the

lipase activity determination. The lo w e r th e peroxidase

activity (measured in terms of less yellow color

d e v e l o p e d ) , the m o r e effective was the t r e a t m e n t to w h i c h

the bran was subjected. However, this test cannot be

substituted for determining lipase activity. Therefore,

the stabilized bran samples were analyzed for free fatty

ac ids content at different intervals of storage.

Peroxidase activity determination wa s conducted by the

method of Vetter et al. (1958) with slight modifications

in the size of samples and the concentration of the

enzyme. Two grams of rice bran was mixed with 50 ml of

phosphate citrate buffer (pH 6.5) and the mixture wa s

blended for 2 min. Ten milliliters of this mixture we re

diluted with 25 ml of buffer. To thi s mixtur e, 0.5 ml of

both 1% o-phenylenediamine and 0.3% hydrogen peroxide

s o l u t i o n s w e r e added. The reaction was allowed to proceed

for 5 min, at w h i c h time it w a s stopped by adding 1 ml of

saturated sodium bi su lf a t e . The absorbance of t h e sample

solution was read at 430 nanometer on a Spectronic 70

spectrophotometer (Bausch & Lomb Inc. R o ch es te r , NY). The

peroxidase activity was calculated as absorbance units

p e r g r a m sample. For example, if an a b s o r b a n c e r e a d i n g of

0.05 is obtained, the r e s u l t is c a l c u l a t e d a s follows:

 60

0.05 0.1 25 a b s o r b a n c e u n i t s

2 10 gram
* ------- * 25
50 25

(Equa ti on III-6)

(3) M i c r o w a v e heating:

The experimental dat a from steps (1) and (2) and

the prediction equation were used in designing the

microwave heating procedure for bran stabilization. Bran

was stabilized by microwave energy and the efficacy on

lipase inactivation was evaluated by free fatty aci d

determinations of treated bran at different s t or ag e

intervals.

On e hundred fift y grams of bran with 21% moisture

content was exposed to m i c r o w a v e e n e r g y of 34 0 + 10 w a t t s

for 3 min. The m o i s t u r e content of the b r a n w a s adjusted

to 21% fr o m an initial value of 11.2% for long grain and

10.8% for m e d i u m g r a i n b r a n s by a d d i n g a s u f f i c i e n t a m o u n t

of water.

A commercial microwave oven (Option 3, Thermador

Division, Norris I n d u s t r i e s Los Angeles, CA) w i t h 2450 MHz

frequency a nd 550 wa t t maximum output power was used as

the microwave energy source. The magnetron was preheated

for 2 m i n p r i o r to the s t a b i l i z i n g op er at io ns . Samples in

retortable polyethylene pouches were placed on a piece of

cardboard in the center of the microwave chamber. Th e

power output of the microwave oven was determined by the

 61

m e t h o d c i t e d by R h e e and Y o o n (1984).

Irradiation:

On e hundred-gram bran samples were exposed t o a 60Co

gamma irradiation source (Dept, of Nuclear Science, LSU)

with 4 krad/min i r r a d i a t i n g dos e for 4 h r s 10 m i n to total

an i r r a d i a t i o n d o s a g e of 1 megarad.

Sample Analyses

Bran Storage and FFA Determination:

Stabilized rice bran wa s packed in clean brown paper

bags, and stored in an incubator (model 332, Napco

Scientific Co. Tualatin, OR) . Temperature and r e la ti ve

humidity (RH) i n s id e the i n c u b a t o r w e r e m a i n t a i n e d at 33 +

2°C an d 75 + 5% to s i m u l a t e the h i g h l y u n f a v o r a b l e s t o ra ge

conditions. Samples were ta k e n at weekly intervals and

t h e FFA c o n t e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n w a s c a r r i e d out a c c o r d i n g to

a modified version of the AACC method 02-01 (AACC 1976),

d e s c r i b e d by R a n d a l l et a l . (1985) . Lipids were extracted

by hexane in a Soxhlet extractor for at lea st 6 hr and

recovered in a total volume of 60 ml. FAA content wa s

determined by removing the solvent from 10 ml of extract,

d i s p e r s i n g the l ip i d r e s i d u e in 75 ml of i s o p r o p y l a l c o ho l

fo l l o w e d by 75 ml of 0.04% p h e n o l p h t h a l e i n in 95% e t ha no l

(neutralized with 0.2 N KOH to a faint pink color).

D u p l i c a t e d 50-ml a l i q u o t w a s t i t r a t e d w i t h s t a n d a r d 0 . 0 1 6 N

KOH (prepared daily from a 0.2N stock solution) to the

first appearance of a peach t i n t . A blank consisting of

50 ml of a 1:1 mixture of is op r o p y l alcohol and neutral­

i z e d 0.04% p h e n o l p h t h a l e i n in 95% e t h a n o l w a s a l s o t i t r a t ­

ed. FFA content wa s calculated as oleic aci d and

expressed as percentage of the tot al lipids. Tot al lipid

content was measured gravimetrically after evaporating 50

ml of the hexane extract and drying the re s i d u a l oil at

110°C for 4 hr. Percentage of oil in the bran was

e x p r e s s e d on a d r y - w e i g h t basis.

Color Determination:

Following various stabilization treatments, the c o l o r

of bran samples was determined by a Hunter Lab C o l o r Dif­

ference Meter (Model D-25, Hu nt er l a b , Fairfax, VA) to

compare the colors of b r a n s a m p l e s p r o c e s s e d by d i f f e r e n t

stabilizing treatments. Untreated bran wa s use d as a

cont ro l. T h e L, a, and b r e a d i n g s on t h e c o l o r d i f f e r e n c e

meter and th e hue ang le ( 9 ) and saturated index (S. I.)

values of cont ro l were compared with the corresponding

values for treated b r a n . Th e hue and the saturated index

for ra w and stabilized bra n were calculated as f o l lo ws

(Senter et a l , 1984):
 63

e = t a n -1 * b/a ( Eq u a t i o n I I I - 7 )

S.I. = ( a 2 + b 2 ) 1/ 2 (Equa ti on I I I - 8 ) .

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis of variance using the SAS

program (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) was conducted on

the experimental data of color difference determination

and th e proximate analysis for the bran treated by

different heating methods. The F-test was us e d to

determine if significant differences existed among

t r e a t m e nt s. When differences were found, means were

separated using the Least Significant Difference (LSD)

test to determine where they occurred (Steel and Torrie,

1980). Regression analysis (K le i n b a u m et a l . 1988) wa s

performed to identify the significance of differences

among the free fatty acids which reflect th e bran

s t a b i l i t y of raw and t r e a t e d bran.

Heat Transfer Analyses

In order to compare th e thermal efficiency of ov en

drying, steam retorting an d microwave heating of bran,

studies were conducted to d e t e r m i n e to what extent and to

what thickness heat penetrated in eac h of these methods.

This was accomplished by plotting time vs temperature

graphs.
O v e n D r y i n g an d St e a m Retorting:

In oven drying, bran was hea te d at 135°C for 2 hr,

w hi l e for steam retorting, br a n was h e a te d at 15 psi and

1 2 1°C for 5 min. T em pe ra tu re s we re me a s u r e d at intervals

of 30 m i n for the 2 hr oven h e a t i n g and one mi n for steam

retorting.

A data logger (Omega Engg. Inc. Stamford, CT) was

used to a u t o m a t i c a l l y record the t em pe ra tu re and time for

o ven drying and steam retorting. Figure I I 1-5 shows the

e x p e r i m en ta l a pp ar at us by w h i c h the t e m p e r a t u r e changes of

bra n under oven drying and steam retor ti ng were tested.

Bran in the co nt a i n e r w a s s u rr ou n de d by insulative m a t e r i ­

als so that heat could only p e ne tr a te from the top.

Microwave Heating:

In microwave heating, bran wa s heate d by m ic ro w av e

e n e r g y at 550 wat ts p ow e r output for 5 min.

Figure III-6 shows the device in which bran

stabilization by microwave h e at in g was conducted. Both

the top and the bottom sides of the c on t a i n e r "A" were

c o v er ed by a lu mi nu m foil in orde r to p r e ve nt the m i c ro wa ve

i rr ad ia ti on from these directions. On l y microwaves from

radial direction could be absorbed by the bran. At the

end of microwave heating, the device was removed

i m me di at el y and temper at ur es of b r a n samples w e r e meas ur ed

by inserting t he rm oc ou p le to vario us l ocations in the bran

Thermocouple

Insulated Box

Insulator

Rice Bran

Figure 111 - 5 . Apparatus f o r the De termination o f Heat T ra n s fe r

E f f i c i e n c y in External Heating

O'.
ATi
 Aluminum Foil
Covered Board

Plastic *-rr*r-Thermocoupl e
Container "A

Rice Bran

Aluminum Foil
Covered Board

Figure 111- 6 . Apparatus f o r the De termination o f Heat Tran sf er

E f f i c i e n c y in In te rn a l Heating

(T>
CTi
mass. A specially designed extrapolation method (Nelson

and Whitney, 1960) wa s a d o p t e d t o e s t i m a t e th e t e m p e r a t u r e

of bran at different intervals. The elapsed time between

the en d of the h e a t i n g a n d th e fir st t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e ­

m e n t and t e m p e r a t u r e s m e a s u r e d t h e r e a f t e r w e r e r e c o r d e d by

the data logger. Fo r eac h degree drop of the sam pl e

temperature, a corresponding time wa s noted. A tempera­

ture-time curve was drawn with the actual temperature

a t t a i n e d by the t r e a t m e n t as s h o w n in F i g u r e III-7.
 68

T15
Time Elapsed
110

IDE
(°C)

1DO
E s t i m a t e d Bran T e m p e r a t u r e
Temperature

o —

at the End of M i c r o w a v e H e a t i n g O^ ,
Bran

□ 29 6B 87 118 145 174

T i m e A f t e r H e a t i n g (sec)

F i g u r e 1 1 1 -7. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f M i c r o w a v e H e a t e d
B r an T e m p e r a t u r e by E x t r a p o l a t i o n
 C H A P T E R IV

RESULTS A N D DISCUSSION

Results obtained on bran from: (1) milling of rough

rice; (2) proximate analy si s; (3) physical and thermal

p r o p e r t i e s a n a l y s e s ; (4) e f f e c t of s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t

on bran s ta bi l i t y ; (5) efficiency of heat t r an s f e r ; (6)

treatment selec t io n; and (7) treatment optimization are

discussed in t h i s chapter.

H i l l i n g of R o u g h R i c e

T he da t a on moisture content of rou gh ri c e an d the

average percent bran yield from m i l l i n g of r o u g h rice are

presented in T a b l e IV-1. T r i p l i c a t e s a m p l e s w e r e milled.

Th e p e r c e n t bra n y i e l d r a n g e d b e t w e e n 7.12% and 7.31%

with an average of 7.22% for long grain and 6.67% and

7.57% with an average of 7.09% for medium grain rice.

C o m m e r c i a l m i l l i n g of ro u g h rice in the p r o d u c t i o n of br an

results in yields between 5% and 9% of the rough rice

milled (Houston, 1972). The percent yield of bran

obtained in t h i s investigation compared f a v o r a b l y w i t h the

bran yield in a c o m m e r c i a l mill. Sma ll d i f f e r e n c e s in the

bran yield among various rice m i l l s a r e d u e t o the slight

variance in the m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t of r ou g h rice a n d a l s o to

the p r e - h a r v e s t h a n d l i n g and p r o c e s s i n g co n d i t i o n s .

Particle composition was investigated on the bra n

collected fr om a series of screens. Two fractions were

69
 Table IV-1. Average Percent Bran Yield from Milling of Rough Rice

Replicate Millings
Moisture ---------------------------
Rough Rice (%) 1 2 3 Average

Lemont (Long) 14.23 7.31 7.24 7.12 7.22

Nato (Medium) 13.90 7.51 7.08 6.67 7.09

identified fro m b r a n stream. Particle c o m p o s i t i o n of th e

two fractions is presented in Table IV-2. Fraction I

included particles collected from No. 20 an d No. 30 (U.S.

S e r i e s No.) screens. The main components in t h a t fraction

were broken kernels, fragments of florescent glumes,

fragments of sterile glumes and other hull p articles.

Because of its composition, this fraction was excluded

from the "true** bran categ or y. Fraction II, mainly

composed of fragments of germ, peric ar p , seed coat,

aleurone and sub-aleurone layers, was identified as tru e

bran. True bran, sometimes is referred to as simply the

pericarp and tegmen, including 8 cell layers covering the

endosperm (Houston, 1972). In the " t r ue b ra n " f r a ct io n

defined in t h i s study, a small p o r t i o n of e n d o s p e r m s t a r c h

was inevitably included; however, b e c a u s e t h a t p o r t i o n wa s

so small (less t h a n 3%), it w a s sti ll called "t r u e b r a n " .

T h e FAO d e f i n i t i o n for ri c e b r a n is "a b y - p r o d u c t from the

milling of rice, consisting of outer bran layers of the

kern e l with part of the g e r m " . Outer bran layers incl ud e

p er i c a r p , seed co a t (tegmen and testa), nucellus cell,

aleurone and sub-aleurone layers. The true bran defined

in this study was the equivalent to that definition of

bran.

Proximate Analysis

Table IV-3 summarizes the dat a on the proximate

 Table IV-2. Composition of Rice Bran Fractions

U.S. Mesh Size

Fraction Sieve No. (m b ) Composition

I 20 0.840 broken kernels and hulls

(Broken Rice)
30 0.595 broken kernels and hulls

40 0.420 fragments of pericarp, seed

coat and embryo particles

60 0.250 fragments of seed coat, aleurone

and subaleurone layers

II 80 0.177 fragments of aleurone and

(True Bran) subaleurone layers

100 0.149 fragments of aleurone, sub*

aleurone layers and endosperm

Through 100 0.149 same as above but more

endosperm particles
 Table IV-3. Proximate Analysis of Long and Medium Grain True Bran3

Grain Type
Component
(*) Long Medium Difference t value P

Moisture 11.20 10.83 0.37 2.200 0.0990

Protein 16.07 16.20 -0.13 1.000 0.3876

Fat 19.20 21.97 -2.76 5.634 0.0220*

Fiber 8.49 8.41 0.08 0.150 0.8937

Ash 9.23 9.46 -0.23 0.039 0.0350*

H-free Ext. 47.01 44.07 2.94 4.276 0.0190*

3 on dry weight basis.

* significantly different at the 5% level.
a n a l y s i s of tr ue bran.

Moisture:

Th e moisture content of t h e b r a n f r o m the lo n g g r a i n

and medium grain rice was 11.2% and 10.8%, respectively.

T h e r o u g h rice h a d a m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t of 14.23% a n d 13.90%

f or long and medium grain rice, respectively. The

slightly higher moisture content in the lo ng grain br an

m a y be a t t r i b u t e d to a h i g h e r m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t in the long

grain rough rice. The small difference in the percent

moisture of these tw o kin ds of bran and corresponding

rough rice may al s o be due to the evaporation loss of

water fr o m f r ic ti on al heat produced in milling of rough

rice. Rice bran produced in commercial mills has a

moisture content ranging between 9% and 11% (Houston,

1972). T h e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f b r a n in t h i s investigation

fell well within this range. Statistical analysis (t

test) s h o w e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t

b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o v a r i e t i e s at the 5% level (Table I V - 3 ) .

Crude Protein:

Besides fiber, protein is another nutrient for

which rice bran is commercially valued. Proximate

analysis showed that the values for crude protein were

16.07% and 16.20% on the dry base for long and medium

grain rice bran, re sp e c t i v e l y . Published data on the

proximate analysis of rice bran obtained fr om rough rice

g r o w n in t h e Crowley, Louisiana region show values ranging

between 16% and 17% (Houston, 1972). The percent protein

composition of bran in t h i s s t u d y a g r e e d c l o s e l y w i t h the

bran processed in c o m m e r c i a l m i l l s .

Crude F a t :

The fat content in rice bran is the primary

contributing f a c t o r t o the i n s t a b i l i t y of bran* Published

literature (Barber and B e n e d i t o de Barber, 1980) indicates

th a t rice bran contains fro m 12% to 23% crude fat

depending on the kind, variety, locality and region of

cultivation of rough rice. Experimental data in this

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o w e d t h a t lon g g r a i n a n d m e d i u m g r a i n ric e

bran contained 19.20% a n d 21.9 7% c r u d e fat, r e sp e c t i v e l y .

The "t values" from statistical analysis showed a

significant difference in c r u d e fat at the 5% level. This

difference may be attributed to th e variation in percent

fat composition reported to occur between lon g a n d m e d i u m

grain rice varieties (Houston, 1972).

Fiber, A s h an d N - f r e e Extract:

Percentages of crude fiber, ash and N-free extract

were also determined. Significant differences were

detected in as h and N-free extract (P < 0.05), but no

s i g n i f i c a n c e wa s d e t e c t e d in cr u d e fib er (Table IV-3).

 Physical and Thermal Properties

Th e physical properties include particle siz e dis­

tribution , bulk and particle d e n s i t i e s , p o r o s i t y , specific

h e a t , thermal diffusivity and conductivity. The data on

p a r t i c l e si z e d i s t r i b u t i o n of b r a n ar e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e s

IV-4 and IV-5 and Figures IV-1 and IV-2. In Table IV-6

are shown th e values of bulk an d particle densities,

p or o s i t y , specific heat, thermal diffusivity and thermal

conductivity.

Particle Size Distribution:

Particle size distributions of two kinds of whole

bran (fractions I and II co mb i na ti on ) are shown in T a b l e

I V —4 . From the dat a p re se n t e d , it can be seen that the

majority of particle sizes in b o t h kinds of bran fell in

the range from 0.15 mm to 0.59 mm and was referred to as

the true bran fraction in the milling. This portion of

bran particles was 72. 2% in l o n g g r a i n bran and 83.0% in

medium grain bran. Figure IV-1 visually indicates the

particle size distribution patterns in the two kinds of

whole bran. Obvious differences could be f o un d between

these two patte r ns . In seve n particle siz e groups, five

were significantly different in the percentage of br an

retained on each grade screen. The largest percentage

difference occurred in groups with particles larger th an

76
 Table IV-4. Particle Size Distribution of Whole Bran3

% Retained on Screen

U.S. Mesh Size Long Grain Medium Grain

Sieve No. (MB) (Lemont) (Nato)

20 0.840 17.01 7.01

I
30 0.595 10.75 11.02

40 0.420 14.28 19.46

60 0.250 35.76 36.77

II
80 0.177 20.87 24.24

100 0.149 1.13 2.30

Through 100 0.149 0.20 0.19

3 fraction I and II combined.

 78

□ L o n g G r a i n Ri ce tiedi urn G r a m R i ce
[ %)
on Screen
Retained
Percent

Size Group

F i g u r e IV-1. P a r t i c l e S i ze D i s t r i b u t i o n of W h o l e B r a n

P a r t i c l e S i z e (mm):
=* 0 . 8 4 B: 0 . 8 4 - 0 . 5 9
0.59-0.42 D: 0 . 4 2 - 0 . 2 5
0.25-0.18 F: 0 . 1 8 - 0 . 1 5
■*= 0 . 1 5
0.84 mm. Percent of bran retained for that group w as

17.01% in long g r a i n b u t o n l y 7.01% in m e d i u m g r a i n rice.

The higher percentage of larger particles in long grain

bran could be attributed to more frequent breaking in

t h e m i l l i n g process.

Particle si z e distribution of true bran was als o

analyzed and the results ar e listed in Table I V - 5 . Dif­

ferences between the two values of percent bran retained

for ea ch si ze group were c alculated, and th e largest one

was found to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e g r o u p of p a r t i c l e size

b e t w e e n 0.25 to 0.42 mm. It w a s 49.5 0% for t h e long g r a i n

ri c e bran while onl y 44. 32% for th e medium grain rice

bran. The distribution patterns of these two kinds of

tr u e b r a n w e r e m o r e s i m i l a r than t h o s e of th e w h o l e brans'

as is s h o w n in F i g u r e I V - 2 .

B u l k Density:

Bul k density of rice bran is often a critical

property subjected to considerable fluctuation depending

upon the millin g, dehusking and transporting. Cost of

transportation becomes significant if the bran ha s to be

shipped to a central location for stabilization

t r e a t me n ts . Th e b u l k d e n s i t y of b r a n from long g r a i n rice

was 18.20 lb/ft3 , while t h a t of t h e m e d i u m g r a i n rice was

17.17 l b /ft3 . The difference b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o v a l u e s w as

not s i g n i f i c a n t (Table I V - 6 ) . Reported bulk densities for

 Table IV-5. Particle Size Distribution of True Brana

% Retained on Screen

U.S. Mesh Size Long Grain Medium Grain

Sieve No. (■») (Lemont) (Nato)

40 0.420 19.76 23.46

60 0.250 49.50 44.32

80 0.177 28.89 29.22

100 0.149 1.56 2.78

Through 100 0.149 0.28 0.23

a fraction II only.
 81

Da

□ L o n g G r a i n Ri ce M e d i u m G r a i n R i ce

50

4D
(%)
on Screen

30 -
Retained

20 ■

10
Percent

Size Group

F i g u r e IV-2. P a r t i c l e S i ze D i s t r i b u t i o n of T r u e Bran

P a r t i c l e S i z e (mm):
> 0 .4 2 B: 0.42-0.25
0.25-0.18 D: 0.18-0.15
-= 0 . 1 5
 Table IV-6. Effect of Grain Type on Physical Properties of True Bran

Grain Type
Long Medium
Properties (Leraont) (Nato) Difference t Value P value

Bulk Density
lb/ft3 18.20 17.17 1.03 1.9606 0.1380

Particle Density
lb/ft3 67.60 61.20 6.40 1.9391 0.1380

Porosity
% 73.00 72.10 0.90 1.5119 0.2069

Specific Heat
Btu/lb °F 0.41 0.41

Thermal Diffusivity
ft2/hr x 10“3 5.17 5.29 - 0.12 0.8892 0.4359

Thermal Conductivity
Btu/hr ft °F x 10*2 3.85 3.72 0.13 2.2083 0.1194

* P values showed no significance at the 1% or 5% levels.

00
ro
rice bran ar e 19.9 lb/ft3 (Barber an d B e n e d i t o de Barber,

1980) and 23 to 25 lb/ft3 (Houston, 1972). Variation in

bulk densities of bran is common because of different

milling procedures in which a polishing step may or may

not be involved. If a p o l i s h i n g step is included in the

milling, the final bulk density of bran will be higher,

because of the higher density of finer particles (Barber

and Benedito de Barber, 1980). This observation wa s

verified and found valid. The experimental da ta are

presented in T a b l e IV-7 a n d F i g u r e IV-3.

In order to determine whether or not the moisture

content influences the bulk density of bran, a separate

experiment with varying percent moisture and corresponding

bulk densities of br an was u n d e r t ak en . Th e values are

s h o w n in T a b l e IV-8 and F i g u r e IV-4.

Statistical a n a l y s i s of the dat a indicated that there

was no significant relation between moisture content and

bulk density of bran up to 15.5% moisture. However,

moisture content of bran abo v e 15.5% greatly influenced

the bulk density which is reflected by a sudden i n cr ea se

in th e sl o p e of the curv e in F i g ur e IV-4.

Th e effect of b ivariants, moisture and particle size

on bulk density of rice bran, is p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e IV-9

and Figure IV-5. Moisture being cons ta nt , bulk density

was affected l in e a r l y by the particle size. However, if

the particle si z e was ke p t constant, t h e m o i s t u r e di d not

 Table IV-7. Relationship of Particle Size to Bulk Density of True Bran

U.S. Particle Size Bulk Density3

Sieve No. (mm) (lb/ft3)

40 0.590-0.420 17.46b

60 0.420-0.250 18.11^

Through 60 < 0.250 20.05a

a Bulk density numbers followed by a common letter are not significantly

different at the 5* level.
 85

_Q

CO

P a r t i c l e S i z e (mm)

F i g u r e I V -3- R e l a t i o n s h i p of Bulk D e n s i t y to P a r t i c l e
S i z e in T r u e B r an
Table IV-8. Relationship of Moisture Content to Bulk Density of True Bran

Moisture content Bulk Density3

(*) <ib/ft3>

9.7 19.103c

12.7 19.473°

15.5 19.823°

19.4 20.963b

23.6 21.963a

a Bulk density numbers followed by a c o n o n letter are not significantly

different at the 5% level.

00
<ri
 87

Bfi
(lb/ft^)

20
Density
Bulk

15
5 ID 15 25
M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t (%)

F i g u r e IV -4. R e l a t i o n s h i p o f M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t to Bulk
D e n s i t y in T r u e Bran
 Table IV-9. Effect of Moisture Content on Bulk Density
at Indicated Particle Sizes of True Bran

Moisture
(%)

9.7 12.7 15.5 19.4 23.6

Particle
U.S. Size Bulk Density
Sieve Ho. (mm) (lb/ft3 )

40 0.59-0.42 15.4 15.5 15.4 15.7 15.8

60 0.42-0.25 16.4 16.2 16.8 17.2 16.8

Through 60 <0.25 20.2 20.0 20.0 19.8 20.8

00
00
 89

26
0.42-0.25 mm * ^0.25mmn + 0.59-0.42 mm

2D - - * -
(lb/ft^)

+ + ' "
Density

15
Bulk

10
ID 16 26
Moisture Content {%)

F i g u r e IV-5. E f f e c t o f M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on Bulk D e n s i t y
o f T r u e B r an at I n d i c a t e d P a r t i c l e Size s
a f f e c t t h e b u l k d e n s i t y u p to 15.5% m oi st ur e. B e y o n d this

moisture level, the change in b u l k d e n s i t y w a s n ot ic e ab le .

If thermal processing is considered as one of the

stabilization treatments of bran, t he physical properties

of bran should be as su c h th a t t h e y improve the heat

transfer rate. Given the temperature difference ( a t ),

specific heat (Cp ) and m a s s of t h e m a t e r i a l ( M ) , the total

q u a n t i t y of he a t g i v e n or r e c e i v e d is g i v e n by:

Q = M - C p -AT

where

Q = tot al h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d (Btu);

Cp = s p e c i f i c h e a t (Btu/lb ° F ) ;

at = temperature difference (°C);

M = mass (lb);

Volume is ke p t constant, mass is l i n e a r l y related to

density (M = p*V ; volume b e i n g constant, M “ p ). There­

fore, Q « p .

F ro m the above equation, he a t transfer in rice bra n

can be maximized by increasing the bulk density which is

directly affected by moisture content (above 15.5%) and

d e c r e a s i n g the p a r t i c l e size.

Porosity:

Porosity ( e ) is d e f i n e d as th e ratio of the volume

of voids to the total volume of the mass of t h e material

and is affected by the magnitude of bulk density and

p a r t i c l e density, i. e.

V o _____

vt

where

V Q = v o i d volume;

V.£ = total v o l u m e

an d c is a d i m e n s i o n l e s s n u m b e r and is e x p r e s s e d as a

percentage.

P o r o s i t y is an i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y of a m a t e r i a l w h i c h

affects heat transfer calculations. The more porous a

solid body is, the more void space it w i l l have which is

occupied by air. Th e specific heat of air in the void

space is d i f f e r e n t fro m t h a t of t h e p o r o u s s o l i d m aterial.

Consequently, the degree of porosity affects the

efficiency of heat tran sf er . Furthermore, t h e h i g h e r the

p or o s i t y , th e larger the heat t r a n s f e r are a w i l l be w h i c h

results in i n c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y in th e t h e r m a l process.

T he relationship of bran porosity to particle size,

m o i s t u r e content, and the c o m b i n i n g e f f e c t of m o i s t u r e and

particle size on porosity is presented in Tables I V - 10,

IV-11 and I V — 12 an d Figures IV-6, IV-7 and IV-8,

respectively.

T he porosity of bran ranged fro m 66.1 3% to 77.19%

depending on the si e v e number from which the br an

 Table rv-10. Relationship of Particle Size to Porosity of True Bran

U.S. Particle Size Porosity3

Sieve No. (mm) ( * >

40 0.590-0.420 77.19a

60 0.420-0.250 72.29b

80 0.250-0.177 66.13d

Through 80 < 0.177 70.04°

a Porosity numbers followed by a common letter are not significantly different

at the 5% level.

ro
 Table IV—11. Relationship of Moisture Content to Porosity of True Bran

Moisture (*) 9.7 12.7 15.5 19.4 23.6

Porosity (%) 71.3 72.9 73.4 74.0 75.5

 Table IV-12. Effect of Moisture Content on Porosity at
Indicated Particle Sizes of True Bran

Moisture
(*)
9.7 12.7 15.5 19.4 23.6
Particle
U.S. Size Porosity
Sieve No. (mm)

40 0.59-0.42 75.6 77.9 79.2 80.1 78.1

60 0.42-0.25 74.7 73.3 75.1 73.1 73.6

Through 60 < 0.25 71.5 71.3 70.8 69.7 68.1

 95

60

BD

75
(*)
Porosity

70

65

00
□ 2 G 4 6 8
P a rticle Size ( x lO- * mm)

F i g u r e I V - 6. R e l a t i o n s h i p of P a r t i c l e S i ze to P o r o s i t y
in T r u e Bran
 96

BD

7B

76
(%)

74
Porosi ty

72

70
ID 16 2D 25
M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t (%)

F i g u r e IV-7. R e l a t i o n s h i p o f M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t to P o r o s i t y
in T r u e Bran
 97

en
□ 0.59-0.42

B6

BG
(%)

75
Porosity

70

65

16 2D 26
M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t (“ )

F i g u r e IV-8. E f f e c t o f M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on P o r o s i t y of
T r u e B r a n at I n d i c a t e d P a r t i c l e S i z e s
fractions were collec te d. The variation of porosity in

bran was mostly affected by degree of mi l l i n g . The data

f r o m T a b l e IV-1 0 i nd i c a t e t h a t t h e b r a n fraction collected

from siev e number 40 c o n s i s t i n g of f r a g m e n t s of pericarp,

seed co at and embryo particles (Table IV-2) was highly

porous (77.19% porosity) compared to the le a s t porous

(66.13%) represented by the bran fraction consisting of

aleurone, s ub aleurone layer and endosperm particles

collected from siev e number 80 (Table IV-2). The

relationship of particle size to porosity is als o

e x p r e s s e d v i s u a l l y as in F i g u r e IV-6.

Br an p o r o s i t y at d i f f e r e n t m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s was al s o

determined a nd is shown in Table IV-11 and Figure IV-7.

From t he data it ca n be see n th at the higher the br an

m o i s t u r e content, the h i g h e r t h e p o r o s i t y of t h e bran. In

this e x p e r i me nt , it was observed that added moisture

increased the adhesiveness of the bran p a rt ic le s. The

smaller particles tended to clump together to fo r m l a r g e r

pores.

Porosity of bran at indicated particle size with

various moisture contents was also determined, an d the

r e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e IV-12 and F i g u r e IV-8. For

particle siz e from 0.42 to 0.59 mm with an increase in

moisture content, there was a general trend in increasing

b r a n porosity, whereas the reverse phenomenon was observed

for particle size smaller than 0.25 mm. However, for the
 99

indicated moist ur e , porosity decreased with the decrease

in p a r t i c l e size.

P a r t i c l e Density:

Bra n particle density for long a n d m e d i u m g r a i n rice

bran is shown in Table IV-6 and the v a l u e s between the se

two groups were not significantly different (p > 0.05).

This may be a t t r i b u t e d to the fact tha t v a r i o u s fractions

of b r a n c o l l e c t e d from b o t h k i n d s of r i c e w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y

similar in c o m p o s it io n.

The particle density of long and medium grain rice

bran was 67.60 lb/ft3 and 61.20 lb/ft3 , re s pe ct iv el y.

W i t h a t v a l u e of 1.9391, the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e two

v a l u e s w a s no t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (p > 0.05).

T he effect of moisture content on bulk and particle

densities of t r u e br an is s h o w n in T a b l e IV-13 and Figur e

I V — 9. From th e data presented in T a b l e IV-13 and Figu re

I V — 9, it appears tha t moisture content has more of a

pronounced effect on particle density than on bulk

densi ty . For example, moisture change f r o m 9.7% to 23.6%

brought about a change of bulk density of about 2%,

whereas the same moisture change resulted in an i n cr ea se

of p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y by n e a r l y 24%.

S p e c i f i c Heat:

The data on specific hea t for both long and medium

 Table IV-13. Effect of Moisture Content on Bulk
and Particle Densities of True Bran

Moisture Content
<*)

9.7 12.7 15.5 19.4 23.6

Bulk Density (lb/ft3) 19.10 19.47 19.82 20.96 21.96

Particle Density (lb/ft3) 66.56 71.86 74.52 80.63 89.64

 101

IDG
a B u lk D e n s i t y + Particle Density
{1b / f )
Density

—A — A
A-

6 ID 16 2D 26
M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t (%)

F i g u r e IV-9. E f f e c t o f M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on Bulk and

P a r t i c l e D e n s i t i e s of T r u e Bran
grain bran are presented in Table IV-6. There was no

difference in the values of specific heat due to the

variety difference (0.41 Btu/lb °F) . T he re fo r e, for

subsequent e xp e r i m e n t s , the specific heat values wer e

determined for a m i x t u r e of long an d m e d i u m g r a i n instead

of for e a c h v a r i e t y s eperately. Any variation in s p e c i f i c

heat of the bran is d u e to the contribution made by th e

variation in moisture content of the bran. Moisture is

the c o m p o n e n t e i t h e r a d d e d or r e m o v e d for f u r t h e r p r o c e s s ­

ing of b r a n for s t a b i l i z a t i o n . Protein, c a r b o h y d r a t e s and

fat components of bran are not affected by any thermal

processing.

T he calculated an d experimental specific heat values

of bran (mixture of long and medium grain) with various

moisture contents are presented in Table IV-14 and

correspondingly in F i g u r e IV-10. F r o m t h e p r e s e n t e d data,

it ca n be s e e n t h a t the e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s c l o s e l y a g r e e d

with the calculated values showing tha t th e t e c h n i q u e and

the method used for specific heat determination were

reliable.

Thermal Diffusivity:

Results of therm al diffusivity determinations are

s ho w n in Table IV-6. The thermal diffusivity was 5.17 x

1 0 ~ 3 f t 2/ h r for the lo ng g r a i n b r a n a n d 5.29 x 1 0 -3 ft2/ h r

for the m e d i u m g r a i n bran. Statistical analysis (t value)

 Table IV-14. Specific Heat of Rice Bran

Specific Heat
(Btu/lb °F)
Moisture Content
( * ) Calculated Experimental

9.7 0.42 0.35

12.7 0.43 0.41

15.5 0.44 0.45

19.4 0.47 0.49

23.6 0.50 0.55

103
 104

ID

g a Expt. V a l u e + C a l . Value
°F)

7
10"1 Btu/lb

5 - - +

4
(x
Heat

3
Specific

Q
6 ID 16 2D 26
M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t (%)

F i g u r e IV-10. C o m p a r i s o n o f C a l c u l a t e d Vs E x p e r i m e n t a l
V a l u e s of S p e c i f i c H e a t of T r ue B r an
 105

indicated that t h e r e wa s no significant difference in the

t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y b e t w e e n t h e s e two k i n d s of bran.

Theoretical consideration for thermal diffusivity

determination of the method employed in this study was

described by Dickerson (1965), and applies to transient

heat transfer conditions where the temperature of the

sample i n c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e as follows:

a 2t a 2t a2T
_3 T_ _ C =
9 t a x2 3y
9 y22 az2 (l )

In c y l i n d r i c a l c o o r d in at e s. Equation 1 becomes

3T 32T 1 aT 1 92T 3 2T

at ar2 r ar r2 ae2 3 z2 (2),

By d i s a l l o w i n g t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t s p a r a l l e l to the axi s

of t he cylinder, it m a y be t a k e n that

a 2t

3 Z2 ,

w h e r e the t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e a r o u n d t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e

is zero. Th e n

a2t
2 °
90
w hich follows

at a2 t i aT

at ar2 r a r (3) .
 106

C o n s t a n t C b e i n g t e m p e r a t u r e gradi en t, then

A 3 2T 1 3T

a 3 r2 r 3 r {4) .

where

a = thermal diffusivity (in2/min)

A = constant temperature in c r e a s e r a t e ;

t^ = t e m p e r a t u r e at t h e t i m e 1;

t Q = initial t e m p e r a t u r e ;

0 = t i m e t r an si en t;

r = radius;

T = temperature.

B e c a u s e T / r is no long er t i m e - d e p e n d e n t , Equation 4

becomes

d 2T 1 dT A

dr2 r dr a (5),

a n d its s o l u t i o n is

A r2
T + Cl In (r) + c2 (6) .
4 a

T h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s to be a p p l i e d to E q u a t i o n 6

are

T = At = TR (r > 0, r = R)
 107

dT
= 0 (r > 0, r = 0)
dr

w h i c h lead to

A
T R - T = ----- (R2 - r 2 ) (7)
4a

T a k i n g r = 0 g i ve s

A R2

4 (T r - T0 ) (8).

To illustrate the determination of the thermal

diffusivity in th i s study, da ta for equation 8 obtained

from F i g u r e IV-ll w e r e c a l c u l a t e d as follows:

A = (tx - t o )/0 = (60°C - 2 6 ° C ) / 4 8 m i n = 0. 6°C/min;

where

R = r a d i u s of tes t t u b e = 1.409 inch (measured);

T r = ° C at c i r c u m f e r e n c e of tub e = 6 0 ° c ;

T 0 = °C at t h e c e n t e r of tu b e = 44°C.

(0.6°C/min) (1.409 inch)

a ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------ 0.0 1 32 i n 2/ m i n
4 (60 °C - 44°C)

It w a s e x p e r i m e n t a l l y o b s e r v e d tha t r e g a r d l e s s of the

b r a n variety, the thermal diffusivity was directly p r o p o r ­

tional to moisture content and inversely proportional to

the p a r t i c l e size of bran. W i t h i n th e e x p e r i m e n t a l e x t e n t

of thi s study, i. e., bran moisture content fr o m 9.7% to

 108

70 i-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- l
1
__, Ca
. OO O u t s i d e Central
□ Central
,□
A = ((6600°°CC--2266°°CC))//4488 m mi ni n == 00..66°°CC//mmiinn;; D
BO ■ 9 -D —T„
aa =
= ((AA--RR22)/4
)/4■ (T
■ ( rT -p -T T0 0) ) == 00..00113322 i ni Vn m2 /min;
in; ‘R
R
BE - TVr = OOuuttssiiddee b r a n tteemmppeerraattuurree;;
T = CCee nt
ntrraall bran tteemmppeerraattuurree.. „n '
50- 0 □
a'
.□' /°
{°C)

45 ' rt'' T
— T,
-□ ,o 0
, □
Bran Temperature

40 - □
-D
35- P' „o X

30 -
a
2 6 ?r '
o----- O '-- -----
O
0 Q I ■ ■ ■ ‘__________ I___________I >------------ 1--------1------------1 - --------1---------- 1------------ 1 I-

□ 4 8 12 IB 20 24 2B 32 36 40 44 48 B2 6B 90

T i m e (min)

F i g u r e IV-11. T i m e - T e m p e r a t u r e Data f o r T h er m a l D i f f u s i v i t y
D e te r m i n a t i o n
 109

23.6%, the thermal diffusivity was linearly related (r =

0.94, p < 0.05) to the bran moisture content (Table IV-

15) . When the bran moisture content was increased from

9.7% to 23.6%, the bra n t h e r m a l diffusivity was increased

from 1.06 x 1 0 ~ 2 i n 2/ m i n t o 1.64 x 1 0 -2 i n 2/roin (particle

size: 0.42 m m >> 0.25 mm). The i n c r e m e n t rate w a s g r e a t e r

th a n 50%. This phenomenon impli ed t h a t increases in bran

moisture content will greatly improve the b r a n 1s heat

t r a n s p o r t i n g ability. A similar relationship was observed

between bran particle size an d t h e r m a l diffusivity. When

the bran particle size was reduced fr o m 0 .6 0 - 0 . 8 4 mm to

0.15-0.18 mm, the thermal diffusivity was increased from

1.01 x 10“2 i n 2/ m i n to 1.23 x 1 0 ~ 2 i n 2/min. Table I V - 16

shows that the bran particle size and the corresponding

t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y b o t h changed. Thermal d i f f u s i v i t y w as

found highly related to particle size (r - -0.913; p <

0.05).

Thermal Conductivity:

Thermal conductivity of long and medium grain bran s

was calculated by Equation III-3 (p. 55) from th e bul k

density, specific he at a nd thermal diffusivity data.

Results are listed in Table IV-6. The thermal conduc­

tivity was 3.85 Btu/hr ft ° F x 1 0 -2 a n d 3.72 Btu/hr ft °F

x 10“2 for long grain rice and medium grain ric e bran,

respectively. Statistical analysis (t value) on this

 Table IV-15. Relationship of True Bran Moisture
Content to Thermal Diffusivity3

Moisture Content
(%) 9.7 12.7 15.5 19.4 23.6

Thermal Diffusivity
in2/min X 10‘2 1.06 1.27 1.49 1.57 1.64

a Correlation between moisture content and thermal diffusivity was

r = 0.938, P < 0.05.
 Table IV-16. Relationship of True Bran Particle Size to Thermal Diffusivity3

Particle size
(n ) 0.60-0.84 0.42-0.60 0.25-0.42 0.18-0.25 0.15-0.18

Thermal
Diffusivity
(in2/min X 10- 2 ) 1.01 1.06 1.06 1.22 1.23

a Correlation between bran particle size and thermal diffusivity was

r = —0.913 1 P < 0.05.
property of the two k in d s of bran indicated that the

thermal conductivities were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t at

the 5% probability level. Th er e f o r e , the thermal

conductivities for subsequent experiments were determined

in bran mixtures (long and medium grains) with different

moisture contents and the values are presented in Table

I V — 17. Similar to that of specific heat, the t h er ma l

conductivity of bran is not affected by any other

c o m p o n e n t s of b r a n e x c e p t the moisture.

In order to determine the effect of combination

v a ri ab le s, i.e., moisture (M) , bulk density ( p ) and

specific heat (Cp ) , on thermal diffusivity ( ) and

thermal conductivity (K), a regression analysis wa s

p e rf o r m e d . T he following linear relationships adequately

represent th e conductivity and diffusivity in terms of

other variables:

K = 0.16 13 8 + 0 . 0 0 6 2 8 M - 0 . 0 0 9 4 5 p - 0-03Cp ;

a = 0.0 43 8 + 0 . 0 0 0 8 4 M - 0 . 0 02 22 p - 0.0148Cp .

T he informationcollected in bran thermal property

determinations indicated that because rice bran has a very

low thermal conductivity and diffusivity, effective he at

treatment on rice bran wi ll depend more on the he at

p e n e t r a t i n g a b i l i t y of t h e heat s o u r c e r a t h e r t h a n on hea t

transporting ability of rice bran. Microwave heating,

 Table IV-17. Bulk Density, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity and
Diffusivity of Rice Bran with Different Moisture Contents

Moisture K
P ->
% lb/ft3 Btu/fb °F ft2/hr io-3 Btu/hr ft °F 10 "2

9.7 19.10 0.35 4.4 2.9

12.7 19.47 0.41 5.3 4.2

15.5 19.82 0.45 6.2 5.5

19.4 20.96 0.49 6.5 6.7

23.6 21.96 0.55 6.8 8.2

p = Bulk density; Cp = Specific heat;

a = Thermal diffusivity; K = Thermal conductivity.
 114

because of its inter na l heating property, should hav e

higher efficiency in h e a t i n g ri c e bran.

Effect of Stabilization Treatments on Bran Stability

Free Fatty Acids:

Although the peroxidase activity results were usef u l

as day to day i n d i c a t o r s of b r a n st a bi l i z a t i o n , increases

in free fat ty acids (FFA) in stabilized bran were the

ultimate criterion for e v a l u a t i n g b r a n s tability.

R i c e b r a n s t a b i l i z e d by four d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t s w as

tested for FF A content over a four-week storage period.

In Table IV-18 are presented the FFA values of analysis

for long grain (Lemont) rice bran during storage. FFA

increases of bran stabilized by different treatments

during storage are graphically presented in F i g u r e IV-12.

In Table I V - 19 are shown the results of regression

analysis for FFA changes resulting from different

s t a b i l i z a t i o n tr ea tm e nt s.

Control - The FFA content of control bran i n cr ea se d

sharply from an initial v a l u e of 4.0% to a final v a l u e of

68.3%, an almost seventeen-fold increase, during four

weeks of storage. Th e n e g a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s of the slopes

(Table I V - 19) among the control an d the steam retorting

and the microwave heating i n d i c a t e d t h a t the F F A increase

was significantly fast e r in untreated bran than those in

 Table IV-18. Free Fatty Acid Content of Stabilized
True Bran During Storage (Lemont)a

Storage
(weeks)

0 1 2 3 4

Free Fatty Acid

Treatment (% oleic acid)

Control 4.0 37.4 54.3 66.9 68.3

Oven Drying 4.0 27.0 47.9 71.4 73.0

Steam Retorting 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.9 4.2

Microwave Heating 4.0 4.2 4.6 4.3 4.9

Irradiation 4.0 42.8 60.8 62.0 ----

a Bran: Long Grain Rice.

Storage: Temperature: 33 + 2°C;
Rel. Humidity: 7 5 + 5 % .
 116

1DD

O Control 0 Oven Drying □ S t e a m Retorting

♦ M i c r o w a v e Heating 0 Gairana I r r a d i a t i o n
(!)

- -<>
Content
Acid
Fatty
Free

o ----

0 2 3 A
S t o r a g e T i m e (weeks)

F i g u r e IV-12. F r e e F a t t y A c i d C o n t e n t o f S t a b i l i z e d T r ue
B r a n D u r i n g S t o r a g e ( L emont)

Bran: L o ng G r a i n Rice.
S to ra q e : T e m p e ra tu r e , 33 t 2°C;
Rel. H u m i d i t y , 75 + 5%.
 Table IV-19. Regression Analysis for FFA Changes Resulting from
Different Stabilization Treatments (Lemont)a

Treatment

Oven Steam Microwave

Control Drying Retorting Heating

Treatment Difference between Slopes

Oven Drying 13.902*

Steam Retorting -16.051* -18.595**
Microwave Heating -15.662* -18.107** 0.103
Irradiation 25.123* 22.668** 40.888** 40.728**

a bran: long grain rice.

* significant at the 5% level;
** significant at the 1% level.
 118

t h e o t h e r t w o k i n d s of s t a b i l i z e d b r a n s (P < 0.05).

According t o th e regression analysis, the ra te of

increase in FFA in ov e n dried bran was significantly

higher than th at of untreated bran (P < 0.05). The

difference in FFA increasing rate between the ste am

r e t o r t e d b r a n a n d t h e m i c r o w a v e h e a t e d w a s no t s i g n i f i c a n t

(P > 0.05); however, the differences among other

t r e a t m e n t s w e r e all h i g h l y s i g i n i f l e a n t (P <0.01).

Oven Drying - Oven drying of b r a n at 13 5°C for 2

h o u r s d e c r e a s e d the ra t e of e n z y m a t i c h y d r o l y s i s of fat in

the fir s t week of storage (Table IV-18). However, when

the bran moisture content e q u i l i b r a t e d to t h e ambient

moisture (10.1%), th e enzymatic hydrolysis increased

sharply. A t th e end of the four-week storage p e r i o d , the

FFA of oven dried bran increased fro m an initial level of

4.0% to a final value of 73.0% which was nearly an

eighteen-fold i nc r e a s e in FFA. Consequently, oven drying

does not stabilize bran and this method cannot denature

lipase effectively. At best it ca n temporarily prevent

the hydrolytic degradation of bran which is affected by

its m o i s t u r e content.

T h e a b o v e o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f i r m s that: (1) the p e r o x i d ­

ase t e s t c a n not be s u b s t i t u t e d t o e x p r e s s b r a n s t a b i l i z a ­

tion in p l a c e of the FFA test. Peroxidase test performed

immediately after oven drying of bran showed that it was

s t a b i l i ze d, whereas the same s a m p l e t e s t e d for F F A at the

end of the fourth week showed that free fatty acids had

increased almost eighteen-fold; an d (2) the ra te of

enzymatic hydrolysis of fat is affected by the moisture

content of the sample. Br an had an initial moisture

c o n t e n t of 2.4% at the t i m e it w a s o v e n dried. Peroxidase

activity tested immediately after treatment of br a n

falsely indicated tha t it was an effective treatment for

bran stabilization. However, during storage, when the

bran moisture increased from 2.4% to an equilibrium

moisture content of 10.1%, the rate of enzymatic

hydrolysis dramatically increased resulting in an almost

18-fold increase in FFA. A similar phenomenon on the

effect of moisture content on the rate of enzymatic

h y d r o l y s i s can b e seen by the v a l u e of F F A c o n t e n t for the

control samples given in T a b l e IV-18.

Steam Retorting - Steam retorting effectively stopped

t h e e n z y m a t i c h y d r o l y s i s of rice bran. T h e FFA c o n t e n t in

steamed samples increased fr om an initial v a l u e of 4.0% to

a final v a l u e of 4.2% (only 5% increase) at t h e e n d of the

four weeks of storage (Table IV-18). A similar

observation on the effective use of steam for li pa s e

inactivation in b r a n stabilization has b e e n m a d e by o t h e r

investigators (Barber and B e n e d i t o de Barber, 1980).

Microwave Heating - T he rate of FFA development in

bran stabilized by microwave heating was significantly

lower throughout th e storage period compared to tho se

 120

r at e s of FFA formation in b r a n s treated by other methods

except that in st e a m r e t o r t i n g t r e a t e d b r a n (Table IV-18).

FF A content of bran stabilized by microwave heating

changed from an initial value of 4.0% to 4.9% after four

weeks of storage, onl y a 0.9 percentage point increment.

This level of in c r e a s e in FF A of bran is acceptable to

rice millers, food processors and nutritionists

( I n v e s tm en t Advisory of Pakistan, 1978; Sayre et al.

1982) . The slight increase of FFA in microwave treated

bran for four weeks storage is less th a n the reported

v a l u e of one p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t in c r e a s e in e x t r u s i o n c o o k e d

bran an d stored for a similar period (Randall et al.

1985).

F ur t h e r m o r e , th e m i c r o w a v e stabilized b r a n wa s found

to have an additional advantage in that the moisture

content of bran did not affect lipolytic hy d r o l y s i s . At

the end of storage, the moisture content of microwave

stabilized bran reached 10.1%, however, the FFA content

d i d no t incr ea s e as it d i d in o v e n d r i e d bran.

Irradiation - Gamma irradiation at 1 m e g a r a d di d not

s h o w a n y s t a b i l i z i n g effect. T h e d a t a on F F A f o r m a t i o n in

bran treated by irradiation is presented in T a b l e IV-18.

Those values in d i c a t e that irradiation even at 1 megarad

is no t an effective method for rice bran stabilization.

According to the FDA, high dosage gamma irradiation (for

example, 4 megarad) is approved only for l i mi te d

utilization su ch a.^ for spic e deinfestation (Potter,

1985). Therefore, irradiating rice bran with higher

d o s a g e s d o e s not s e e n p r a c t i c a l .

F FA c h a n g e s of raw a n d s t a b i l i z e d m e d i u m g r a i n (Nato)

bran were als o tested by the same procedure. S ince

experiments conducted with long g r a i n rice b r a n showed no

stabilizing effect by gamma irradiation, that treatment

was eliminated from the m e d i u m g r a i n b r a n experiment. In

Table IV-2 0 are p r e s e n t e d t he F F A v a l u e s for m e d i u m g r a i n

(Nato) rice bran during storage. FFA increases of bra n

stabilized by different treatments during storage are

graphically presented in Figu re IV-13. In T a b l e IV-21 are

shown the results of regression analysis for FFA changes

resulting from d i f f e r e n t s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s .

It was noted that slightly higher initial values of

FFA occurred in thes e samples which resulted in greater

v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n t r e a t m e n t effects.

M o is tu re :

Th e e f f e c t of s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s o n e q u i l i b r i u m

moisture contents (EMC) for long and medium grain tru e

bran during storage are p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e s IV-22 and IV-

23. These dat a are graphically presented in F i g u r e s IV-14

a n d I V — 15 w h i c h s h o w the e f f e c t of s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t

o n EM C of bran.

Th e EMC of untreated long g r a i n b r a n changed from an

 Table IV-20. Free Fatty Acid Content of Stabilized
True Bran During Storage (Nato)a

Storage
(weeks)

0 1 2 3 4

Free Fatty Acid

Treatment (% oleic acid)

Control 4.6 24.6 38.0 44.0 56.8

Oven Drying 4.6 7.9 22.9 18.9 29.1

Steam Retorting 4.6 4.5 4.8 4.0 4.4

Microwave Heating 4.6 4.7 6.0 4.2 6.2

a Bran: Medium Grain Rice (Nato).

Storage: Temperature: 3 3 + 2°C;
Rel. Humidity: 75 + 5%*
 123

BO

OControl & Oven Drying □ Steam Retorting

70
+ M i c r o w a v e Heatina
80
{ %)

60
Content

40
Acid

30
Fatty

20
Free

10

0
0 2 3 4
S t o r a g e T i m e (weeks)

F i g u r e I V - 13. F r ee F a t t y A c i d C o n t e n t of S t a b i l i z e d T r u e
B r an D u r i n g S t o r a g e (Nato)

Bran: M e d i u m G r a i n Rice.
S t o r a g e : T e m p e r a t u r e , 33 + 2°C;
R e l , H u m i d i t y , 75 t 5%.
 Table XV-21. Regression Analysis for FFA Changes Resulting from
Different Stabilization Treatments (Nato)a

Treatment

Oven Steam
Control Drying Retorting

Treatment Difference between Slopes

Oven Drying -4.832

Steam Retorting -12.145** -5.886*
Microwave Heating -12.119** -5.859* 8.186

a bran: medium grain rice.

* significant at the 5% level;
** significant at the H level.
 Table IV-22. Effect of Stabilization Treatments on Equilibrium Moisture
Content of True Bran During Storage (Lemont)a

Storage
(Weeks)

0 1 2 3 4

Equilibrium Moisture Content

Treatments (%)

Control 9.0 11.8 12.1 10.3 10.3

Oven Drying 2.4 9.6 12 .1 9.8 9.6

Steam Retorting 9.3 10.3 11.0 8.3 8.3

Microwave Heating 10. 3 9.5 11.2 9.3 10.1

Irradiation 16.5 12.7 10.9 10.2 molded

a Bran: long grain rice,

 Table IV-23. Effect of Stabilization Treatmenst on Equilibrium Moisture
Content of True Bran During Storage (Nato)3

Storage
(Weeks)

0 1 2 3 4

Equilibrium Moisture Content

Treatments <*>

Control 10.5 10.0 14.2 9.9 12.2

Oven Drying 2.9 8.0 11.2 9.4 10.1

Steam Retorting 9.6 8.9 12.2 9.3 10.6

Microwave Heating 9.2 8.3 12.4 9.9 10.2

3 Bran: medium grain rice.

 127

O C o ntrol £ O v e n Dryi ng □ Steam Retorting

^ M i c r o w a v e Heating + Irradiation
(?)
Content
Moisture

Q—
Equilibrium

D 2 3 4
S t o r a g e T i m e (weeks)

F i g u r e IV-14. E f f e c t o f S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s on
Equilibrium Moisture Content of True
B r an D u r i n g S t o r a g e (Lemont)

Bran: L o n g G r a i n Rice.
St or a g e : T e m p e r a t u r e , 33 * 2°C;
R e l . H u m i d i t y , 75 t 5%.
 128

O Co ntrol & O v e n Dryi ng □ Steam Retorting

^ M i c r o w a v e Heating
(*)
Content
Moisture

n
In
Equilibrium

□ 2 3 4
S t o r a g e T i m e (weeks)

F i g u r e IV — 15. E f f e c t o f S t a b i l i z a t i o n T r e a t m e n t s on
Equilibrium Moisture Content of True
B r a n D u r i n g S t o r a g e (Nato)

Bran: M e d i u m G r a i n Rice.
S t o r a g e : T e m p e r a t u r e , 33 t 2°C;
R e l . H u m i d i t y , 75 t 5%.
 129

init ia l v a l u e of 9*0% to a final v a l u e of 10.3% at th e en d

of four weeks, with considerable fluctuations in its

values over the 4-week period. The EMC reached its

highest value (12.1%) at the end of two weeks storage

while reaching the low es t v a l u e (10.3%) at the e n d of th e

t h i r d week. N o c h a n g e in th e E M C o c c u r r e d a f t e r th e t h i r d

week (Figure I V - 1 4 ) .

A comparison of the EM C of lon g g r a i n b r a n to m e d i u m

grain bran {Tables IV-22 and IV-23) shows both

similarities and dissimilarities in these two kinds of

bran. As in long g r a i n bran, t h e EMC of c o n t r o l l e d m e d i u m

grain bran al s o increased during fi r s t two weeks of

storage. Graphs for long g r a i n and m e d i u m g r a i n bran s in

Figures IV-14 a n d IV-15 s h o w th a t EMC for long g r a i n b r a n

after the third week tapered off with no c h a n g e s , whereas

in medium grain bran, the EMC decreased to 9.9% for the

same storage period and then increased to 12.2%. This

small variation in th e storage behavior with respect to

t h e E M C b e t w e e n c o n t r o l b r a n s of long a n d m e d i u m g r a i n ma y

be attributed to the significant differences of c r u d e fat

composition and small differences in densities and

p o r o s i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o k i n d s of bran.

The moisture absorption patterns on EMC in b o t h long

and medium treated brans during the four w e e k s of s t o r a g e

were similar to the respective contr ol s, although not in

magnitude and absolute values. The EMC of both treated

brans increased during the first two weeks of s t o ra ge

after which ti m e th e EMC of treated long grain bran

decreased in the third week and stayed constant at the

fourth week. The treated medium grain bran behaved dif­

ferently in that its EMC decreased at the third week and

increased again by the fourth week. These observations

were foun d t o b e true for bot h long an d m e d i u m g r a i n b r a n s

a n d th e y w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t of t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s .

An additional observation of great interest is to

compare the change of E M C to the c h a n g e of F F A in all the

samples including control and treated brans during

storage. Except in steam retorting and microwave

stabilized brans, both long and medium grain br an

stabilized by other treatm en t s, showed a steady i n cr ea se

in FFA which closely paralleled to the increases of EMC

during storage (Tables IV-18 and I V - 2 1 ) . This observation

leads to t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t s t e a m r e t o r t i n g a n d m i c r o w a v e

heating are two possible methods which are effective in

reducing FFA formation in br an during storage. However,

the selection of stabilization methods needs more

information suc h as cost of opera ti o n, period of s t o ra ge

d e s i r e d a n d th e e n d use of s t a b i l i z e d bran, etc.

Bran Color:

In order to evaluate the potential food us es of

s t a b i l i z e d bran, the e f f e c t of he a t t r e a t m e n t on the c o l o r

of b r a n w a s a l s o investigated. T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g L, a, b,

and Hue ( e ) angle, and t he Saturate Ind ex (S. I.) me an

values, as determined by th e Hunter Lab Color Difference

meter, are shown in Table IV-24 for long grain bran and

T a b l e I V — 25 for m e d i u m g r a i n bran.

Al l h e a t t r e a t m e n t s c a u s e d s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e s of L

values indicating a darker color in heat treated bran.

However, these L values i n d i c a t e d tha t the L v a l u e s of the

bran samples were decreased l e a st by microwave heating,

while steam retorting decreased it the most. Microwave

heating caused the least changes in color whereas the

steam retorting resulted in an intense color change from

l ig h t t a n to d a r k brown.

Increases in a and b values because of hea t

treatments in d i c a t e i n cr ea se s in r e d n e s s a n d y e l l o w n e s s of

b r a n p ar ti cl es , r e s p e ct iv el y. Steam retorting resulted in

the biggest increment change, f ol l o w e d b y oven drying and

microwave irradiation. Those differences were all

s i g n i f i c a n t at the 5% level.

The Hue angle ( 6 = t a n -1 b/a) and saturation index

(S.I. = (a2 + b2)V2) are more effective for predicting

visual color appearances than either L, a or b values

a lo n e (Little, 1975). T h e c o m p a r i s o n of h u e angle values

for different heat treatments in ric e bran revealed tha t

microwave heating changed the bran colors leas t when

c o m p a r e d to u n t r e a t e d bran.
Table IV-24. Means of Hunter Color Values of Heat Stabilized Bran (Lemont)3

Hunter Color Values b

Treatment L a b Hue S.I

Control 63.20a 1.89d 18.30d 84.lla 18.39d

Oven Drying 58.35° 3.39b 20.69b 80.70° 20.97b

Steam Retorting 56.10d 3.57a 21.lla 80.41° 21.40a

Microwave Heating 59.34b 2.62° 19.66° 82.42b 19.84°

a Bran: long grain rice.

b Numbers within columns followed by a c o n o n letter are not significantly
different at the 5% level.
Table IV-25. Means of Hunter Color Values of Heat Stabilized Bran (Nato)a

Hunter Color Values*1

Treatment L a b Hue S.,1

Control 62.99a 2.29d 18.32d 82.76a 18.,46d

Oven Drying 58.68c 3 .41b 20.25b 80.45° 20..53b

Steam Retorting 58.17° 4.26a 21.60a 70.84° 22..02a

Microwave Heating 59.81b 3.18° 19.85° 80.90** 20..10°

a Bran: medium grain rice.

b Numbers within columns followed by a common letter are not significantly
different at the 5% level.
 134

V a l u e s of b r a n c o l o r s a t u r a t i o n in d e x w e r e c a l c u l a t e d

by Equation III-5. The results given in T a b l e s IV-24 and

IV-2 5 show that steam retorted bran had the highest SI

value which means a more saturated reddish brown and

golden color. The SI values of ov en dried bran changed

less than those resulting by steam r e t o r t i n g , and aga in

m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g c h a n g e d the SI v a l u e t h e l e a s t .

Nutritional Impact:

In order to detect possible adverse effects of

various heat treatments on rice bran, proximate analysis

was conducted following different heat stabilization

processes. Tables IV-26 an d IV-27 show percent proximate

composition of three ki n d s of heat stabilized and one

u n t r e a t e d bran.

Proximate composition of heat treated bran varied

among treatments and differed fr om untreated bran.

Variation in crude protein contents of heat treated bran

is p e r h a p s of the greatest importance in b r a n nutritional

value.

No significant adverse effects were observed in hea t

t r e a t e d l o n g g r a i n rice brans. However, it w a s n o t e d that

medium grain ri c e bra n subjected to ov e n drying ha d the

l o w e s t c r u d e p r o t e i n content. T h e p r o t e i n c o n t e n t of tha t

sample of bran was 14.17% while those for untreated,

microwave heated and steamed bran were 16.20%, 16.10% and

 Table IV-26. Effect of Stabilization Treatments on Bran
Proximate Composition (Lemont)a » **

Protein Fat Fiber Ash NFE1 Moisture

Treatment % % I \ \ %

Control 16.07a 19.20a 8.49a 9.22a 47.02a 11.20**

Oven Drying 16.30a 18.90a 7.77a 9.23a 47.79a 0.68d

Steam Retorting 15.87a 18.93a 7.88a 9.23a 48.08a 13.80a

Microwave Heating 16.33a 19.00a 8.07a 9.17a 47.42a 7.07c

a Bran: long grain rice.

k Numbers within columns followed by a common letter are not significantly
different at the 5% level.
 Table TV-27. Effect of Stabilization Treatments on Bran
Proximate Composition (Nato)a » b

Protein Pat Fiber Ash NFE1 Moisture

Treatment t % % t % \

Control 16.20a 21.97a 8.41a 9.41a 44.02b 10.8b

Oven Drying 14.17b 21. 5 0 ^ 8.39a 9.43a 46.51a 1.5d

Steam Retorting 16.07a 21. 6 0 ^ 7.60b 9.14b 4 5.43^ 13.8a

Microwave Heating 16.10a 20.83b 7.93b 8.63c 46.49a 7.0C

a Bran: medium grain bran.

b Numbers within columns followed by a common letter are not significantly
different at the 5t level.
16.07%, r es pe c t i v e l y . The differences of crude protein

content between oven dried bran and the three others were

subjected to F a n d LS D tests, a n d the results showed they

were significant at the 5% level. Severe heat treatment

was believed to b e the c a u s e l e a d i n g to this r e d u c t i o n of

crude protein content in o v e n d r i e d bran.

Prolonged heating has been reported to cause decom­

position of nutrients by m a n y investigators ( Ri o s - I r i a r t e

and Barnes, 1966; Skrede and Krogdahl, 1985). Some

researchers reported that the heat required to destroy

growth inhibitors in raw soybeans may also destroy

cystine to make this amino ac i d first-limiting (Rios-

Iriarte and Barn es , 1966). Nevertheless, applying

microwave heating as an alternative to conventional

heating was recommended to alleviate this ki n d of heat

damage to food nutrients. Baldwin and Tettambel (1974)

reported that microwave heated rib-eye steaks contained

significantly (p < 0.01) higher nitrogen than steaks

cooked conventionally. Results obtained fro m thi s study

indicated that microwave heated rice bran might (as in

m e d i u m g r a i n rice bran) r e t a i n m o r e c r u d e p r o t e i n t h a n the

oven dried bran (p < 0.05).

However, a d v e r s e e f f e c t s of m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g on food

nutrient retention were also encountered. Kierebinski

(1969) speculated tha t the hot spo t developed during

microwave heating may cause alterations of protein

 138

composition. Because the mechanics of conservation and

d e s t r u c t i o n of n u t r i e n t s u n d e r m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g are still

not clear, it w o u l d be m e a n i n g f u l to s t u d y t h e e f f e c t s of

m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g on b r a n n u t r i t i o n a l p r of il es .

Another significant effect observed in t h i s s t u d y wa s

that microwave heating caused the agglomeration of bra n

particles to form bran pellets. This phenomenon onl y

occurred in microwave heated bran with a higher (21%)

init i al m o is t u r e . The size s and percent of bran pellets

f orm ed in microwave heated bran were measured and the

r e s u l t s are g i v e n in T a b l e IV-28.

T he agglomeration of bran particles is believed to

have an advantage in extracting bran oil (Randall et al.

1985).

Efficiency of Heat Transfer

T he heat penetration data of ric e bran processed by

oven drying and steam retorting are presented in Tables

I V — 29 a n d IV-30 a n d F i g u r e s IV-16 and IV-17.

Analysis of the data confirms tha t bran is an

e x t r e m e l y p o o r c o n d u c t o r of heat, a l m o s t an insulator, and

conventional methods of thermal processing of ric e bran

stabilization are not effect iv e . Although the dat a in

this investigation in d i c a t e that there is a significant

temperature change in the bran heated by either ove n

drying or steam retorting up to three centimeters

 Table IV-28. Particle Size Distribution in Microwave Heated Rice Bran

U.S. Mesh size % Retained

Sieve No. (HD) on Screen

14 1.40 35.5

20 0.84 18.7

30 0.59 10.1

Through 30 0.59 35.7

139
 Table IV-29. Heat Penetration Data of Oven Dried Rice Brana

Heating Time
( min )

0 30 60 90 120

Thickness of Bran Temperature

Bran Layers (cm) ( °C )

1 23 135 135 135 135

3 23 85 100 117 120

6 23 26 31 39 44

9 23 24 25 27 36

a oven drying at 13 5°C.

 Table IV-3 0. Heat Penetration Data of Steam Retorted Rice Brana

Heating Time
( min )

0 1 2 3 4 5

Thickness of Bran Temperature

Bran Layers (cm) ( °C )

1 23 121 121 121 121 121

3 23 121 121 121 121 121

6 23 48 52 55 59 63

9 23 24 26 27 27 28

a steam retorting at 121°C, 15 psi.

 142

2DD

180 cm 3 cm 6 cm

160 cm

140
(°C)
Bran Temperature

*
_ - —

D 3D 00 DO
H e a t i n g T i m e (min)

F i g u r e IV — 16. H e a t i n g C u r v e s of O v e n D r i e d T r u e Bran

O v e n D rying; 135°C,
 143

150
o 6 cm
135

9 cm

IDE
(°C)
Bran Temperature

-o
— o — —
o ----
o ---
o—

2
H e a t i n g T i m e (min)

F i g u r e I V - 17. H e a t i n g C u r v e s o f S t e a m R e t o r t e d T r u e Bran

S t e a m R e t o r t i n g : 121°C, 15 psi.
thickness of b r a n layer, hardly any meaningful changes in

temperature occurred when the bran thickness increased

beyond three centimeters. With respect to hea t

penetration, oven drying proved le ss effective than stea m

retorting.

Heat penetration data with respect to microwave

heating of ric e bran are presented in Table IV-31 and

Figure I V - 18. An analysis of the data presented in the

table and figure sh o w tha t the i nc r e a s e of the br an

temperature with re s p e c t to the period of microwave

h e a t i n g a r e uniform, and continuous throughout the heating

period. The change in t e m p e r a t u r e wa s i n d e p e n d e n t of the

thickness of the bra n layers. This observation agrees

closely to th e results obtained by Rh e e and Yo o n (1984).

The efficiency of microwave stabilization of b r a n lies in

the fact that microwave heating takes place directly

within the bran and heat passes through th e bran media.

Heating is m u c h f a s t e r in r e l a t i o n t o p o w e r wattage.

In Table IV-32, da t a are shown comparing thermal

efficiency of treatment methods. Fro m t h e s e d a t a , it can

be seen th a t ther ma l efficiency of microwave heating is

superior to oven drying and steam retorting. Given the

bran thickness of six and nine ce n t i m e t e r s , the tempera­

ture changes (aT°C) in the m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g is a l m o s t two

to three times greater than that of steam retorting and

nearly 8 0 -9 0 t i me s greater than that of oven drying.

 Table IV-31. Heat Penetration Data of Microwave Heated Rice Brana

Heating Time
( min )

0 1 2 3 4 5

Thickness of Bran Temperature

Bran Layers (cm) ( °C )

1 23 57 77 94 99 105

3 23 67 91 103 102 112

6 23 55 86 102 102 114

9 23 54 88 100 103 121

a microwave heating at 340 watts, 2450 MHz.

145
 146

135 * 3 cm D 6 cm

120

Q l-0
n
{° C )
Bran Temperature

A?
W

0 2 3 4 6

H e a t i n g T i m e (min)

F i g u r e IV-18. H e a t i n g C u r v e s of M i c r o w a v e H e a t e d T r u e Bran

M i c r o w a v e H e at i n g : 340 w a t t s , 2 4 5 0 MHz.
 Table IV-32. Comparison of Thermal Efficiency
of Treatment Methods3

Heating Time
(min)

1 2 3 4 5

Thickness Bran Temperature Change

Treatment (cm) ( A T°C)

Microwave 6 34 63 79 79 91
Heating 9 33 65 77 80 99

Steam 6 25 29 32 36 40
Retorting 9 1 3 4 4 5

Oven 6 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1

Drying 9 0. 0 0 0.1 0.5

3 initial bran temperature - 23°C.

 148

M i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g h as an a d d i t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e of r e s u l t i n g

in a h i g h e r t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y b e c a u s e t h e init ia l w a r m - u p

period is almost n eg l ig ib le . The rising temperature of

the bran takes pla ce immediately after the microwave is

turned on. In o r d e r t o e f f e c t i v e l y inactivate the lip as e

enzyme, which is responsible for t he instability of rice

bran, it is recommended tha t bran be uniformly heated to

at lea st 100 °C and be maintained at that temperature for

3 min.

Treatment Selection

Fro m the data concerning F F A , he a t penetration a nd

the physical property and nutrition analys es , it was

observed tha t microwave heating of bran was the most

effective treatment as compared to other heating or

n o n - h e a t i n g metho ds . M i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g of b r a n r e s u l t e d in

less nutritional losses, littl e or no change in the

original color of bran and effective heating being equal

or better than steam retorting. Results also indicated

that microwave heating has the additional advantage of

creating desired uniformed temperatures in the bra n in

less time. Co ns eq ue nt l y, the s t u d i e s of m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g

of bran were conducted to optimize the process variables

such as the initial bran moisture content, quantity of

b r a n t r e a t e d p e r batc h and the t i m e of e x p os ur e .

 Treatment Optimization

In order to optimize the microwave heating for br an

stabilization, effects of three independent factors,

namely, moisture content (X3 ) , bran weight (X2 ) and

microwave heating time (X3 ) on the dependent variable,

residual bran peroxidase activity, were analyzed. The

results of 20 trials of different treatment combinations

are 1 isted in Table I V - 33. Regression analysis of

residual peroxidase activity results are given in Table

IV-34.

Fro m the r es i d u a l p e r o x i d a s e dat a l i s t e d in T a b l e IV-

33, it can be se e n tha t all p e r o x i d a s e a c t i v i t y of m i c r o w ­

ave heated bran samples wer e low er th a n that of the

control samples. Since less peroxidase activity reflects

the effect of enzyme inacti va ti on , it is apparent that

microwave heating is effective for lipase in ac ti v at io n.

H owever, among the twenty experimental trials, only 6

showed the re s i d u a l peroxidase activity at less then 5%

level. They were trials 2, 5, 6, 8, 10 an d 14,

r e s p e c t iv el y. T h e low es t re s i d u a l p e r o x i d a s e w a s o b t a i n e d

in tri a l 6, which was 2.5% of th e original peroxidase

activity. Looking into t h e b a s e l i n e of t h i s inactivation

effect, it ca n be se en th a t s m a l l e r s a m p l e siz e (50 g, see

T a b l e III-l) and relatively longer heating time (200 sec.)

were the two main f a c to rs responsible for the better

149
 Table IV-33. Effect of Microwave Heating Treatments on
Residual Peroxidase Activity in Rice Bran

Dependent Variable
Independent Variables
Residual
Trial Moist. Bran Height Time Peroxidase Activity
No. Xx(%> X 2 (g) X 3 (sec) Y <%)

CK — — — -------- — — 3. 12 1 0 0 .0

1 0.38 12 . 1
2 1 -1 -1 0.12 3.7
3 -1 1 -1 1.78 57 . 0
4 1 1 -1 0.21 6.6
5 —1 —1 1 0.12 3.7

6 1 1 0 .08 2 .5
7 -1 1 1 0. 24 7.7
8 1 1 1 0.11 3.6
9 - 1 .6 82 0 0 0.37 11.7
10 1 .682 0 0 0.09 2.9

11 0 -1.682 0 0 . 18 5.7
12 0 1.682 0 0. 19 6.0
13 0 0 -1.682 2 .64 84 .6
14 0 0 1.682 0.11 3 .5
15 0 0 0 0.23 7.4

16 0 0 0 0.20 6.3
17 0 0 0 0. 19 6.1
18 0 0 0 0. 19 6.1
19 0 0 0 0.16 5.0
20 0 0 0 0.19 6.1

150
 Table IV-34. Regression Analysis of Residual Peroxidase
Activity of Microwave Heated Bran

Regression Coefficient (B^)

Model Ter»
Y Residual Peroxidase Activity

Constant 8.375**

(Moisture Content) -7.458**

X2 (Bran Quantity) 5.083**

X3 (MW Treat. Time) -18.875**

XiX2 -7.292**

*1*3 8.708**

*2*3 -6.917**

V -1.625

x22 -6.625**

X32 12.875**

significantly different at the 1% level;

 152

inactivation effect. Examining all six trials with less

than 5% r es i d u a l peroxidase activity, it was found tha t

among these trials, four h a d h i g h e r m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t (2 1 %

or higher). In thes e fou r cases, where initial bran

moisture contents were eq u a l to or higher than 2 1 %, bran

was effectively i n a c t i v a t e d at a h i g h e r ra t e of 0.75 g / s e c

(trial 8 ) ; however, in the other two cases where initial

bran moisture contents were lower than 2 1 %, bran wa s

stabilized at a low er rate of 0.4 g/sec (trials 5 and

14) by the sam e m i c r o w a v e energy source. Fu rt he rm o re , in

these two c a s e s , successful inactivation was a result of

m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g p e r i o d s equal t o or l o n g e r t h a n 2 0 0 sec,

while in cases with the initial bran moisture content

higher than or equal to 2 1 %, effective inactivation could

be accomplished in as few as 100 sec and with a heating

rate of 0.5 g / s e c (trial 2). T he re f o r e , it w a s concluded

that a proper initial bran moisture of 21% or higher is

i m p o r t a n t t o bra n s t a b i l i z a t i o n by m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g .

F rom th e data sho wn in Table I V - 3 4 , it can be see n

that all three independent variables (Xj_, X2 and X3 )

s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d re s i d u a l p e r o x i d a s e a c t i v i t y (Y) of

the rice bran samples. The negative regression

coefficient of -7.458 for moisture content (Xj^) and

-18.875 for microwave heating tim e (X 3 ) indicated th at

adjusting ric e bran samples to higher moisture contents

and exposure for lon ge r tim e resulted in less residual

peroxidase activity. On the other hand, the positive

regression coefficient of 5.083 for sample weight (X2 >

indicated that increasing sample weight resulted in a

higher re s i d u a l peroxidase activity. These results wer e

s i m i l a r to t h o s e r e p o r t e d by Rh e e and Y o o n (1984).

E f f e c t s of b r a n m o i s t u r e on s t a b i l i z a t i o n w a s f u r t he r

i n v e s ti g at ed . in Figure IV-19 are shown th e results of

peroxidase analysis at two different moisture concentra­

tions (1 2 % and 2 1 %) and stabilized by microwave heating.

Peroxidase analysis was used as a quick indicator to

determine the effect of microwave heating on peroxidase

and lipase enzyme activity* The re s i d u a l a c t i v i t y of the

lipase enzyme in bran during storage was measured by FFA

determination. The effect of moisture content on FFA in

b r a n s t a b i l i z e d by m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g d u r i n g the s t o r a g e is

presented in F i g u r e IV-20.

From the data shown in F i g u r e IV-19, it a p p e a r s th at

the percent moisture in the bran affected the ra t e of

inactivation of p e r o x i d a s e enzyme activity in t h e b r a n up

to a treatment period of 100 sec. The rate s of

inactivation of bo t h brans were different at the end of

this period even though both possessed different moisture

contents (12% and 21%) and resulted in excess of 90%

inactivation of the peroxidase enzyme. Bran with 21%

moisture was inactivated at a higher rate than that of

bran with 12% moisture. Regression analysis on the

 154

1DDQ
jo 12% M o i s t u r e □ 21% M o i s t u r e
{ %)
A c t iv it y
Peroxidase

ED 100 200
H e a t i n g T i m e (sec)

F i g u r e IV-19. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on P e r o x i d a s e
A c t i v i t y of B r a n S t a b i l i z e d by M i c r o w a v e
Heati ng
 155

12% M o i s t u r e 21% M o i s t u r e
(%)
Content
Acid
Fatty
Free

2 4
S t o r a g e T i m e (weeks)

F i g u r e IV-20. E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t on F r e e F a t t y
A c i d s o f B r an S t a b i l i z e d by M i c r o w a v e
Heati ng
 156

re s i d u a l p e r o x i d a s e a c t i v i t y t e s t r e s u l t s fou n d t h e s l o p e s

of tw o c u r v e s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t (p < 0 .0 1 ) w i t h

a difference of 1.0699. This observation suggested tha t

o t h e r p r o c e s s i n g v a r i a b l e s b e i n g const an t, higher moisture

in the bran favored inactivation of t h e p e r o x i d a s e e n z y m e

by m i c r o w a v e heating.

A similar observation concerning that bran with 21%

m o i s t u r e a n d s t a b i l i z e d by m i c r o w a v e h e a t i n g c a n be s t o r e d

for an extended period (four weeks) is shown by FF A

analysis results in Figure IV-20. It can be see n that

bran with 21% moisture had 150% less FFA than bran with

12% moisture which was heated by microwave and stored

i d e n t i ca ll y. Regression analysis showed that th e slo pe

difference (1.2427) between these two curves was very

close to significant (p = 0.07).

Combining the experimental results obtained from the

regression analysis (Tables IV-33 and IV-34) and the FFA

analysis (Figure IV-20) , a conclusion can be drawn that

optimum stabilization of rice bran by microwave heat

treatment can be obtained with a bran moisture content at

the 2 1 % level.
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCIAISIONS

Increased in t e r e s t in rice b r a n for h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n

has resulted because recent studies (Vijayagopalan and

Kurup, 197 2; N o r m a n d et al. 1987) have i n d i c a t e d rice b r a n

m a y hav e a b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t on l o w e r i n g s e r u m c h o l e s t e r o l

levels. Also, if utilized by humans, it c ou l d create a

favorable significant economic impac t upon th e rice

industry.

On e important property which is hindering rice bra n

in reaching its full commercial potential is the

instability of its oil. In the milling process, the

active oil splitting enzyme, lipase, v e r y rapidly spli ts

the fats resulting in the formation of free fatt y acids.

The free fatty acids will then r ea c t readily with

oxidative r e a g e n t s p r o d u c i n g u n p l e a s a n t r a n c i d f l a v o r s and

odors. F o r the ri c e b r a n to be fully utiliz ed , prevention

of these reactions and inactivation of lipase are

essential.

Th e present investigation utilized four different

methods for the inactivation of bran lipase. Three of

them were thermal and the four th o n e , a non-thermal

method, gamma irradiation. The thermal methods i n cl u de d

both inter na l a n d e x t e r n a l heating.

Two commercially popular rice v a ri e t i e s , on e long

grain (Lemont) and one m e d i u m g r a i n ( N a t o ) , c u l t i v a t e d and

157
 158

harvested in Louisiana w e r e used in t h i s study. The roug h

rice was milled by a Satake experimental miller. Th e

milling yielded 7.22% bran from long g r a i n rice and 7.09%

for m e d i u m g r a i n rice. The bran samples were analyzed for

p r o x i m a t e c o m p o s i t i o n and p h y s i c a l and t h e r m a l p ro p er ti es .

The results of proximate analysis in this

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o w e d t h a t the v a l u e s on a d r y - w e i g h t b a s i s

agreed we l l with the values published and show n in

parenthesis, i.e., moisture, 10.8%-11.2% (10%-14%) ; c r u d e

prot e in , 16 .07% -1 6 .20% (12%-17%) ,* crud e fat, 19 .20%-2 1. 97%

(13%-2 3 %) ; fiber, 8.41%-8.49% (6%-15%) ; ash, 9.23%-9.46%

(8%-18%); and nitrogen free extract, 4 4 . 0 7 % - 4 7 .01% (34%-

54%) .

The values for physical and thermal properties

obtained in thi s study agreed closely with the published

data presented in parenthesis for similar rice bra n

va ri et i e s , i.e., bulk density, 17.17-18.20 lb/ft3 (7-36

l b / f t 3 ); thermal c on d uc ti vi ty , 3 . 72 - 3 . 8 5 x 10 -2 Btu/hr ft

°F ( 1 . 5 - 2 .8 x 1 0 -2 B t u / h r ft ° F ) ; and t h e r m a l di ff us iv i ty ,

5.17-5.29 X 1 0 -3 ft2/ h r (4.7-5.4 x 1 0 -3 f t 2 /hr) . No

published da ta were f ou n d for particle density, porosity

and specific heat of r i c e b r a n . The e x p e r i m e n t a l data in

this i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o w e d rice b r a n to h a v e 6 7 . 6 1 b / f t 3 and

61.2 l b / f t 3 p a r t i c l e density, 7 3 . 0 % an d 72.1% p o r o s i t y and

0.41 B t u / lb °F and 0.41 Btu/lb °F specific heat,

respectively, for long and m e d i u m g r a i n r i c e bran.

 159

T he bran was stabilized by fo ur different methods

representing two external heating - o v e n d r y i n g an d steam

r etort in g, on e inter na l - microwave heating and on e no n

t h er ma l processing - ir r adiation- Oven drying w as

conducted in a c o n v e c t i o n o v e n at 135 °C for 2 h r s . Steam

retorting was performed at 1 21 ° C an d 15 psi for 5 min.

Optimum processing conditions for microwave heating of

rice bran with specific reference to an experimental

laboratory size microwave oven (340 watt, 2450 MHz,

T h e r m a d o r o p t i o n 3) were: 21% b r a n moist u re , 150 g of b r a n

per batch and 3 min heating. Irradiation was performed

with a 6 0 Co source irradiator and the bran was subjected

to 1 megarad.

Th e thermal efficiency of each of the three heating

methods was evaluated by heat transfer a n a l y s i s . T h e heat

transfer analysis consisted of determining the shortest

time ( e ) needed to produce a temperature change (AT) on a

calculated heating time vs* bran temperature graph. The

data of thermal graphs were experimentally determined.

The results showed microwave heating to be the mos t

effective method for he a t s t a b i l i z a t i o n of bran.

The ric e bran stabilized by all four methods wa s

packed in b r o w n p a p e r b a g s and s t o r e d at 3 3 + 2°C an d 7 5 +

5% relative humidity ( im it a t i n g an extremely unfavorable

storage environment) for testing the efficacy of

treatments. The samples were analyzed for free fatty

 160

acids content, color and nutri en ts . The analysis of FFA

performed by an alkali titration method was reported as

percent oleic acid. The higher the value of FFA in br an

at each tested period, the less stable the bran was and

less effective the treatment to which the bran wa s

subjected.

Th e statistical analysis of all experimental dat a

showed microwave heating to be as effective as steam

retorting in term s of bran stability and better in o t h e r

desirable attributes such as c o l o r and n u t r i e n t r etention.

C o n s i d e r i n g the high p r o d u c t i o n cost, high investment

and maintenance cost, but poor he a t penetration of steam

in the steam stabilization method, the microwave

stabilization method appears to have more ad v an ta ge s.

Microwave heat processing has higher efficiency. Its

economic superiority, short processing time and

application convenience will doubtlessly influence major

changes in i nd u st r i a l pr o ce s s e s , e q u i p m e n t an d p ro du ct s .

Further investigation in the designing of microwave

equipment for continuous processing of bran on a

commercial scal e is r ec o m m e n d e d . When such equipment is

m a d e a vailable, t h e cos t of ric e b r a n s t a b i l i z a t i o n c a n be

f u r t h e r reduced.
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 VITA

The author was born in Shanghai, China, on February

27, 1949. He entered Hongkou middle sch oo l an d w as

graduated in May 1965. In August 1965, he entered

Shanghai Industrial Machinery Scho o l and graduated in M ay

1970. After graduation fr om the machinery sch oo l he

served in Xianglan State Fa r m in Heilongjiang Province,

China. The author entered the Northeast Agricultural

College to continue his studies in 1974. In 1977, the

a u t h o r w a s a s i g n e d to H e i l o n g j i a n g A c a d e m y of A g r i c u l t u r a l

S cience, a n d he w o r k e d t h e r e un t i l he e n t e r e d t h e G r a d u a t e

School of th e Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science in

1980. He majored in Genetics an d Plant Breeding and

graduated with a Master of Science Degree in September

1983. H e w a s a s s i g n e d to the Ch i n a N a t i o n a l R i c e R e s e a r c h

I n s t i t u t e and w o r k e d th e r e as a r e s e a r c h associate.

T he author was accepted to th e Graduate Sch oo l of

Louisiana State University through the Department of

Agronomy in May 1985 by the support of a Chinese

government fellowship. One year thereafter, he

transferred to the Department of Food Science. He is

currently a candidate for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy in F o o d Science.

T he author married Jiyang Chang in October 1980 and

t h e y h a v e o n e daughter, L y n n Tao.

173
 DO C TO R A L EXAM INATION AND DISSERTA TIO N R E P O R T

Candidate: J i a x u n Ta o

M ajor Field: Food S c i e n c e

Title o f D i s s e r t a ti o n R i c e B r an S t a b i l i z a t i o n by I m pr o v e d
Internal a n d Ex te r n a l H e a t i n g M e t h o d s

Approved:

Major Pro (essor/a

D e a n of th e G radi School

EX AMI NI NG C O M M I T T E E

___

Date of Examination:

A d H 1 14, 1989