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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156

www.elsevier.com/locate/jsames

Hydrocarbon source potential of the Santiago Formation,

Oriente Basin, SE of Ecuador
a,* a,b
J. Gaibor , J.P.A. Hochuli , W. Winkler a, J. Toro c

a
Geological Institute, ETH Zentrum, Sonneggstrasse 5, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
b
Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Zürich, Karl Schmid-Str. 4, CH-8006 Zürich, Switzerland
c
Vicepresidencia de Petroproducción, Petroecuador, P.O. Box 17-01-5007, Quito, Ecuador

Abstract

The Santiago Formation (Late Hettangian–Sinemurian), described in the area of Santiago in the Oriente Basin of eastern Ecuador, consists
of three distinct sedimentary members. The Santiago River Member is composed of limestones and calcareous sandstones. The Yuquianza
Member is a monotonous sequence of black shales. The Patuca Member consists of a sequence of sandstones, greywackes, and shales, inter-
calated with lava flows and dikes. The fine-grained sediments of the three members are characterized by a high content of particulate organic
matter (POM). Palynofacies and rock-eval analyses indicate the predominance of kerogen types II and III, with HI values that indicate a
moderate to low source potential. At the type locality, the organic matter is thermally mature and locally overmatures.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cordillera of Cutucú; Jurassic; Kerogen; Source rock; Petroleum potential; Palynofacies

Resumen

La Formación Santiago (Hettangiano Superior–Sinemuriano) descrita en el área de Santiago en la Cuenca Oriente al este de Ecuador,
presenta tres distintos miembros sedimentarios. El Miembro Rı́o Santiago está compuesto por calizas y arenas calcáreas. El Miembro
Yuquianza es una sequencia monótona de lutitas negras. El Miembro Patuca consiste de una sequencia de areniscas, greywackes y lut-
itas, intercaladas por flujos de lava y dikes. Los sedimentos de grano fino de los tres miembros están caracterizados por un alto contenido
de materia orgánica. Los análisis de palinofacies y Rock-Eval muestran un predominio del kerogeno tipo III y II, y los valores del ı́ndice
de hidrógeno indican un moderado a bajo potencial de roca madre. En la localidad tipo, la materia orgánica esta termalmente madura y
localmente sobremadura.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Palabras clave: Cordillera del Cutucú; Jurásico; kerógeno; roca madre; Palinofacies

1. Introduction mation were deposited in an extensive basin with a connec-

The Santiago Formation is a sedimentary sequence
composed of organic-rich shales, sandstones, and lime-
stones. It can be studied in scarce outcrops in the Cordil-
lera of Cutucú in the southern sub-Andean zone of
eastern Ecuador (Fig. 1). Sediments of the Santiago For-
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: janethgaibor@yahoo.com (J. Gaibor).
tion to the sea and restricted circulation (Pindell and
Tabbutt, 1995). The organic-rich levels of the formation
are considered potential source rocks for oil in the Oriente
Basin (Pindell and Tabbutt, 1995; Vallejo et al., 2003; Dı́az
et al., 2003). However, no existing geochemical studies sup-
port this interpretation. In this article, we present the
results of an organic matter study in rocks of the Santiago
Formation. The analyzed samples were collected from the
type locality along Patuca–Santiago road (Fig. 1). The goal

0895-9811/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2007.07.002
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146 J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156

Fig. 1. (A) Location of study area and (B) simplified geological map of the Cordillera of Cutucú.
 Author's personal copy
J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156
of this study is to evaluate the oil source potential and
reconstruct the depositional environments of the Santiago
Formation. We do so using sedimentological characteris-
tics, palynofacies, and rock-eval analysis.
2. Geological setting
The sub-Andean zone is a backarc, fold-thrust belt tec-
tonically associated with the Andes (Baldock, 1982). It occu-
pies the western margin of the Oriente Basin and includes
two large-scale antiform structures, the Napo Uplift to the
north and the Cordillera of Cutucu to the south (Fig. 1).
These two antiforms represent positive flower structures
(Rivadeneira and Baby, 1999), developed mainly during
the Neogene (Baby et al., 1999). The Santiago Formation
outcrops are restricted to the Cordillera of Cutucú. Chris-
tophoul (1999) and Dı́az et al. (2003) indicate that the Santi-
ago Formation was deposited during the aperture of an
intracratonic rift, which occurred in the Norian–Toarcian
period (221–180 Ma). This interpretation is based on the
presence of steeply dipping normal faults, grabens, and
half-grabens recognized in seismic profiles, together with
the occurrence of calc-alkaline and tholeiitic basalts at the
top of the Santiago Formation (Romeuf et al., 1997). There-
fore, the Cordillera of Cutucú represents a tectonic inversion
structure of the Triassic–Jurassic rift. The absence of Mio-
cene sediments of the Arajuno Formation in the Cordillera
of Cutucú and Napo Uplift suggests that these structures
formed before the Miocene. This interpretation is also sup-
ported by fission track data in the Napo Uplift (Ruiz, 2002).
The best outcrops of the Santiago Formation are
located in the Cordillera of Cutucú, along the Patuca–San-
tiago road and Santiago River (Fig. 1). The complex tec-
tonic setting and dense vegetation in this area preclude a
measure of the total thickness of the formation. However,
Tschopp (1953) and Geyer (1974) estimate an approximate
thickness of 1000–2700 m.
Tschopp (1953) describes the Santiago Formation as a
sequence of grey to black limestones and calcareous sand-
stones with intercalations of micaceous and bituminous
shales. In addition, Tschopp (1953) and Romeuf et al.
(1997) describe dikes, sills, and larger intrusions of felsic
and basaltic igneous rocks. These volcanic intercalations
are concentrated in the western border of the Cordillera
of Cutucú. This volcanism has calc-alkaline and tholeiitic
affinities (Romeuf et al., 1997). Calcareous sediments of
the Santiago Formation outcrop along the Santiago River,
whereas clastic and igneous rocks are best exposed along
the road from Patuca to Santiago.
The Santiago Formation is absent in the northern part of
the flat-lying Oriente Basin and the Napo Uplift. Red beds
attributed to the Sacha Formation in the northern part of
the Oriente Basin are interpreted as lateral equivalents of
the Santiago Formation (Dı́az et al., 2003). According to
Dı́az et al. (2003), the age of the Sacha Formation ranges
from Early Triassic to Early Jurassic (Fig. 2). Several
authors (e.g., Romeuf et al., 1997; Christophoul, 1999; Dı́az
147
et al., 2003) propose that the Late Triassic Piuntza Forma-
tion represents a lateral equivalent of the lower part of the
Santiago Formation. The Piuntza Formation is a volcanic
sedimentary sequence affected by contact metamorphism,
defined from isolated outcrops in the southern part of the
Cordillera of Cutucú, which includes calcareous metasilt-
stones, cornubianites, skarns, and impure quartzites (Asp-
den and Ivimey-Cook, 1992). The relationship between
the Piuntza and Santiago formations is unclear, mainly
because the contact between them has never been observed.
Therefore, we consider that the Piuntza Formation repre-
sents a separate formation (Fig. 2).
The contact between the Santiago Formation and over-
laying Chapiza Formation is an angular and erosional
unconformity (Tschopp, 1953). Along the western border
of the Cordillera of Cutucú, in the Patuca area (Fig. 1),
the Chapiza Formation consists of grey to red siltstones,
sandstones, and conglomerates. In the eastern part of the
Cordillera of Cutucú, the lithologies are dominated by
grey, green, and brown siltstones. The Chapiza Formation
has never been directly dated, but volcanic rocks of the
Misahualli and Yaupi formations, considered lateral equiv-
alents of the Chapiza Formation (Rivadeneira and Baby,
1999), yield radiometric ages (K/Ar, 40Ar/39Ar, zircon fis-
sion tracks) that range from 180 to 130 Ma (Hall and Calle,
1982; Romeuf, 1994; Spikings et al., 2001; Ruiz, 2002),
indicating a Middle–Late Jurassic age.
The marine sequence of the Pucará Group in northern
and central Peru is interpreted as a lateral equivalent of
the Santiago Formation (Geyer, 1974; Geyer, 1980; Baby
et al., 1998; Dı́az et al., 2003). Harrison (1943) and Mégard
(1968) distinguish three units within the Pucará Group: the
Chambara, Aramachay, and Condorsinga formations. The
Norian Chambara Formation consists of dolomites with
dolomitic and cherty limestones (Louhgman and Hallam,
1982; Rosas, 1994). The Hettangian–Sinemurian Aramac-
hay Formation includes organic-rich shales that pass to
the top into phosphatic deposits (Louhgman and Hallam,
1982; Rosas, 1994). The organic-rich shales are regarded
as the hydrocarbon source rock for the Marañon and
Ucayali basins in eastern Peru (Mathalone and Montoya,
1995). The Pliensbachian–Toarcian Condorsinga Forma-
tion is restricted to central Peru and is a calcareous
sequence with evaporites at the top (Louhgman and Hal-
lam, 1982; Rosas, 1994).
3. Methods
3.1. Palynofacies analysis
Twenty-five samples were selected for palynological and
palynofacies analysis. The samples were treated according
to standard palynological techniques and sieved to separate
material coarser than 15 lm for use in palynofacies analy-
sis. The quantitative distribution of the particulate organic
matter (POM) was determined by counting a minimum of
300 particles per sample. For additional palynological
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148 J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156
Fig. 2. Chronostratigraphic chart of the Upper Triassic–Upper Jurassic formations in the sub-Andean zone and Oriente Basin in Ecuador and correlative
units in Perú.
analysis, the sieved residue was oxidized with fuming
HNO3.
In this study, two main types of POM were recognized:
terrestrial and marine derived. The terrestrial-derived POM
includes more plant debris, such as cuticles, membranes,
wood fragments, and opaque oxidized, structured material.
These particles are referred to as phytoclasts (Tyson, 1995).
Pollen and spores are listed as terrestrial-derived pal-
ynomorphs. The marine-derived POM is composed of
amorphous organic matter (AOM) and marine pal-
ynomorphs. The latter group includes dinoflagellates, acrit-
archs, and prasinophycean algae. In addition, different
types of AOM are observed. The fluorescent AOM is
assumed to be of marine origin, whereas non-fluorescent
AOM is either of terrestrial origin or produced from the
degradation of marine AOM (Steffen and Gorin, 1993;
Tyson, 1995; Batten, 1996a). The state of preservation of
AOM was determined on the basis of optical criteria.
The thermal maturity of the sediments is related to the
depth of burial, heat flow, and igneous activity (Perregaard
and Schiener, 1979; Murchison and Raymond, 1989). Since
the 1960s, several authors have defined numerical scales for
the thermal alteration of the organic matter based on the
colour of palynomorphs (Correia, 1967; Staplin, 1977;
Fisher et al., 1980; Batten, 1996b). Due the scarcity or
absence of palynomorphs in the studied material, the ther-
mal maturity is inferred from rock-eval analysis.
3.2. Rock-eval pyrolysis
Analysis of the total organic carbon content (TOC)
was undertaken using the coulometer available at the
Geological Institute, ETH Zürich. Samples with TOC
greater than 2% were chosen for rock-eval pyrolysis.
The pyrolysis of 17 samples was carried out in the Labo-
ratories for Geochemical and Environmental Analyses of
the Geological Institute, University of Neuchâtel, using
the Rock-Eval 6 analyzer of VINCI Technologies. Data
appear in Table 1.
The rock-eval technique (Espitalié et al., 1977) is a useful
tool for characterizing source rock. The measurements
include S1, S2, S3, total organic carbon (TOC), and Tmax
values. The S1 values correspond to the amount of hydro-
carbons present in the rock, S2 values correspond to the
hydrocarbons generated from insoluble kerogen in the heat-
ing process, and S3 values represent the amount of CO2
released during thermal alteration of oxigenated organic
compounds (Tyson, 1995). Tmax values express the temper-
ature corresponding to the maximum of hydrocarbon gen-
eration during the pyrolysis (peak S2) (Tissot and Welte,
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J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156 149

Table 1
Data of Rock-Eval 6 of the Patuca and Yuquianza Members
Sample TOC HI OI Tmax S1 S2
(%) (mg HC/g TOC) (mg CO2/g TOC) (°C) (mg HC/g) (mg HC/g)
Patuca Member m-40 3.24 108 8 450 0.81 3.52
19.2a 2.30 8 38 360 0.48 0.20
19.2b 3.34 10 29 585 0.37 0.35
28.2 0.46 54 260 432 0.15 0.25
28.1 2.08 86 131 ?422 3.66 1.78
M-35a 0.93 4 106 448 0.01 0.04
M-36a 1.93 91 111 ?437 1.68 1.75
M-36b 2.20 9 45 ?578 0.16 0.20
M-a 1.56 2 139 500 0.00 0.03
Yuquianza Member M-15 2.07 94 42 433 0.30 1.94
19.2 3.31 2 14 605 0.09 0.05
M-27 4.61 110 28 440 0.30 5.08
M-14 3.07 190 50 438 0.78 5.85
M-29 2.31 34 63 440 0.08 0.78
M-11 3.09 192 14 439 1.40 5.91
m-10 2.69 145 10 440 1.84 3.89
M-9 2.42 188 11 445 1.03 4.54
M-7 2.01 98 61 439 0.21 1.98
M-3 2.43 53 79 438 0.36 1.28

1984), which indicates the maturity of the organic matter.
Values between approximately 430 and 470 °C correlate
with the oil generation window (Hunt, 1996).
Two parameters, the hydrogen index (HI) and the oxy-
gen index (OI) are calculated from S1, S3, and TOC. These
parameters define the kerogen type present in the rocks
(Tissot and Welte, 1984; Tyson, 1995; Hunt, 1996). Tissot
et al. (1974) differentiate the kerogen types I, II, and III
on the basis of H/C and O/C ratios. Kerogen type I is char-
acterized by high values of HI (700–900) and represents
organic matter produced by algae or cyanobacteria, accu-
mulated mainly in anoxic lacustrine and marine deposi-
tional environments (Tyson, 1995). Kerogen type II
shows medium values of HI (150–700) and is composed
of mixtures of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and microor-
ganisms preserved in a marine-reducing environment (Tis-
sot and Welte, 1984). Kerogen type III presents relatively
low values of HI (25–250) and is essentially derived from
land plants (Tissot and Welte, 1984; Tyson, 1995).
4. Results
4.1. Description and subdivision of the Santiago Formation
Based on lithological and sedimentological criteria
observed at the type locality, we subdivide the Santiago
Formation into three members (Fig. 3). The calcareous
sediments exposed along the Santiago River are attributed
to the Santiago River Member, which consists of thick beds
of grey and black limestones, black marls, and sporadic
intra-formational breccias. Toward the top, fine-grained
calcareous sandstones show a variety of sedimentary struc-
tures, such as centimetric ripples, planar laminations, hum-
mocky-cross stratification, and micro-slumps. A southward
paleocurrent flow direction can be inferred from these
structures. Along the Santiago River, the Santiago River
Member is at least 300 m thick.
The overlaying Yuquianza Member consists of black,
partly micaceous and/or calcareous shales, and sporadic
beds of green siltstones (Fig. 3). The black shales at the base
contain ammonoids and bivalves, are thinly laminated, and
show sporadic intercalations of centimetric sandstone
lenses. In thin sections, volcanic clasts and quartz grains
can be observed. Toward the top of the member, the black
shales become increasingly calcareous. The Yuquianza
Member is at least 50 m thick, and crops out along the Pat-
uca–Santiago road, between the villages of Yuquianza and
Suritak (Fig. 1). The contact between the Santiago River
Member and the Yuquianza Member has not been observed;
however, due to similar bed orientations and polarities, the
Yuquianza Member is interpreted to rest conformably or
paraconformably on the Santiago River Member.
The Patuca Member conformably overlies the
Yuquianza Member and corresponds to a clastic sequence
that includes thick beds of grey, green, and brown silt-
stones and greywackes, as well as micaceous and/or calcar-
eous black shales, which are laminated. Fine-grained
greywackes with graded bedding are observed within the
Patuca Member and composed of volcanic lithoclasts,
monocrystalline quartz, and plagioclase in a chloritized
matrix. Basaltic lava flows and dikes are intercalated within
these sediments. The basalts are massive and occasionally
show columnar joints. In thin sections, the basalt shows
porphyritic texture. The Patuca Member is at least 100 m
thick and crops out along the Patuca–Santiago road, with
the best exposures between the villages of Patuca and
Yuquianza (Fig. 1).
The contact between the Patuca and Yuquianza mem-
bers is transitional. This limit is defined by a coarsening-
upward trend and the first appearance of volcanic rocks
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150 J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156

Fig. 3. Subdivision of Santiago Formation: (a) Christophoul, 1999, (b) Romeuf et al., 1997, (c) this work.
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J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156
(lava flows), which can be observed near the village of
Suritak.
The proposed subdivision is based strictly on lithologic
criteria. Other subdivisions of the Santiago Formation
have been presented; for example, Romeuf et al. (1997)
define three depositional environments within this forma-
tion, from calcareous platform deposits at the base to
turbiditic and deltaic sediments at the top (Fig. 3). Chris-
tophoul (1999) subdivides the Santiago Formation into
two members: a Lower Member that includes limestones
and an Upper Member characterized by the dominance
of volcanoclastic sediments (Fig. 3). The Santiago River
Member described here corresponds to the calcareous plat-
form of Romeuf et al. (1997) and the Lower Member of
Christophoul (1999). The Yuquianza and Patuca members
correspond to the Upper Member of Christophoul (1999).
The correlation between the members that we propose and
the turbiditic and deltaic deposits defined by Romeuf et al.
(1997) is unclear.
4.2. Biostratigraphy
In the lower part of the Santiago Formation, correspond-
ing to the Santiago River Member, Geyer (1974) and Pavia
et al. (1992) report the ammonoids Arnioceras ceratitoides,
Coroniceras sp., Schlotheimiidae, Arietitidae, Oxynoticerati-
dae, Eoderoceratodae, Metophiocera, and Angulaticeras of
Late Hettangian and Early Sinemurian age.
On the basis of the occurrence of the ammonoids Palte-
chioceras sp. and Leptechioceras sp. indet., Aspden and
Ivimey-Cook (1992) assign a Late Sinemurian age to the
middle part of the Santiago Formation (Yuquianza Mem-
ber). During this study, we collected the ammonites Palte-
chioceras sp. and the bivalve Plicatula (cf. P. harapax) from
this member. This fossil association indicates a Late Sinem-
urian age (H. Rieber, personal communication, 2002),
which confirms the age obtained by Aspden and Ivimey-
Cook (1992).
Romeuf (1994) report the ammonoids Arietites from the
upper part of the Santiago Formation (Patuca Member),
which indicates a Middle–Late Sinemurian age for this
member.
Therefore, the ammonid fauna recovered from the San-
tiago Formation of the Cordillera of Cutucú indicates a
Late Hettangian–Sinemurian age range. According to our
results, the organic-rich layers of the Santiago Formation
belong to the Late Sinemurian stage and can be correlated
with the coeval deposits of the Aramachay Formation in
Perú.
4.3. Palynofacies
4.3.1. Yuquianza Member
The POM assemblages of the Yuquianza Member
(Fig. 4) generally are dominated by non-fluorescent
AOM (80–90%), together with minor amounts of phyto-
clasts (<15%). At the base of the Yuquianza Member, a
151
mixed assemblage is observed that consists of fluorescent
and non-fluorescent AOM, rare marine palynomorphs
(Leiosphaera), and phytoclasts including wood and opaque
particles. The terrestrial fraction is dominated by oxidized
opaque particles. The equidimensional opaque particles are
generally of small size (10–25 lm). Toward the top of this
member, the abundance of phytoclasts and size of the equi-
dimensional opaque particles increase (Fig. 4), whereas
pollen and spores are relatively rare. The colour of the
AOM varies from orange to brown. The organic matter
is generally poorly preserved; however, there are a few
intervals with moderate to good preservation.
4.3.2. Patuca Member
The POM assemblages of the Patuca Member include a
large amount of non-fluorescent AOM (60–90%), and com-
pared with the Yuquianza Member, there is an increase in
the amount of terrestrial-derived phytoclasts (Fig. 4). The
terrestrial fraction accounts for less than the 40% of the
total assemblages and is dominated by oxidized particles.
The average size of equidimentional opaque particles
ranges from 25 to 50 lm, and the colour of the AOM varies
from orange to black. The preservation of the organic mat-
ter is generally poor.
Within the studied section, the observed POM assem-
blages vary essentially according to the terrestrial input.
There is a clear difference in the POM assemblages between
the Yuquianza and Patuca members, reflected by the
increase in size and abundance of the phytoclasts in the
Patuca Member. No reliable POM data could be obtained
from the Santiago River Member.
4.4. Rock-eval analysis
The TOC content and quality of organic matter may be
affected by the weathering of outcrops, particularly in trop-
ical zones (Leythaeuser, 1973). In weathered samples col-
lected near the surface, TOC and HI values decrease and
OI values increase. Therefore, our results obtained from
surface samples could differ from values obtained from
wells in the Oriente Basin.
In the studied section, the values of HI range between 6
and 190 mg HC/gTOC, with a clear preference for higher
values in the Yuquianza Member (Fig. 5). The OI values
range between 7 and 139 mg CO2/gTOC, with the highest
values found in the Patuca Member. Because the values
of OI can be affected by the presence of carbonates, low
values of TOC, weathering, and oxidation in outcrop sec-
tions (Tyson, 1995), we use the HI versus Tmax diagram
to determine the kerogen type (Fig. 6) and HI versus
TOC to evaluate the type of hydrocarbon that mature sam-
ples potentially generate (Altunsoy and Özçelik, 1998)
(Fig. 7).
The TOC values generally vary between 0.46% and
4.61% (Fig. 5). The samples of the Yuquianza Member
show higher values (>2%), whereas the values from the Pat-
uca Member range mostly 1–2%.
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152 J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156

Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphy, percentages of phytoclasts, average size of opaque particles, preservation, and thermal alteration of the organic matter, and
POM assemblages. See legend for lithology in Fig. 3

Tmax values range between 420 and 586 °C (Fig. 5). In
the Yuquianza Member, values vary between 433 and
460 °C. The samples from Patuca Member show mostly
values of 422–450 °C; however, extreme values of 500,
578, and 586 °C were measured in the middle part of this
member (Fig. 5).
The values of the total genetic potential (S1 + S2) range
from 0.03 to 7.31 mg HC/g. The samples of the Yuquianza
Member show values that range from 0.14 to 7.31 mg HC/
g, whereas in the Patuca Member, the values range from
0.03 to 5.44 mg HC/g (Fig. 5).
5. Discussion and interpretation
5.1. Santiago River Member
This member was deposited on a calcareous platform,
with moderate to low energy and disoxic anoxic conditions.
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J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156 153

Fig. 5. TOC, HI, total genetic potential (S1 + S2), and Tmax values of Santiago Formation.

The calcareous sandstones in the upper part of the Santi-
ago River Member show common hummocky cross-strati-
fication, suggesting the presence of tempestites.
5.2. Yuquianza Member
The Yuquianza Member was deposited in a shallow
marine basin with disoxic to anoxic conditions. On the
basis of the characteristics of the POM assemblages, this
member can be subdivided into two parts. In the lower
part, the relatively low percentage of phytoclasts and small
size of the equidimentional opaque particles suggest a dis-
tal marine environment (Steffen and Gorin, 1993). The
presence of fluorescent and non-fluorescent AOM indicates
a continental and marine source or partial degradation of
the AOM. In the upper part of the Yuquianza Member,
the percentage of phytoclasts and size of the equidimen-
sional opaque particles increase, suggesting a more proxi-
mal marine environment (Steffen and Gorin, 1993). The
high TOC values in this member point to anoxic deposi-
tional environment, in line with the moderate to good pres-
ervation of the organic matter, as well as the consistent
presence of the prasinophycean algae (Leiosphaera), which
also suggests anoxic conditions in a shallow-marine envi-
ronment (Batten, 1996a).
Tmax values from the Yuquianza Member suggest that
the organic matter in this member is thermally mature.
The HI versus Tmax diagram indicates the dominance of
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154 J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156

HI versus TOC diagram shows that the Yuquianza Mem-

Patuca Member ber is a potential gas source and that some levels can be
1000 Type I Yuquianza Member oil prone (Fig. 7).

5.3. Patuca Member

0.5 % A shallowing-upward trend of the depositional environ-

800 Ro =
ment can be inferred in the transition from the Yuquianza
Member to the Patuca Member, as is corroborated by the
Hydrogen Index (mgHC/gTOC)

POM assemblages that indicate a change in the deposi-

Type II tional environment from an anoxic or disoxic to oxic con-
ditions. Despite the absence of complete Bouma cycles, the
600
presence of graded bedding and lamination in the sand-
stones of the Patuca Member suggest a turbiditic origin
for these sediments, probably associated with a delta front.
The deposition was apparently synchronous with a strong
400 volcanic activity that produced lava flows and dikes.
The POM assemblages in the Patuca Member are dom-
inated by non-fluorescent AOM, indicating terrestrial ori-
%
35 gin or strong degradation of the AOM of marine origin.
1.
= The important amounts of phytoclasts and the size of the
Ro
200 Type III equidimensional opaque particles (25–50 lm) suggest a
proximal marine environment (Steffen and Gorin, 1993).
Tmax values indicate the mature state of the organic mat-
ter, though some levels show anomalously high values of
Tmax combined with a black AOM. These levels obviously
0 have been exposed to increased heat flow within the sedi-
380 400 420 440 460 480 500
ments due to coeval volcanism, as manifested by the inter-
T max (°C)
calation of basaltic flows. Pyrolysis parameters from these
Fig. 6. Type of kerogen in the Yuquianza and Patuca members of levels are irrelevant for the evaluation of the POM. In sam-
Santiago Formation. ples out of the range of contact metamorphism, the HI ver-
sus Tmax diagram (Fig. 6) indicates the dominance of
kerogen type III, which makes them gas-prone (Fig. 7).
10000 Patuca Member
The low values of S1 + S2 indicate a poor to moderate
Yuquianza Member
source potential (Tissot and Welte, 1984).

6. Conclusions
oil source
HI (mg HC / g TOC)

1000 According to lithological and sedimentological criteria,

the Santiago Formation can be subdivided into three mem-
nd l
a s a e oi bers. The basal Santiago River Member consists of lime-
g m
so stones and calcareous sandstones; the Yuquianza
Member includes organic-rich black shales; and the Patuca
100 Member includes sandstones, siltstones, and black shales
gas source
with basaltic intercalations.
or barren
source

Fossil evidence indicates that the organic-rich shales

poor

of the Santiago Formation (Yuquianza Member) are of

10
0.1
TOC (%)
Fig. 7. Possible hydrocarbon generated from mature samples of
Yuquianza and Patuca members of Santiago Formation.
type III kerogen, though in some intervals, type II kerogen
is quite abundant (Fig. 6). The S1 + S2 values suggest that
a few levels have a moderate to good source potential. The
gas (?) Late Sinemurian age and can be correlated with part
of the Aramachay Formation of the Pucará Group in
1 10 Peru. The presence of volcanic material in the shales of
the Yuquianza Member and the volcanic rocks interca-
lated in the Patuca Member document volcanic activity
during the deposition of the upper part of the Santiago
Formation.
As indicated by pyrolysis data and organic matter anal-
ysis, the Santiago Formation is thermally mature in the
studied area. The Yuquianza Member has a moderate
 Author's personal copy
J. Gaibor et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 25 (2008) 145–156
source potential, with kerogen type II and III, combined
with high TOC values and a moderate preservation. Com-
pared with the Yuquianza Member, the source potential of
the Patuca Member is distinctly lower because of the dom-
inance of kerogen type III of terrestrial origin. In conclu-
sion, the Santiago Formation has some oil source
potential, especially in the black shales of the Yuquianza
Member. Considering the state of preservation of the rock
samples (e.g., outcrop weathering), the values measured at
the type locality probably represent minimum values. The
source potential of the Santiago Formation could prove
to be higher in unaltered material.
Acknowledgments
A Swiss Government Grant to J.G. supported this work.
We thank H. Rieber for the identification of the ammo-
noids. This manuscript was significantly improved by crit-
ical comments of C. Vallejo and helpful reviews of G.
Gorin and P. Baby. We also acknowledge G. Taco and
M. Gaibor for their collaboration in the field.
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