Chapter 2

Review Related Literature

Holger Kreft and Walter JetzNees (2006, September 22). Global Patterns and

Determinants of Vascular Plant Diversity. Institute for Biodiversity of Plants, University

of Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 170, D-53115 Bonn, Germany; and Division of Biological

Sciences, University of California at San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0116, La Jolla,

CA 92093-0116 Edited by F. Stuart Chapin III, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK, and

approved January 25, 2007. Plants, with an estimated 300,000 species, provide crucial

primary production and ecosystem structure. To date, our quantitative understanding of

diversity gradients of megadiverse clades such as plants has been hampered by the paucity

of distribution data. Here, we investigate the global-scale species-richness pattern of

vascular plants and examine its environmental and potential historical determinants.

Across 1,032 geographic regions worldwide, potential evapotranspiration, the number of

wet days per year, and measurements of topographical and habitat heterogeneity emerge

as core predictors of species richness. After accounting for environmental effects, the

residual differences across the major floristic kingdoms are minor, with the exception of

the uniquely diverse Cape Region, highlighting the important role of historical

contingencies. Notably, the South African Cape region contains more than twice as many

species as expected by the global environmental model, confirming its uniquely evolved

flora. A combined multipredictor model explains 70% of the global variation in species

richness and fully accounts for the enigmatic latitudinal gradient in species richness. The

models illustrate the geographic interplay of different environmental predictors of species

richness. Our findings highlight that different hypotheses about the causes of diversity

gradients are not mutually exclusive, but likely act synergistically with water–energy

dynamics playing a dominant role. The presented geostatistical approach is likely to prove
instrumental for identifying richness patterns of the many other taxa without single-species

distribution data that still escape our understanding.

Thorsten Peters, Karl-Heinz Diertl, Julia Gawlik, Melanie Rankl, and Michael

Richter (2010). Vascular Plant Diversity in Natural and Anthropogenic Ecosystems in the

Andes of Southern Ecuador. Mountain Research and Development, 30(4):344-352. URL

https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00029.1, Published by International

Mountain Society. According to Barthlott et al (2007), the Andes of Ecuador constitute one

of the world’s 5 megadiversity hotspots of vascular plants.Here, the Andean mountain

chain serves as an effective and discrete phytogeographic transition, as well as a barrier

zone between the Tumbes–Choco´ – Magdalena hotspot in the west and the Amazonian

lowlands in the east (Richter et al 2009).Approximately half of the estimated 20,000

Ecuadorian vascular plant species are found between 900–3000 m, although this area

covers only 10% of Ecuador’s surface (Balslev 1988; Jørgensen and Leo´ n-Ya´nez

1999).These hotspot characteristics apply particularly to the divergence zone of the study

site situated in the Cordillera Real, where xeric to hygric climate regimes and a complex

topography cause a manifold pattern of vegetation types within a distance of only 35 km.By

2008, the surprising number of 1208 seed plant species and 257 ferns (including fern allies)

had been catalogued within a research area of only 1000 ha (Liede-Schumann and Breckle

2008).On this local scale, natural and anthropogenic disturbances have to be considered

important additional triggers for the area’s outstanding plant diversity. Andean

environments have been modified by humans for at least 7000 years (Bruhns 1994; Jokisch

and Lair 2002; Sarmiento and Frolich 2002).During the past 50 years, the magnitude of

land use has grown at the upper parts of the south Ecuadorian valleys (Ellenberg 1979;

Luteyn 1992), and pasture farming is the dominant production system.Between 1960 and

1980, 0.25% of the south Ecuadorian Andean forests were cut down by slashand-burn

practices (Keating 1997; Marquette 2006) annually; Echavarria (1998) showed even higher
yearly deforestation rates of 0.25 to 0.46% for the 2 drainage areas of Rio Bombuscaro and

Rio Jambue, close to the study area, between 1980 and 1991.Although climate change is

intensely debated as a cause of future species extinctions, human land use is currently the

most important threat to biodiversity (Pimm and Raven 2000; Ko¨ster et al 2009).However,

an additional contribution to biodiversity by intentionally introduced and collateral

invasive taxa by human impact has been largely ignored. The present article focuses on the

latter topic by comparing the local vascular plant diversity on natural and anthropogenic

study sites to estimate the human influences on vascular plant diversity on the local scale

of the Rio San Francisco valley.

Detlef P. Van Vuuren 1, Osvaldo E. Sala 2, and Henrique M. Pereira (2006). The

Future of Vascular Plant Diversity Under Four Global Scenarios. Ecology and Society

11(2): 25. [Online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/ art25/.

Biodiversity is of crucial importance for ecosystem functioning and human well-being.

Using quantitative projections of changes in land use and climate from the four Millennium

Ecosystem Assessment (MA) scenarios, we project that reduction of habitat by year 2050

will result in a loss of global vascular plant diversity ranging from 7–24% relative to 1995,

after populations have reached equilibrium with the reduced habitat. This range includes

both the impact of different scenarios and uncertainty in the SAR relationship. Biomes

projected to lose the most species are warm mixed forest, savannahs, shrub, tropical forest,

and tropical woodlands. In the 2000–2050 period, land-use change contributes more on a

global scale to species diversity loss than does climate change, 7–13% vs. 2–4% loss at

equilibrium for different scenarios, respectively. However, after 2050, climate change will

become increasingly important.

 Wilhelm Barthlott, Jens Mutke, Daud Rafiqpoor, Gerold Kier, and Holger Kreft,

(2005). Global Centers of Vascular Plant Diversity. The diversity of vascular plants is very

unevenly distributed across the globe. The five centres that reach species richness of more

than 5,000 spp./10,000 km2 (Costa Rica-Chocó, Atlantic Brazil, Tropical Eastern Andes,

Northern Borneo, New Guinea) cover only 0.2 % of the terrestrial surface. On the other

hand approximately 18,500 spp. are endemic to these centres which represent 6.2 % of all

vascular plant species. A world map of vascular plant richness is presented based on an

extensively expanded data base (more than 3,300 species richness figures for different

regions of the world) and a refined methodology. Most of the global centres are located in

mountainous regions within the humid tropics, where suitable climatic conditions and high

levels of geodiversity, i.e., the diversity of abiotic conditions, coincide. A complete review

of most prominent climatic, geologic, and floristic features of the 20 centres of

phytodiversity with more than 3,000 spp. / 10,000 km2 is presented.

Gooden, B., French, K. O. & Turner, P. (2009). Invasion and Management of a

Woody Plant, Lantana camara L., Alters Vegetation Diversity within Wet Sclerophyll

Forest in Southeastern Australia. Forest Ecology & Management, 257 (3), 960-967.

Invasion and management of a woody plant, Lantana camara L., alters vegetation diversity

within wet sclerophyll forest in southeastern Australia Abstract Plant invasions of natural

communities are commonly associated with reduced species diversity and altered

ecosystem structure and function. This study investigated the effects of invasion and

management of the woody shrub Lantana camara (lantana) in wet sclerophyll forest on the

south-east coast of Australia. The effects of L. camara invasion and management on

resident vegetation diversity and recruitment were determined as well as if invader

management initiated community recovery. Vascular plant species richness, abundance

and composition were surveyed and compared across L. camara invaded, non-invaded and

managed sites following L. camara removal during a previous control event by land
managers. Native tree juvenile and adult densities were compared between sites to

investigate the potential effects of L. camara on species recruitment. Invasion of L. camara

led to a reduction in species richness and compositions that diverged from non-invaded

vegetation. Species richness was lower for fern, herb, tree and vine species, highlighting

the pervasive threat of L. camara. For many common tree species, juvenile densities were

lower within invaded sites than non-invaded sites, yet adult densities were similar across

all invasion categories. This indicates that reduced species diversity is driven in part by

recruitment limitation mechanisms, which may include allelopathy and resource

competition, rather than displacement of adult vegetation. Management of L. camara

initiated community recovery by increasing species richness, abundance and recruitment.

While community composition following L. camara management diverged from non-

invaded vegetation, vigorous tree and shrub recruitment signals that long-term community

reinstatement will occur. However, secondary weed invasion occurred following L. camara

control. Follow-up weed control may be necessary to prevent secondary plant invasion

following invader management and facilitate long-term community recovery.

Mutke, J. & Barthlott, W. (2005). Patterns of Vascular Plant Diversity at

Continental to Global Scales. Biol. Skr. 55: 521-531. ISSN 0366-3612. ISBN 87-7304-

304-4. The studies presented in this paper analyse diversity patterns of land plants (mosses,

ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms) at continental to global scales. A revised version

of our earlier world map of vascular plant species richness and the first maps of species

richness of mosses and gymnosperms on a global scale are presented. Diversity patterns of

vascular plants are correlated with different measures of geodiversity (the diversity of the

abiotic environment). Global centres of vascular plant diversity coincide with highly

structured, geodiverse areas in the tropics and subtropics. These are the Chocó-Costa Rica

region, the tropical eastern Andes and the north western Amazonia, the eastern Brazil, the

northern Borneo, and New Guinea, as well as the South African Cape region, southern
Mexico, East Himalaya, western Sumatra, Malaysia, and eastern Madagascar. Constraints

imposed by the physical environment, such as the length of the thermal vegetation period

or water availability, shape large scale trends of biodiversity. However, important centres

of species richness and endemism can only be explained when taking into account the

history of the floras. The main diversity centres in SE Asia are the same for gymnosperms

as for all other vascular plants, but in other parts of the tropics and subtropics there is low

gymnosperm diversity. The exceptions to this pattern are Mexico and California, which

have almost as many species of gymnosperms as SE Asia. The increase in the number of

species and genera published during the last 250 years is documented, based on data from

the Index Kewensis. The first continental maps of Cactaceae diversity at species and genus

level are used to show how choice of the taxonomic level affects the analysis and its

implications for priority setting in biodiversity conservation. In this context, global

biodiversity hotspots are discussed and an alternative world map of hotspots is proposed.

Jan C. Axmacher , Henry Tünte , Marion Schrumpf , Klaus Müller‐Hohenstein ,

Herbert V. M. Lyaruu , Konrad Fiedler (2004, May 7). Diverging Diversity Patterns of

Vascular Plants and Geometrid Moths during Forest Regeneration on Mt Kilimanjaro,

Tanzania. URL https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2004.00995.x. This study investigates

diversity patterns of vascular plants and plant‐feeding geometrid moths during montane rain

forest regeneration in relation to the biogeographical and historical conditions of Mt

Kilimanjaro. Investigations were undertaken on the south‐western slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro

at altitudes between 2075 and 2265m. Thirteen plots were selected for this study. Four of

these were situated in the middle of large clearings (>1000m2), three in secondary forest,

two in mature forest remnants surrounded by secondary forest and four plots within

continuous closed mature forest. Vascular plant species were recorded in an area of 20 ×

20 m2. Geometrid moths were attracted using lamps placed inside reflective gauze

cylinders. Ninety‐three species of vascular plants were recorded on the plots. Plant
diversity increased in the course of forest regeneration from clearings and secondary forest

to mature forest remnants and mature forest. This increase was visible in all vegetation

strata as well as in the species number of Dicotyledoneae. The diversity of geometrid moths

conversely decreased from early to late successional stages. A total of 2276 Geometridae

representing 114 morphospecies were included in the study. Local values of

Fisher's α varied from 10.3 to 18.3 on clearings and in secondary forest, whereas they

remained below 8.0 in mature forest and mature forest remnants. There was a significant

negative correlation between the diversity of Geometridae and the number of dicots, and

of plant species in the shrub layer. Contrary to an expected positive correlation between

the diversity of vascular plants and herbivorous geometrid moths, diversity patterns of

these two groups are strongly diverging due to biogeographical and ecological factors

differently affecting the two groups. The increase in plant diversity can chiefly be

explained with an increase in epiphyte diversity which is related to the occurrence of

suitable habitats in extensive moss layers on huge Ocotea usambarensis (Engl.) trees in the

mature forest. The low diversity of geometrid moths in these forests may be connected to

the isolation and relatively young age of the montane rain forests on Mt Kilimanjaro. Hence

only a small number of moth species adapted to the cool and perhumid conditions within

moist mature forest have so far immigrated into these habitats, and time was insufficient

for the evolution of many new species.

Peter M. Jørgensen, Carmen Ulloa Ulloa, Blanca León, Susana LeónYánez,

Stephan G. Beck, Michael Nee, James L. Zarucchi, Marcela Celis, Rodrigo Bernal, and

Robbert Gradstein, (2011). Regional Patterns of Vascular Plant Diversity and Endemism.

Theory and empirical work indicate that the main determinants of species richness are

available energy and water, topography and edaphic heterogeneity, historic factors,

possibly geometric constraints (the mid-domain effect), and obviously the extent of the

area under consideration (Simpson 1964; Rosenzweig 1995; O’Brien 1998; Colwell and
Lees 2000; Field 2005; Jiménez et al. 2009; Distler et al. 2009). These determinants are

covered in detail elsewhere in this volume (Kessler et al., Chapter 14), but several

important geophysical features across the region help to explain the richness of plant

species. Latitudinally, the Andes, with an orogeny that spans 18–20 million years, run

through all four countries establishing wide ranges and variances in edaphic and

topographical factors, which in turn often alter the humidity levels dramatically over very

short distances. Many complex topographic features like the valleys of Huancabamba and

the Girón–Paute, form barriers in the east-west direction, while the valleys of Magdalena

and Cauca are examples of barriers in the north-south direction (Jørgensen and Ulloa Ulloa

1994, Weigend et al. 2005, Young et al. 2002; Josse et al., Chapter 10, this volume). The

oldest parts of the Andes are found to the south while progressively younger mountains are

found towards the north, creating gradual differences in the evolutionary history

(GregoryWodzicki 2000; Josse et al., Chapter 10, this volume). Source areas for

immigration to these 193 rather young mountains are the older eroded mountainous areas

of the Guyana and Brazilian shields, Central and North America through the Panamanian

isthmus, and the temperate areas to the south (Graham 2009).

Gerhard Langenberger, Konrad Martin, and Joachim Sauerborn (2006). Vascular

Plant Species Inventory of a Philippine Lowland Rain Forest and its Conservation Value.

Forest Diversity and Management pp 211-241. The Philippines are one of the most

important biodiveristy hotspots on earth. Due to the extraordinary rate of environmental

destruction, leaving only 3% of the land with primary forest, this biodiversity is at high

risk. Despite that situation information on Philippine forest vegetation is fragmentary and

focused on trees. This study aimed at analysing forest remnants in the Leyte Cordillera on

the Island of Leyte, and at evaluating their role as refuge to the largely destroyed lowland

forest vegetation. A total of 49 plots (100 m2 each) between 55 and 520 m a.s.l. were

studied. All vascular plant species except epiphytes were included. Records include 685
taxa from 289 genera and 111 families, representing nearly 8% of the known Philippine

vascular plant species. More than half (52%) of the species are Philippine endemics. A

number of 41 tree species, or 6% of all taxa recorded, are included in the IUCN red list,

either as vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered. Life form composition was

dominated by phanerophytes (65.3%), followed by lianas and chamaephytes (17.1 and

16.9%, respectively). The most common families were the Rubiaceae with 35 and the

Euphorbiaceae with 32 species. All five Philippine dipterocarp forest types as well as the

molave forest type were represented by typical tree species. The area provides an important

gene bank of the highly threatened Philippine lowland forest vegetation and is of high value

for biodiversity conservation. Additionally, it can play an important role as seed source of

valuable tree species for the increasing initiatives to rehabilitate and reforest degraded land

with native species.

Harald Pauli, Michael Gottfried, Stefan Dullinger et.al. (2012, April 20). Recent

Plant Diversity Changes on Europe’s Mountain Summits. Vol. 336, Issue 6079, pp. 353-

355. In mountainous regions, climate warming is expected to shift species’ ranges to higher

altitudes. Evidence for such shifts is still mostly from revisitations of historical sites. We

present recent (2001 to 2008) changes in vascular plant species richness observed in a

standardized monitoring network across Europe’s major mountain ranges. Species have

moved upslope on average. However, these shifts had opposite effects on the summit

floras’ species richness in boreal-temperate mountain regions (+3.9 species on average)

and Mediterranean mountain regions (–1.4 species), probably because recent climatic

trends have decreased the availability of water in the European south. Because

Mediterranean mountains are particularly rich in endemic species, a continuation of these

trends might shrink the European mountain flora, despite an average increase in summit

species richness across the region.