NPN and PNP Linear Voltage Regulators

Course Objective:
To be able to explain the differences between NPN and PNP Linear Voltage Regulators; their basic operation, advantages and limitations, as well
as identifing applications where one, or the other, would be appropriate choice.

Course Map/Table of Contents

1. Course Navigation

1. 1.1 Course Navigation

2. Linear Voltage Regulator Basics

1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Linear Voltage Regulator
3. 2.3 Simple Model
4. 2.4 Simple Model, with variables
5. 2.5 Simple Model, with values
6. 2.6 Simple Model, with a change of Load Current
7. 2.7 Simple Model, with a change in Input Voltage
8. 2.8 The Control Loop
9. 2.9 Simple Model, with Control Loop blocks
10. 2.10 The Basic Real-World Model

3. Types of NPN and PNP Linear Voltage Regulators

1. 3.1 Two Types

2. 3.2 Standard Regulators
3. 3.3 'Quasi-LDO' Standard Regulators
4. 3.4 LDO Regulators
5. 3.5 The Differences to consider

4. NPN-Darlington Voltage Regulators

1. 4.1 Introduction to the NPN "Darlington"

2. 4.2 Losses in the NPN Darlington
3. 4.3 Simple Model of losses in the NPN Darlington
4. 4.4 Driving the NPN Darlington Pass Element
5. 4.5 NPN Drive Current vs Low Load Current
6. 4.6 NPN Drive Current vs High Load Current
7. 4.7 Darlington-NPN Output Capacitor Requirements
8. 4.8 NPN Darlington Summary

5. NPN "Quasi-LDO" Voltage regulators

1. 5.1 Introduction to NPN "Quasi-LDO" Voltage Regulator

2. 5.2 Losses in the NPN "Quasi-LDO"
3. 5.3 Simple Model of Losses in the NPN "Quasi-LDO"
4. 5.4 Driving the NPN "Quasi-LDO" Pass Element
5. 5.5 Drive Current vs Low Load Current
6. 5.6 Drive Current vs High Load Current
7. 5.7 'Quasi-LDO' NPN Output Capacitor Requirements
8. 5.8 Summary

6. PNP LDO Voltage Regulators

1. 6.1 Introduction to PNP LDO Regulators

2. 6.2 Losses in the PNP LDO drive circuitry
3. 6.3 Simple Model of Losses in the PNP LDO Regulator
4. 6.4 Driving the PNP LDO Pass Element
5. 6.5 Drive Current vs Low Load Current
6. 6.6 Drive Current vs High Load Current
7. 6.7 PNP LDO Output Capacitor Requirements
8. 6.8 Summary

7. Package Thermals

1. 7.1 Package Limitations

2. 7.2 Power Dissipation Variables NPN and PNP Linear Voltage Regulators Copyright © 2010 by National Semiconductor Corporation All rights reserved
 3. 7.3 Power Dissipation Calculation
4. 7.4 Temperature Rise
5. 7.5 The Operating Junction Temperature

8. Summary

1. 8.1 Summary
2. 8.2 Selecting the Best Regulator For Your Application

9. A disclaimer

1. Course Navigation

1.1 Course Navigation

1.1 Course Navigation

This course is organized like a book with multiple chapters. Each chapter may have one or more pages.

The previous and next arrows move you forward and back through the course page by page.

The left navigation bar takes you to any chapter. It also contains the bookmarking buttons, 'save' and 'go to.' To save your place
in a course, press the 'save' button. The next time you open the course, clicking on 'go to' will take you to the page you saved or
bookmarked.

The top services bar contains additional information such as glossary of terms, who to go to for help with this subject and an
FAQ. Clicking home on this bar will take you back to the course beginning.

Don't miss the hints, references, exercises and quizzes which appear at the bottom of some pages.

2. Linear Voltage Regulator Basics

This chapter will discuss how a linear voltage regulator works

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Linear Voltage Regulator
2.3 Simple Model
2.4 Simple Model, with variables
2.5 Simple Model, with values
2.6 Simple Model, with a change of Load Current
2.7 Simple Model, with a change in Input Voltage
2.8 The Control Loop
2.9 Simple Model, with Control Loop blocks
2.10 The Basic Real-World Model

2.1 Introduction

What is a voltage regulator?

Every electronic circuit is designed to operate off of some supply voltage, which is usually assumed to be constant.
A Linear Voltage Regulator provides this constant DC output voltage and contains circuitry that continuously holds the output voltage at
the design value regardless of changes in load current or input voltage.
This assumes that the load current and input voltage are within the specified operating range for the device.
 The linear regulator is the basic building block of nearly every power supply used in electronics.
The IC linear regulator is so easy to use that it is virtually foolproof, and so inexpensive that it is usually one of the cheapest
components in an electronic assembly.

Linear Voltage Regulators are 'step-down' devices, that is the output voltage is always lower than the input voltage.

2.2 Linear Voltage Regulator

What is a Linear Voltage Regulator

A linear regulator operates by using a voltage-controlled current source to force a fixed voltage to appear at the regulator output
terminal.
The control circuitry continuosly monitors (senses) the output voltage, and adjusts the current source (as required by the load) to hold
the output voltage at the desired value.
The design limit of the current source defines the maximum load current the regulator can source and still maintain regulation.

The output voltage is controlled using a feedback loop, which requires some type of compensation to assure loop stability.
Most linear regulators have built-in compensation, and are completely stable without external components.
Some regulators (like Low-Dropout types), do require some external capacitance connected from the output lead to ground to assure
regulator stability.

2.3 Simple Model

A basic (first order) linear voltage regulator can be modeled with two resistors and a power supply for V .
IN

Knowing the required output voltage (V ), the load current (I ), along with the input voltage (V ), is essential to creating the
OUT LOAD IN
model.

2.4 Simple Model, with variables

In reality, the only constant is the output voltage, V .
OUT

Everything else can, and will, be constantly changing.

The input voltage may have changes due to outside influences, the load current may change due to a dynamic change in the behaviour of the
load.

Changes in these variables can all happen simultaneously, and the value needed for R to hold V at a constant value will need to change
PASS OUT
as well.

2.5 Simple Model, with values

For the first example, we will assign typical operating values and calculate the value needed for the series pass element R .
PASS

V = 12V
IN
V = 5V
OUT
I = 50 mA
LOAD

With V = 12V and V = 5V, the voltage across R = (12V - 5V) = 7V

IN OUT PASS
With the current through R =I = 50 mA, the needed resistance for R = (7V / 50mA)= 140 Ohms
PASS LOAD PASS

2.6 Simple Model, with a change of Load Current

For the second example, we will change the load current from 50mA to 500mA and calculate the value needed for the series pass element R
PASS
.

V = 12V
IN
V = 5V
OUT
I = 500 mA
LOAD

With V = 12V and V = 5V, the voltage across R = (12V - 5V)= 7V

IN OUT PASS
With the current through R =I = 500 mA, the needed resistance for R = (7V / 500mA)= 14 Ohms
PASS LOAD PASS

2.7 Simple Model, with a change in Input Voltage

For the third example, we will change the input voltage from 12V to 22V and calculate the value needed for the series pass element R .
PASS

V = 22V
IN
V = 5V
OUT
I = 50 mA
LOAD

With V = 22V and V = 5V, the voltage across R = (22V - 5V)= 17V
IN OUT PASS
With the current through R =I = 50 mA, the needed resistance for R = (17V / 50mA) = 340 Ohms
PASS LOAD PASS

2.8 The Control Loop

It has been shown that the resistance of series pass element, R , needs to change as the operating conditions change.
PASS
This is accomplished with a control loop.
The error amplifier monitors the sampled output voltage, compares it to a known reference voltage, and actively changes R to keep V
PASS OUT
constant.

A characteristic of any linear voltage regulator is that it requires a finite amount of time to "correct" the output voltage after a change in
load current demand.
This "time lag" defines the characteristic called transient response, which is a measure of how fast the regulator returns to
steady-state conditions after a load change.
 2.9 Simple Model, with Control Loop blocks

Here 'simple' blocks have added to show the four basic divisions of any linear voltage regulator:

1) Series Pass Element

2) Error Amplifier
3) Vout Sampling Network
4) Reference Voltage

The control loop action continuously holds the regulated output at a fixed value which is a multiple of the reference voltage, regardless
of changes in load current.
It is important to note that a sudden increase or decrease in load current demand (a "step" change in load resistance) will cause the
output voltage to change until the loop can correct and stabilize to the new level (this is called transient response).

2.10 The Basic Real-World Model

3. Types of NPN and PNP Linear Voltage Regulators

This chapter will discuss the two types of Linear Voltage Regulators

3.1 Two Types

3.2 Standard Regulators
3.3 'Quasi-LDO' Standard Regulators
3.4 LDO Regulators
3.5 The Differences to consider

3.1 Two Types

There are, basically, only two types of Linear Voltage Regulators:

Low Drop Out (LDO)

 Everything else

3.2 Standard Regulators

The group of Linear Voltage Regulators that are not LDO (everything else), are typically put into a group labeled "Standard Regulators"

A standard regulator uses a NPN-Darlington transistor as the pass element to control the current to the load that is connect to the
voltage output pin.

The drive current to the base of pass transistor is controlled by the error amplifier which senses the difference between a
internal reference voltage and pre-set ratio of the output voltage.

This arrangement means

1) The voltage breakdown of the two base-emitter junctions must be overcome before the NPN-Darlington will pass any current

2) A vast majority of the bias current to the base of the NPN-Darlington flows through to the load. Very little current is wasted.

3.3 'Quasi-LDO' Standard Regulators

A Standard Regulator that's almost an LDO is typically labeled a 'Quasi-LDO'. It's not a true LDO.

A 'Quasi-LDO' regulator replaces the a NPN-Darlington transistor with single NPN transistor as the pass element.

This arrangement means

1) The input voltage needs to greater than the one base-emitter junction of the pass transistor before it can pass any current.
This means that the input voltage must be 500mV to 1.00V greater than the output voltage.

2) A majority of the bias current to the base of the NPN flows through to the load. Only a small amount of current is wasted.

3.4 LDO Regulators

A true LDO voltage regulator does not have any biasing obstacle to overcome as its base drive current is pulled through the emitter which is
connected directly to the input voltage.

An LDO regulator uses a PNP transistor as the pass element to control the current to the load.

The drive current to the base of pass transistor is controlled by the error amplifier which senses the difference between a
internal reference voltage and pre-set ratio of the output voltage.

This arrangement means

1) The input voltage needs only to be greater than the saturation voltage (V ) of the pass transistor. This means that the input
SAT
voltage needs only to be 50mV to 500mV greater than the input voltage, depending on the output current.

2) All of the bias current from the base of the PNP flows to ground. At high load currents this can be a significant percentage of
the total current.

3.5 The Differences to consider

There are basically three areas that separate the three types of Linear voltage regulators

The single most important difference between these three types is the dropout voltage, which is defined as the minimum voltage drop
required across the regulator to maintain output voltage regulation.
A critical point to be considered is that the linear regulator that operates with the smallest voltage across it dissipates the least internal
 power and has the highest efficiency.
The LDO requires the least voltage across it, while the Standard regulator requires the most.

The second important difference between the regulator types is the ground pin current required by the regulator when driving rated
load current. The Standard regulator has the lowest ground pin current, while the LDO generally has the highest. Increased ground pin
current is undesirable since it is "wasted" current, in that it must be supplied by the source but does not power the load, and creates
addition internal heat.

A third difference is the output capacitor requirement.

The LDO usually has a very specific requirement for a minimum value, plus a required ESR range.
The Standard NPN-Darlington has no specific capacitor requirement, but a capacitor is usually recommended to improve performance.
The Quasi-LDO usually has a minimum capacitor value, but no specific type is required.

4. NPN-Darlington Voltage Regulators

Linear regulators are classified by the type of pass element that is used.
There are two types of NPN Voltage regulators.

The first, and most common, type is the

NPN "Darlington"

4.1 Introduction to the NPN "Darlington"

4.2 Losses in the NPN Darlington
4.3 Simple Model of losses in the NPN Darlington
4.4 Driving the NPN Darlington Pass Element
4.5 NPN Drive Current vs Low Load Current
4.6 NPN Drive Current vs High Load Current
4.7 Darlington-NPN Output Capacitor Requirements
4.8 NPN Darlington Summary

4.1 Introduction to the NPN "Darlington"

4.2 Losses in the NPN Darlington

 4.3 Simple Model of losses in the NPN Darlington

4.4 Driving the NPN Darlington Pass Element

The current flow through the NPN Darlington voltage regulator is shown in this simplified schematic. Each transistor has an assigned 'typical'
value for Beta, so that current flow for different load currents can be evaluated. It's important to remember that each transistor is scaled for the
maximum current that it is expected to handle within the design guide lines. It is not uncommon for Q1a to be an array of several hundred NPN
transistors in parallel, while Q1b would be any array of several 10's of NPN transistors in parallel.
 4.5 NPN Drive Current vs Low Load Current

The drive current for a load current requirement of 5mA

4.6 NPN Drive Current vs High Load Current

Increasing the load current requirement to 500mA

4.7 Darlington-NPN Output Capacitor Requirements

The Darlington-NPN linear regulators are considered to be 'unconditionally stable'

An output capacitor is not required for stability, but some value is always recommended as a precautionary measure. The output
capacitor will work to improve dynamic performance for ripple rejection and load transients. There is no limitation on the capacitor type,
or value (uF).

4.8 NPN Darlington Summary

The NPN-Darlington has the following Characteristics:

 Requires the input voltage to be at least 1.7V to 2.5V higher than the output

Has the lowest Ground pin current of all the Linear Voltage Regulators

Does not require any output capacitor, (but use one anyway)

LM340 Data Sheet

5. NPN "Quasi-LDO" Voltage regulators

Linear regulators are classified by the type of pass element that is used.

There second type of NPN Voltage regulator is the

NPN "Quasi-LDO"

5.1 Introduction to NPN "Quasi-LDO" Voltage Regulator

5.2 Losses in the NPN "Quasi-LDO"
5.3 Simple Model of Losses in the NPN "Quasi-LDO"
5.4 Driving the NPN "Quasi-LDO" Pass Element
5.5 Drive Current vs Low Load Current
5.6 Drive Current vs High Load Current
5.7 'Quasi-LDO' NPN Output Capacitor Requirements
5.8 Summary

5.1 Introduction to NPN "Quasi-LDO" Voltage Regulator

5.2 Losses in the NPN "Quasi-LDO"

5.3 Simple Model of Losses in the NPN "Quasi-LDO"

5.4 Driving the NPN "Quasi-LDO" Pass Element

5.5 Drive Current vs Low Load Current

The drive current for a load current requirement of 5mA

5.6 Drive Current vs High Load Current

Increasing the load current requirement to 500mA

5.7 'Quasi-LDO' NPN Output Capacitor Requirements

The 'Quasi-LDO' NPN linear regulators are considered to be stable with some nominal capacitance.

Some output capacitance is required for stability, Usually 10uF is adequate for stability No specific Effective Series Resistance
limitation.

5.8 Summary

The NPN-Quasi-LDO has the following Characteristics:

Requires the input voltage to be at least 0.9V to 1.5V higher than the output voltage

Has higher Ground pin current than the NPN-Darlington, but less than the PNP-LDO Voltage Regulators
 Requires an output capacitor, but, generally, has no specific ESR requirement like the PNP-LDO.

LM1117 Data Sheet

6. PNP LDO Voltage Regulators

Place a short summary of this chapter's topics here.

6.1 Introduction to PNP LDO Regulators

6.2 Losses in the PNP LDO drive circuitry
6.3 Simple Model of Losses in the PNP LDO Regulator
6.4 Driving the PNP LDO Pass Element
6.5 Drive Current vs Low Load Current
6.6 Drive Current vs High Load Current
6.7 PNP LDO Output Capacitor Requirements
6.8 Summary

6.1 Introduction to PNP LDO Regulators

6.2 Losses in the PNP LDO drive circuitry

6.3 Simple Model of Losses in the PNP LDO Regulator

6.4 Driving the PNP LDO Pass Element

6.5 Drive Current vs Low Load Current

The drive current for a load current requirement of 5mA

6.6 Drive Current vs High Load Current

Changing the load current requirement to 500mA

6.7 PNP LDO Output Capacitor Requirements

The PNP pass transistor in the LDO uses the collector as the output pin. This high impedance output forces the need for a specific capacitor
value (uF) with a specific Effective Series Resistance (ESR), to maintain stability across the output load current range.

Tantalum capacitors are usually recommended as they are most likely type to have the needed capacitance value and ESR value
within a wide temperature range. Aluminum capacitors are usually not recommended, but can be used in a limited temperature
environment.

6.8 Summary

The PNP LDO has the following Characteristics:

Requires that the input voltage be only 100mV to 700mV higher than the output voltage.
 Has a higher Ground pin current than NPN type

Requires careful selection of the output capacitor value and ESR ratings.

7. Package Thermals

The choice of package type can have a significant effect on the overall performance of a Linear Voltage Regulator, especially when operating in
elevated temperature environments.
This is a not an issue that is unique to NPN or PNP Voltage Regulators.

7.1 Package Limitations

7.2 Power Dissipation Variables
7.3 Power Dissipation Calculation
7.4 Temperature Rise
7.5 The Operating Junction Temperature

7.1 Package Limitations

Even if all the electrical specifications appear to be acceptable for an application, it's possible that none of the available packages for a particular
device has adequate thermal performance.
It's very important to fully evaluate the 'thermal environment' that the linear regulator will operate in, as 'self heating' may cause the regulator to
reach thermal shutdown.

A package thermal rating indicates how much the internal temperature will rise for every 1 Watt of energy that is dissipated by the
device.
The rating is expressed in °C/W

Theta rates the package thermal performance from the silicon die to the ambient air surrounding the package. For most surface
JA
mount packages the Theta rating can be improved by adding copper area to the circuit board to allow heat to escape from the device
JA
through the pins.

Theta rates the package thermal performance from the silicon die to the package case. This rating would be used for calculating
JC
requirements for some external heatsink that might be bolted to the package (TO-220), or attached to the package with thermal epoxy.
This rating is not useful for small package outlines (PSOP, LLP, etc)

7.2 Power Dissipation Variables

To calculate the power that the device will dissipate the operating conditions must be known, or at least reasonably guess-timated'.

What is the highest expected operating input voltage?

Usually, brief voltage transients can be ignored.

What is the highest expected output load current?

Usually, load current associated with power-on and start-up conditions can be ignored since they are usually brief.

What is the Ground Pin current (sometimes called I ) at the highest expected load current?
Q
This value can usually be estimated from Typical Performance Characteristic Curves, or extrapolated from the Electrical Characteristics
Specifications table.
Since it's a usually a small portion of the total dissipation, absolute accuracy is not critical. Some competitors indicate that this variable
can be safely ignored, but on some devices it's enough to make a difference in package selection.

7.3 Power Dissipation Calculation

Power Dissipation for Linear Regulators is calculated with the following formula
 P = ((V -V )x=I ) + (V xI )
D IN OUT OUT IN GND

Where:
P = The power dissipated in Watts
D
V = The highest anticipated input voltage
IN
V = The rated output voltage of the regulator
OUT
I = The highest anticipated output current
OUT
I = The Ground pin current at the highest anticipated output current
GND

7.4 Temperature Rise

Knowing the Theta of a package and the ambient operating temperature we can calculated the temperature of the silicon die (the junction
JA
temperature, T )
J

T = T + (P x Theta )
J A D JA

Where:
T = is the internal silicon die (junction) temperature in °C
J
T = is maximum expected temperature of the ambient air in °C
A
(P = is the maximum expected power to be dissipated in Watts
D
Theta ) = is the thermal rating of the package in °C/Watt
JA

7.5 The Operating Junction Temperature

T should never exceed the rated operating junction temperature of a device.

J
If the calculations show that T will exceed the rated operating junction temperature of a device in a particular application, then something has to
J
change.

Improve Theta by adding copper area to the package pins, or to any solder tab (TO-263)
JA

Choose a package with a better Theta rating. This might eliminate a device if the package selection is limited.
JA

Attempt to modify the application so that the output current, input voltage, and/or ambient temperature, can be reduced. This is the
most difficult option, as the typical customer will declare their operating conditions to be 'non-negotiable'

Understanding Integrated Circuit package Power Capabilities

8. Summary

A review of the characteristics of NPN and PNP Linear Voltage Regulators

8.1 Summary
8.2 Selecting the Best Regulator For Your Application

8.1 Summary

Summary

The NPN-Darlington has the following Characteristics:

Requires the input voltage to be at least 1.7V to 2.5V higher than the output voltage.
 Has the lowest Ground pin current of all the Linear Voltage Regulators
Does not require any output capacitor, (but use one anyway).

The NPN-Quasi-LDO has the following Characteristics:

Requires the input voltage to be at least 0.9V to 1.5V higher than the output voltage.
Has higher Ground pin current than the NPN-Darlington, but less than the PNP-LDO Voltage Regulators
Requires an output capacitor, but, generally, has no specific ESR requirement like the PNP-LDO.

The PNP LDO has the following Characteristics:

Requires that the input voltage be only 100mV to 700mV higher than the output voltage.
Has a higher Ground pin current than NPN type regulators
Requires careful selection of the output capacitor value and ESR ratings.

8.2 Selecting the Best Regulator For Your Application

The best choice for a specific application can be determined by evaluating the requirements such as:
Maximum Load Current
Input Voltage Source
Output Voltage Precision (Tolerance)
Quiescent Current
Special Features (Shutdown Pin, Error Flag, etc.)

MAXIMUM LOAD CURRENT

The maximum current required in an application should be carefully considered when selecting an IC regulator.
The load current specification for an IC regulator will be defined as either a single value or a value that is dependent on input-output
voltage differential .

INPUT VOLTAGE SOURCE

The available input voltage (battery or AC power) will strongly influence which type regulator is best suited for an application.
Minimum Input Voltage: The dropout voltage of the pass transistor, along with the regulated output voltage, will define the minimum
input voltage that can sustain proper operation of the regulator.
V =V +V
IN(MIN) OUT DO
Battery: In battery-powered applications LDO regulators are usually the best choice because they utilize the available input voltage
more fully (and can operate longer into the discharge cycle of the battery).
For example, a "6V' lead-acid battery (a popular battery type) has a terminal voltage of about 6.3V when fully charged, and about 5.5V
at the end-of-discharge point. If a designer wanted to make a regulated 5V supply powered from this battery, an LDO regulator would
be required because there is only about 0.5V to 1.3V available for dropout voltage.
AC: If a DC supply is generated from a rectified AC source, the dropout voltage of the regulator is not as critical because additional
regulator input voltage is easily obtained by increasing the secondary voltage of the AC transformer (by adding turns to the secondary
winding).
In these applications, a standard regulator is usually the most economical choice, and can also provide more load current.
However, in some cases the additional features and better output voltage precision of some of the new LDO regulators would still make
them the best choice.

OUTPUT VOLTAGE PRECISION (TOLERANCE)

Typical linear regulators usually have an output voltage specification that guarantees the regulated output will be within 5% of nominal.
This level of accuracy is adequate for most applications.
There are many new regulators which have tighter output tolerances (better than 2% is common), achieved through the use of a
trimming process.
Many regulators have separate output specifications that cover room temperature/full operating temperature range, and
full-load/light-load conditions.

QUIESCENT CURRENT
The quiescent current that a part draws from the source when idling (either shut down or not delivering significant amounts of load
current) can be of critical importance in battery-powered applications.
In some applications, a regulator may spend most of its life shut off (in standby
mode) and only supply load current when a main regulator fails.
In these cases, the quiescent current determines the battery life.

SPECIAL FEATURES
Many LDO regulators offer features that will allow the designer greater flexibility:
Shutdown: A low-power shutdown pin allows a regulator to be switched off by logicgate or mmicrocenterbr> Load-dump Protection:
Regulators used in automotive applications need built-in protection against ovoverflagansients (load-dump).
Reverse Input Voltage Protection: This prevents damage to the regulator when the input voltage is reversed, essential in applications
where the user can accidentally reverse the polarity of the batteries.
Error Flag: This flag is used to alert monitoring or control circuitry that the output voltage has dropped below its nominal regulated
value.
 9. A disclaimer

The designations "Standard", "Quasi-LDO", and "LDO", as used here, are by no means uniform practice throughout the industry.
Some major manufacturers, including National Semiconductor, advertise and sell the quasi-LDO parts as "Low Dropout Regulators".
Still other manufacturers advertise the quasi-LDO units as "Low Dropout", and the LDO units as "Very Low Dropout".
Reading the fine print on all completive data sheets is strongly recommended in order to determine how any regulator will actually perform in a
given application, without relying on the marketing descriptions.

Ambient Temperature
(T ) The surrounding air, usually still (i.e. no forced air flow).
A

Drop Out Voltage

Dropout Voltage - the minimum difference between the input voltage and output voltage that allows the output voltage to remain in regulation.
The voltage across the pass transistor when it is nearing saturation.

ESR
Equivalent Series Resistance - ESR is the sum of in-phase AC resistance. It includes resistance of the dielectric, plate material, electrolytic
solution, and terminal leads at a particular frequency. ESR acts like a resistor in series with a capacitor (thus the name Equivalent Series
Resistance).

Junction Temperature
(T ) The temperature at the die, or silicon, level. This temperatue is dependant on the outside air temperature, power dissipation (self-
J
heating), plus how efficiently heat moves from the die to the outside air (Theta ).
JA

thermal shutdown
The junction temperature (T ) of the silicon die where the device will shut down in order to protect itself.
J

Theta
JA
The thermal resistance rating between the silicon die (T , junction temperature) and the surrounding air (T , ambient temperature)
J A

V
DO
V - see Drop Out Voltage
DO

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