High-voltage power-transformer insulation

E. T. Norris, M.I.Mech.E., Member

Summary
The increase in transmission system voltages in recent years to 500 kV, with even higher prospective values,
makes the internal insulation a large proportion of the transformer cost and therefore economically more
important. The associated increase in MVA rating, and hence in size and weight, has reached beyond
transport limits and demands better insulation of smaller volume.
These factors can both be helped by increasing the working stresses in the insulation. The paper considers
means of achieving this by improvements in impregnation, more uniform dielectric fields and the elimination
of creepage, voids and local stresses due to winding connections and transpositions.
Since oil-impregnated paper is exclusively used in high-voltage power-transformer windings, the elements
paper and oil are first considered and then the combination. This depends entirely upon the purity of the
elements, the completeness of the impregnation and the subsequent prevention of contamination in
service. These are also discussed.
Throughout the paper the possibilities of non-destructive testing are considered.
Distinction is drawn between the orthodox ageing of insulation and the practical life of transformers
in service.
Technical literature on the subject, though extensive, is notable for its discordance. The paper endeavours
to incorporate a distillation of this practical information with the author's judgment and practical experience
in the hope that discussion will lead to explicit confirmation or amendment of the conclusions reached.

1 Introduction have, of course, kept abreast of modern developments in

For many years, high-voltage power-transformer
insulation has been universally and almost exclusively oil-
impregnated paper, the term 'paper' including paper, press-
board and presspaper made from cotton, wood pulp, linen,
jute or other cellulose material. The term 'oil' means a mineral
hydrocarbon oil in accordance with B.S. 148: 1951 or similar
specifications. Other materials such as impregnated wood
(usually laminated) and synthetic-resin-bonded-paper cylin-
ders and boards are used in small quantities in positions
where mechanical strength rather than electrical strength is
paramount.
The paper is divided into four sections on oil, paper,
oil-impregnated paper, and transformer insulation. In many
important respects these are four separate subjects. Dealing
with the matter in this sequence will simplify the analysis and
emphasize the comparative simplicity of the basic elements
and the complexity of the applied combination. Thus, for
example, oil-impregnated paper has characteristics that would
not obviously be expected from consideration of oil and paper,
much as, in different ways, the characteristics of salt are not
obvious from the constituents sodium and chlorine.
Oil-impregnated paper is also the principal insulation in
many high-voltage cables and capacitors as well as trans-
formers. Here again, in many important respects, these are
three separate subjects. Technical characteristics and analyses
true for one are misleading, or not relevant, for another.
Failure to realize these distinctions has been the cause of some
confusion and misunderstanding in academic studies, and
between transformer, cable and capacitor engineers.
When one thinks of the recent spectacular developments in
plastics and synthetic insulating materials, it might be expected
that, although oil-impregnated paper has been known and in
use for many years, it would have been superseded by one of
these more modern insulating materials. This is indeed begin-
ning to be true with cables and capacitors, at least for the
lower voltages, but there is as yet no sign of it happening in
high-voltage power transformers. Designers the world over
Paper 4088 P, first received 8th May and in revised form 2nd October
1962. It is an 'integrating' paper
Mr. Norris is consultant to Ferranti Ltd.
428
plastics, and their apparent apathy is due to the unique
characteristics of oil-impregnated paper in relation to the
peculiar combination of electrical, thermal and mechanical
stresses in a transformer winding.
This marriage of oil and paper has almost perfect intimacy.
They are the two cheapest insulating materials available, but
their combination is the best yet known and gives an electric
strength much higher than either separately.
Unlike plastics it has no melting-point or even, which is one
of the limiting features of plastics, no softening-point. There is
thus no appreciable loss of mechanical strength at relatively
low temperatures. It will also withstand comparatively high
temperatures for very short times—an essential requirement
for resisting short-circuit stresses.
The one defect in this marriage is that both constituents are
easily contaminated. In each material, impurities of a few
parts in 106 are serious. In theory, of course, purity is possible,
and in controlled laboratory conditions very high electric
strengths have been achieved.1 The practical application is
therefore entirely a matter of knowing the highest purity
attainable and maintainable and then choosing appropriate
stresses.
From the knowledge that oil-impregnated paper has been
studied universally for many years, it might be thought that
its characteristics and behaviour were fully known and
established. This, however, is not so. Some vital factors have
been realized only recently, and even today there is room for
much more experimental work and analysis.
The studies in the next two Sections of oil and paper
separately are not comprehensive or complete but deal only
with characteristics of importance in the combination oil-
impregnated paper as applied to high-voltage power trans-
formers. Methods and processes of achieving this combination
are not considered.
2 Transformer oil
The oil considered here is a mineral hydrocarbon oil as
normally used in transformers. A typical specification is given
in B.S. 148: 1951. The principal characteristics can be divided
into mechanical, physical and electrical.
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
2.1 Mechanical
Oil, although a liquid, has two important mechanical
properties, namely changes in volume with temperature and
pressure.
The former provides the essential convective or thermo-
siphon cooling in naturally air-cooled transformers. The latter,
or rather the absence of it, is responsible for the transference of
mechanical vibrations from the core to the tank, i.e. broadly
speaking for transformer noise.
While neither of these characteristics is directly within the
scope of the paper, both temperature and pressure have
important secondary effects, which are considered later
(Sections 2.2.2 and 5.5).

2.2 Physical
The chemical structure of the oil is the province of the
oil chemist, and numerous tests have been devised to prescribe
its performance fully, e.g. acidity or neutralization number,
saponification, interfacial tension, oxidation and steam
emulsion. All have their particular significance to the oil
chemist.

2.2.1 Acidity and oxidation

40 60 80
Present-day practical tests are for acidity and oxidation Temperature, °C
or sludge formation. Years ago these two tests were of
Fig. 1
engineering importance particularly when highly refined oils
of the class A type were a standard. Nitrogen and air content of transformer oil as a function of tem-
perature at 760 mm Hg pressure
Modern oils come easily within the sludge and acidity (a) Air
limits of B.S. 148 and stay within these limits for an unknown (b) Nitrogen
number of years in present transformer operating conditions.
Where high values of sludge and acidity have been measured, 11OO
they are not inherent in the oil but are due to unpolymerized
varnishes, compounds and paints (in particular metallic
dryers) formerly used in the transformer construction.2 Very 1000
small amounts of these impurities produce copious and
apparently unlimited quantities of sludge and sometimes high
acidity. When this occurs, the oil supplier is often unfairly
blamed.
For the oil-impregnated-paper insulation considered, there
will be no such varnish or other compounds in the wind-
ings, but the painting of cores, the insides of tanks and
the varnishing of taped leads must be carefully watched. If
this is done it is doubtful, and certainly not proven, if sludge
or acidity will ever reach a serious value in a modern trans-
former operating in normal service conditions, even with the
oil exposed to air. This question is considered in a later
Section.

2.2.2 Gas solution

Transformer oil will absorb the following quantities of
gas at 25° C and 760mmHg pressure: air, 10%; nitrogen,
8-5%; oxygen, 16%; and carbon dioxide, 100%.
The value for carbon dioxide is included to indicate the
range of gas absorptions and to show how much more
troublesome the gas problem could be.
Increasing the temperature or pressure increases the quantity
of gas the oil can hold in solution. Fig. 1 shows the effect of 300
8 10 12 14 16
temperature3 and Fig. 2 the effect of pressure.4 In many cases Air content , volume °/o
the gas solubility falls with increasing temperature. Trans-
former oil is an exception. Fig. 2
For transformers with the oil surface at atmospheric pres- Air content of transformer oil as a function of pressure
sure, as in the normal conservator tank construction, only
temperature variations need be considered, and these have If a transformer, however, is sealed to some degree, pressure
small effect. Fig. 1 shows, for example, that a 30° C change in and temperature are interrelated by the thermal expansion of
oil temperature changes the amount of dissolved air by only the oil and the sealing characteristics.5 Contemporary methods
0-45%. of sealing are discussed in Section 5.5.
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963 429
21 P6
 If the oil temperature rises owing to increase in load or
ambient temperature, the oil expands and increases the pres-
sure. For example, an increase from this cause of 7-51b/in2
in the air pressure would increase the air solubility from 10 to 280
15%
The danger arises when the pressure falls. The oil then has
more air than it can hold and becomes supersaturated. The 240
excess air will eventually diffuse out of the oil. It will take some
time, maybe days or weeks, for this to happen, depending on
the ratio of oil surface exposed to the gas and the volume of the

in
o
O
oil. If, however, the oil becomes supersaturated by 15-20% or
the pressure falls suddenly, air bubbles will form in the oil.
These bubbles will also occur in parts of the oil subjected
to high electric stresses.6 It has been reported3 that the electric

o
t,
strength of oil can be reduced to one-third by this means. This
problem is discussed in more detail in Section 5.5.

O
2.3 Electrical
In one respect, the electrical characteristics are simple.
80
The electric strength of oil is virtually infinite, values over
lOOOOkV/in having been measured. Practical values never
approach this limit. For example, the electric-strength accept-
ance test of 40 kV for a new oil in B.S. 148 corresponds to a 40
maximum gradient of 300kV/in, or only 3% of the above
value.
Many studies have been made of the electric strength of oil. 40 50
The results of different research workers are usually discordant Relative humidity of
in spite of earnest discussions, and perplexity ensues. The Fig. 3
explanation is that it is not, in fact, the electric strength of oil
Moisture content of transformer oil as a function of humidity of the
that is being measured but the effect of minute impurities on contact air at 25° C
the electric strength.43 These may vary for a given oil from id) Oil temperature, 25° C
sample to sample and even from hour to hour. Since no ib) Oil temperature, 40° C
(c) Oil temperature, 60° C
attempt is usually made to control the nature or amount (d) Oil temperature, 80° C
of impurity it is not surprising that wide variations occur.
Indeed it would be astonishing otherwise. 100,
The effect of impurities is variable. The most common one,
water, has a definite relation in quantity to the humidity of
the surface air4 (Fig. 3 is typical). Even so, the effect of moisture 52 80[
depends entirely on the nature and the amount of other
impurities present. Large quantities of water do not reduce
appreciably the electric strength of an otherwise clean oil.
Fig. 4 shows the range of values that have been measured.
Another electrical test is the power factor. This is a dimen-
sionless value, conveniently measured and much favoured by
research workers. As a measurement of power loss it is of
course informative and valuable. It is therefore an important
measure for cable and capacitor work. In transformers dielec- 20 30 "40 50
tric losses in the oil are negligible, and the power factor is not Water in oil, parts in
necessarily significant even when high. Fig. 4
There are authentic cases7 of large transformers in satis- Effect of water in transformer oil on the electric strength
factory service over many years with an oil power factor of
0-6-0-8 (power factor and not loss tangent). It is not known strength, because of the differing nature and degree of other
whether these oils, when new, would have passed the tests of minute impurities and, of course, the varying circumstances in
B.S. 148:1951, but sludge and acidity values were still low and which the tests are carried out. Moreover, cases where specific
electric strength was high. These high values have been relations have been found may well have been justified for the
encountered elsewhere and seem to be unexplained. They are, particular circumstances and conditions. The power-factor
of course, quite unusual, but they do indicate that power factor test requires very sensitive and critical measuring techniques
as an absolute value is not necessarily significant. and a skilled laboratory staff, and is not considered suitable
There seems to be no established correlation between power for routine measurements in the field.
factor and either moisture, electric strength or acidity. In some It is concluded by Clark10 that in the academic sense, the
cases,8 but not in others,9 some relation is found between power factor test may be used, as may other tests, if we merely
resistivity and moisture. wish to detect oil change. To be practical, however, the tests
Contradictions of this kind abound in the technical litera- must be selective and reject those oil changes which are not
ture. Here again, it is not a matter of correct measurement or actually harmful. This the power factor test of oil does not do.
of competent laboratory technique in any particular case. The
discrepancies arise partly because oils from differentfieldsand In the absence of a selective test, it is still necessary for us
to determine the specific oil property in which we are interested
refineries vary hydrocarbonically, but ctiiefly, as in the electric by the use of a specific test. If it is the dielectric strength test
430 PROCEEDINGS I.E.E, Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
 which is in question, it is best to run a dielectric strength test.
If it is sludge, it is best to run a test for oil sludging. This is the
direct, the practical way to evaluate oil condition.
In general, the power factor of the oil is no guide to the
power factor of the oil-impregnated paper.11 An oil of high
power factor can give oil-impregnated paper of very low
power factor.12
The temperature limit seems to be in the paper rather than
in the oil.12 Clean oil, if sealed from the atmosphere, with-
stands temperatures up to 140° C for long periods.
3 Paper
Cellulose materials employed include kraft, Manila
and rag papers, as well as cotton, jute and linen fibres as
described in the appropriate standard specifications.13"16
The relevant characteristics of paper are physical and
thermal. The insulation does not deteriorate electrically until
the material has lost all mechanical strength and has become
charred and sufficiently weakened and embrittled to crumble.17
3.1 Physical characteristics
It is only necessary to consider here moisture absorp-
tion. It is objectionable partly because it lowers the mechanical
strength of the paper, accelerates ageing and, to a lesser
degree, reduces the electric strength both in the dry state and
when oil-impregnated.
3.1.1 Absorbed moisture
Paper will contain about 15% moisture when saturated
and between 7 and 9% in normal atmospheric conditions, as
shown18,11 in Fig. 5. Equilibrium conditions for given tem-
peratures and humidities have been established.19 Paper will
40 50
Relative humidity, °/o
Fig. 5
Moisture content of kraft paper as a function of the relative humidity
of the contact air at room temperature
pick up its equilibrium moisture quite quickly, and it can, con-
versely, easily be dried down to 0* 1 % moisture by heating in
air. Vacuum is unnecessary except to save time, but the saving
is so great that in practice it is usually employed, forming part
of the impregnation process (Section 4.3).
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
3.1.2 Moisture evolution
Water forms a large part of the thermal decomposition
product, and this decomposition will be serious if the drying
process is carried too far.
It is difficult to determine when paper is dry. 17
As the drying process progresses, the rate at which water
vapour comes off steadily decreases but water vapour continues
to come off however long the drying is continued. Raising the
temperature increases the rate of drying, but it also increases
the rate of decomposition. Water vapour coming from the
thermal decomposition of cellulose is not distinguishable directly
from water vapour coming from the adsorbed state. Thus the
fact that water vapour continues to come off after protracted
drying at any temperature above about 100° C does not mean
that the paper can be dried further. It is not feasible to reach a
condition where no more water vapour is evolved by paper.
An increase in temperature will result in a higher rate of
moisture evolution which will gradually decrease. If heated,
further moisture is again thrown out. Pumping off more water
vapour beyond this point while maintaining the paper at a
high temperature is merely continuing the thermal decomposi-
tion; it is not decreasing the content of adsorbed water.
The gases evolved in the thermal decomposition of paper
are approximately in the proportions17 water: carbon dioxide:
carbon monoxide of 70 : 12 : 18. The last two indicate that
the cellulose is being pyrolized rather than dried. Laboratory
methods of distinguishing in this and other ways between
drying and decomposition have been developed.17 They are
not applicable to large masses of inaccessible paper at
different temperatures and moisture conditions. In trans-
formers, as will be discussed later, it is fortunately not
necessary to carry the drying process so near the danger limit
as 0 • 1 % apparent moisture.
3.2 Thermal decomposition
The mechanical strength of paper is affected as an
ageing process by time and temperature. There has been
extensive study of this phenomenon over many years. Origin-
ally mechanical strengths, tensile or tearing, were used20 as
criteria. These were not found to have any close relation to the
essential characteristics of insulation and have been superseded
by chemical methods.21 The most recent of these by Fabre22
is based on the degree of molecular polymerization termed
DP, the DP number being the relative value compared with
unheated paper. There seems to be little relation between the
ageing measured in any of these terms and the practical life of
the insulation. This aspect is considered further in Section 5.4.
The more recent chemical rate or Arrhenius formula differs
little from the tensile-strength formula for the more usual over-
load temperatures, i.e. up to say 130°C. For the higher
temperatures up to 250° C reached in short-circuit conditions
the new formula gives greatly increased lives. Thus for the
same life at 105° C and a usual half-life of 6° C, the life at 250°C
by the Arrhenius formula is 100 times the old value.
In some ways both formulae are unfortunate. They enable
numerical 'life' values to be calculated to degrees quite outside
the exactness of the supporting data. Thus (again with the same
half-life), the calculated 'life' is decreased 40% by an increase
in temperature of only 3° C. It is impossible for an operating
engineer to estimate or determine the mean winding tempera-
ture over years in service within this order of magnitude, and
so such numerical calculations have little significance or
realism.
Ageing is greatly affected by moisture and oxygen, but the
relations between the various parameters and the performance
of paper in service are very complex and are still the subject of
much study. Thermal decomposition occurs at all tempera-
tures, though the rate becomes very small for temperatures
below, say, 100° C. This is obvious also from operating
431
 great for various reasons and moreover can be obtained in
other ways using ordinary paper.23'24 The choice therefore is
economic and must include the increase in the cost of the
100 paper. If, however, the increase in temperature rating is
10°C, the paper need only be used for that part of the insula-
tion which operates within 10° C of the hottest-spot tempera-
10 y ture. Cost differentials are generally small, vary as the loss
levels, and decrease as the kVA size increases.45
Since the modifications vary in nature it is not possible to
generalize, but some criticisms report that the tendency to
1 acidity in the oil is increased and that, although the deteriora-
/ tion in mechanical strength with time may be less, the initial
strength is lower.23 There are also potential difficulties with
0-1 / copper migration from the conductors if working tempera-
> tures are increased. These and other possible 'side effects'
must be sought out and resolved, so that, in due course, the
/ practical applications for these papers will be established.
0-01
Their effect on transformer life involves other factors discussed
in Section 5.4.

50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Temperature , °C 4 Oil-impregnated paper
Fig. 6 Since oil-impregnated paper is physically a mixture and
Relation between rate of gas evolution and the temperature of not chemically a compound, one would expect, prima facie,
kraft paper heated in the absence of air that its characteristics and performance should follow from
the component values. There are, however, important excep-
experience over the last 50 years. Fig. 6 (taken from Reference tions.
16) shows the evolution of gas due to the decomposition, and From the two previous Sections it follows that the thermal
Fig. 7 (taken from Reference 22) shows the formation of limit of this combination is determined by the paper and not
by the oil. It is established12 that oil impregnation does not
affect the ageing or thermal decomposition of the paper.
The effect of the paper is to split the oil into minute gaps—
for an individual sheet the thickness of the interwoven fibres
10 and for a cable or taped conductor in a transformer the
thickness of an individual sheet. One theory of electric strength
is that it represents the strength of these small oil spaces,
partly because the strength of the oil is probably lower than
that of the fibre and partly because its permittivity is lower
so that it takes a greater share of the electric stress.
The electric strength of the combination will depend on how
nearly ideal conditions of impregnation and elimination of
impurities can be achieved in practice. The nearest approach is
for capacitors. There are no mechanical stresses to be con-
sidered, thermal stresses are calculable and the electrostatic
field is comparatively simple. Moreover the units can be
permanently hermetically sealed in manufacture, and process-
ing can be controlled in almost ideal conditions.
Cables are a little more difficult. The electrodes are not
ideal, and thermal conditions are complicated by I2R loss in
the conductor. Mechanical stresses are caused by bending,
200 400 600 800 1000 laying and jointing. Consequently typical breakdown gradients
Degree of polymerization may be 3000kV/in for capacitors and 1500kV/in for cables.
Fig. 7 Conditions in transformers are discussed in the next Section,
Formation of water by the thermal decomposition of kraft paper but the corresponding stress will be well below lOOOkV/in.

water. Ageing is increased markedly by both temperature and
moisture. There is, however, some neutralization here, as
increase in temperature tends to drive off moisture. The
resultant will depend upon the balance of the effects in each
particular case.
In recent years a number of methods of treating the paper
in the processing stage have been developed to give reduced
nominal ageing for a given temperature.* Alternatively the
temperature for the same nominal ageing can be raised.
Commercially and superficially this seems an important
advance, but, in fact, the net benefit that can be utilized is not
* Acetylation, cyanoethylation, amine and other additives are typical.
432
4.1 Contamination by moisture
The physical equilibrium between water and oil has
been noted. There is a similar equilibrium between paper and
water. Typical relations are shown in Fig. 8, taken from
Reference 22. In practice, paper has a greater affinity for water
than for oil and hence will, in general, absorb water out of the
oil. This explains the effectiveness of the blotter filter press.
The amount of water in the paper is thus always very much
greater than the amount in the oil, both relatively and abso-
lutely. Water in the paper affects electric strength, power
factor, ageing, losses and mechanical strength. It is thus the
most serious problem.
PROCEEDINGS LE.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
 10 20 " 30 40 50 '" 60 70 80
Water in oil, parts in 106
Fig. 8
Humidity equilibria of the combination of air-oil-paper
[a) Oil temperature, 20° C
i
[b) Oil temperature,
<c) Oil temperature,
30° C
50° C
(d) Oil temperature, 90° C
4.2 Contamination by air
Unless the paper is perfectly oil-impregnated there will
be voids of air or other gas. These lower the breakdown value
of the paper because their intrinsic electric strength is lower
and (since the permittivity is also less) the stress in the voids
will be much greater than in the paper. Breakdowns in the
voids do not immediately mean failure of the dielectric, and
these partial discharges are known as corona.
There has been much recent study of corona in oil-
impregnated paper,26'25 and various means of detection and
location have been suggested.27'28 Corona is assumed to
cause progressive damage leading to eventual premature
failure (this is by no means inevitable) at relatively low
stresses. The obvious conclusion is that corona should be
eliminated. There would then presumably be no progressive
deterioration and working stresses could be based directly
on the puncture breakdown value of the insulation as deter-
mined by standard short-time tests. This thought gave rise
to the expression 'corona free' as an aim for a standard
guarantee.
A recent international study of this subject by a C.I.G.R.fi.
study group25 has made it clear that the matter is not nearly
so simple and clear cut. The term 'corona' covers a number
of phenomena, some harmful, some obviously not. Moreover,
the expression 'corona free' is not absolutely attainable—even
in capacitors and even at working voltage. The expression can
therefore only have a relative meaning depending on the
nature and sensitivity of the measuring equipment.26 The
matter is discussed in more detail in Section 5.1.2.
4.3 Impregnation
The impregnation of dry paper with clean dry trans-
former oil is basically easy. It occurs naturally in time by
simple immersion. The time, however, is too long for practical
thicknesses and volumes, and so heat, vacuum and pressure
are all employed in industrial impregnation processes. These
are frequently combined with the preliminary treatments for
achieving the basic elements of dry paper and clean dry oil.
Many methods are in use but are not considered further here.
The electric strength of oil-impregnated paper is much
greater than that of the oil and paper separately, roughly in
the ratio 1 : 10 (Section 2.3).
Moisture absorption from either air or surrounding oil is
as much in ultimate amount as for dry paper, but the time
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
2 3 4 5 6
Moisture in paper, %
Fig. 9
Effect of moisture absorption on the electric strength of oil-impreg-
nated paper
element is much greater—a matter of weeks compared with
hours. It is correspondingly much more difficult to extract
moisture out of oil-impregnated paper if it has been once
allowed to penetrate.
4.4 Quality tests
The principal electrical characteristics are insulation
resistance, power factor and dispersion. The last two of these
have the advantage of being dimensionless and easily
measured.
The measurement most in favour is power factor. Technical
literature abounds in studies in which it is tacitly assumed
that power factor is the main criterion of a good insulation.
This is perhaps plausible for capacitors and cables where the
power loss is important both as a loss and as setting a
thermal limit to the rating. As a means of determining
moisture—its chief use in transformer insulation—it can be
misleading. It represents the ratio, with suitable dimensional
constants, of power loss to capacitance. Both of these are
affected by moisture, the latter because the permittivity of
water (about 80) increases the capacitance. In one instance
moisture increased the power loss by 27 % and the capacitance
by 31 % making the power factor 3% better, quite obscuring
the increase in loss and implying that the material was
actually better when wet. This is an extreme case but
illustrates the possibility of delusion. It is sometimes possible
to correct this error by using the product of power factor and
permittivity or loss factor, giving, in effect, for a fixed gradient
E (volts per mil) the power loss per unit volume P (watts per
cubic inch) of insulation. Thus for a uniform field at 50 c/s,
P = 0-7E2 cos <f>k x 10~ 4 . . . . (1)
where cos (j> is the power factor and k the permittivity.
Some correlation between loss angle, dispersion and
moisture content has been found for oil-impregnated paper
insulation29 where conditions of moisture and temperature
are uniform throughout the material. It will be shown later
that these conditions are never attained in a transformer
winding.
5 Transformer insulation
This Section covers the application of oil and oil-
impregnated paper to high-voltage power transformers. It has
been explained that transformer windings are more complex
than cables or capacitors. The electrodes are of more irregular
shapes and the dielectric fields are far from uniform. There
433
are high internal temperatures due to the losses, which are
not only variable with the load but are many times the
possible dielectric losses in the insulation. There are also
mechanical stresses introduced deliberately as part of the
design and, to a much greater degree, in short-circuit
conditions.30
5.1 Application
Transformer insulation can be divided into three
categories: conductor insulation, coil insulation and the
major insulation, the first two forming the interturn and
intercoil insulation.
Until comparatively recently the conductor had to with-
stand merely the voltage between turns and the voltage
between adjacent coils with the assistance of a washer or
an oil duct inserted for cooling purposes. The latter stress
was usually the maximum or controlling one. In modern disc
coil windings the coils and turns are frequently interleaved
or transposed to improve the surge voltage distribution and
hence the impulse strength. It may well happen then that
physically adjacent conductors are many turns apart in
voltage, and subjected to stresses correspondingly higher than
the voltage per turn. This increase in voltage now means that
the power-frequency stress between conductors may become
more important than the surge stress.
Owing to this interleaving of turns and to transpositions
for reducing eddy-current losses in the strands, the dielectric
field may be distorted and the maximum stresses increased.
In disc windings, spacers of pressboard15 are used to
provide radial oil ducts required for cooling. The critical
stress here is by creepage over the surface, which is fortunately
normal to the grain of the spacer. The puncture value is then
usually greater.
The major insulation, i.e. between high- and low-voltage
windings and between these windings and earth, includes
wrappings, cylinders, washers, collars, flanges and barriers.
The dielectric field distortions mentioned above for con-
ductor insulation apply in equal degree for major insulation.
Where the major insulation is concentrated in a single
volume the orthodox arrangement is a series of oil spaces
and solid barriers or cylinders. In such an assembly the stress
on the oil is much greater than in the solid insulation by
virtue of its lower permittivity. The breakdown stress in oil
is also lower; hence, as the voltage is raised, one or more of
the oil spaces will in due course break down. This will throw
larger stress on the barriers, and they, as a general rule, will
withstand it. The function of the barriers is chiefly to break
up the oil path into smaller components, which will have
diversity characteristics, and prevent the lining-up of a chain
of impurities. This type of insulation is therefore inherently
statistically reliable. It has been proved by operating experi-
ence over many years.
The local failures in an oil space will start as individual
spasmodic weak static discharges and will probably not
register as corona or a partial discharge. They are practically
harmless but should not, of. course, occur at any voltage
within the working range. As the voltage is increased they
will become a continuous discharge and could ultimately
damage the barriers sufficiently to start a major breakdown.
Since the oil path contributes so little to the electric
strength and is in fact a handicap, the barrier type of insula-
tion is wasteful in space, even though, in many cases, some
of the oil spaces can also be utilized for cooling and thus
serve a double purpose. A practical illustration of the extent
and complication of insulation in modern high-voltage power
transformers is shown in Fig. 10.
434
The ideal is obviously a completely solid insulation as in>
cables or capacitors. The breakdown stresses are much higher,
and consequently the insulation distances can be greatly
reduced giving a smaller and more efficient transformer.
Since the distance between primary and secondary windings
will be much less (in the ratio of, say, 3 : 1) the reactance
will be automatically reduced. This is a help where low
reactance is required by the purchaser, but not, of course,
otherwise. There are two major difficulties here.
The electric strength of layers of oil-impregnated paper is
at its best for a stress normal to the laminations. This can
be practically achieved, for example, in a cable except at the
terminations and in a capacitor except at the edges of the foils.
In a transformer, however, as previously explained, the dielec-
tricfieldis affected by winding complications, connections and
cooling ducts. If the dielectric field is parallel to the lamina-
tions the electric strength is greatly reduced, maybe to one-
tenth of the normal value, and much of the advantage of
solid insulation is lost.
The second difficulty is that paper readily bends only in
two dimensions. It is difficult to achieve a completely solid
insulation wall when the field becomes 3-dimensional, such as
at the ends of windings, between coils or at any other
irregularity in the geometry. There is then a danger of small
voids or oil spaces. These reintroduce the stress limitation of
oil and further reduce the advantage of solid insulation.
Nevertheless the attraction of completely solid insulation is
so great that efforts have been made to overcome these two-
major difficulties.33-34
The aim is to design the insulation, whether oil-impregnated
paper, pressboard or presspaper, so that it is at all points
normal to the dielectric field, so that it fits tightly around
corners, coil edges and particularly all points of high stress,
and so as to eliminate oil voids. To achieve this it will be
necessary to scarf, overlap or interleave all joints in washers,
channels and angles. Static shields may be necessary in places
to cover sharp edges and prevent local high gradients. These
principles apply equally to disc-coil, multi-layer and inter-
leaved shell windings.
All these requirements are simple in theory and must be
shown in the working drawings and instructions. They must
also be met in every detail in the course of assembly of the
winding and coil insulation—mostly in internal positions
inaccessible for either check or subsequent inspection. The
possibilities of minute but disastrous imperfections creeping
in here are obvious and justify designers in moving cautiously
in this direction.
Cooling is more restricted with solid insulation, so that local
heating due to electric losses at higher voltages may need
attention.
For a uniform field the temperature rise 6 in degrees
Celsius through a thickness d of insulation cooled in both
directions will be approximately
6 = 3l-25Pd2 (2>
Combining this with eqn. 1 gives
6 = 2l-9E2kcos<f> x 10- 4 . . . . (3>
Assuming a power factor of 0 • 05 and a permittivity of 3 • 5
the temperature rise will be
6 = 3-8£ 2 x 10- 4 (4>
As a typical example, the major insulation of a 330 kV
transformer with a working voltage of 33O/-\/3 = 190kV
would then have a temperature rise due to dielectric losses of
about 14° C if in one piece with no internal cooling. This,
temperature does not depend upon the voltage gradient in
the insulation.
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
 ^^j^^^j^^^j^d^^^^^ji^^^^^^^i^^^x^^^^^^^^^L^^^]^^^^^^

.10
ss-section of the winding of one phase of a 400 MVA 400/275 kV 3-phase transformer
Solid insulation
| ..Spacers and oil ducts
/ I Copper conductors .
5.1.1 Design calculations
In practical engineering design the stresses that can be
worked to are primarily based on electric strengths measured
in standardized conditions for the materials1'13> 15 and for
various forms of electric field in assemblies and sub-
assemblies, such as conductor sections16 and oil ducts between
turns and coils.31
For every part of the insulation in a particular design the
stresses must be determined separately in each of the follow-
ing conditions:
Power frequency: normal working
pressure tests
over-voltage tests
Impulse test: full-wave and chopped-wave
transferred surges
Switching surges
The most severe of these stresses will determine the amount
of insulation to be used in each part. Since the electricfieldis
generally far from uniform and the conditions just outlined
vary relatively in degree in different parts of the winding, it is
obviously not possible to lay down any particular stress
or thickness of insulation as a design standard. There are,
indeed, other qualifications also to be considered in reaching
the final decision.32
5.1.2 Corona
Corona has been considered briefly in Section 4.2 for
oil-impregnated-paper insulation. The subject is much more
complex when transferred to winding insulation, where, inside
a single transformer, there will be the variety of stresses
just described.
The term 'corona' is, at present, used to include also ioniza-
tion and all forms of partial discharge. In a transformer these
may occur at sharp points such as terminal nuts in the oil, in
oil spaces in the major insulation, or in air or gas pockets
within the insulation. It is thus obvious that corona covers a
wide variety of phenomena not all equally dangerous.
It is measured in picocoulombs, microvolts or picowatts,
the most usual instruments being the N.E.M.A.-RIV meter25
for the second unit and the E.R.A. discharge detector28 for
thefirst.The relation between these units is not yet established.
The detection of corona within a transformer winding is
more difficult because it cannot be measured at its seat or
place of occurrence. Its effect must be transmitted to a terminal
and will be more or less attenuated in the journey. Even when
so detected the problem of location remains. For large trans-
formers involving high-voltage connections, it is not easy to
eliminate external interference.
Detection depends entirely on the sensitivity of the method
of measurement. There seems to be no absolute zero of
corona,26 not even in capacitors at working voltage.25
'Corona-free' is unrealistic and can be defined only as zero
reading on the particular measuring instrument employed.
Since absolute zero is not practicable it becomes essential
to determine some criterion for dangerous or harmful corona,
and this criterion is, at present, unknown.
It is known from long experience in service of synthetic-
resin-bonded-paper capacitor bushings that pronounced
corona can occur at working voltage with no harmful effect.
Similar experience, though not so widespread, is available for
oil-impregnated-paper insulation. The author designed pos-
sibly the first oil-impregnated-paper high-voltage capacitor
bushings in 1927. Eight 132kV bushings of this type were
recently examined after 30 years' service. All had power-
factor/voltage curves better than when originally put into
service. Three of them had corona below working voltage.26
No bushings of this type had ever failed in service.
436
It is evident therefore that corona in oil-impregnated-paper
insulation is not necessarily damaging, and, indeed, in certain
forms can be argued as desirable in relieving stress. Present
methods of detection give no indication of the dangerous
or destroying effect and are in that respect unrealistic.
Fortunately corona measurement is not necessary as a
routine test in transformers as being built and tested today.
There is no clear evidence of transformers failing in service
due to corona. This is probably because designing a trans-
former to meet the present standard pressure, over-voltage
and impulse tests ensures such a margin of insulation strength
that the transformer has no corona which could become
dangerous at working voltage or in normal working
conditions.25
The study of corona measurement and assessment will, how-
ever, continue. It is a promising form of non-destructive test-
ing. When its present limitations have been overcome and it
can be relied upon to detect and even locate dangerous
stresses within the windings, it may be possible to reduce the
present standard insulation tests. This aspect is considered in
Section 5.3.
5.2 Operating conditions
It has been explained that conditions for the full
utilization of oil-impregnated paper in a transformer are much
farther from the ideal than in a capacitor or cable. The dielec-
tricfieldcannot be controlled so uniformly, as described in the
previous Section. Impregnation of the paper cannot be so
perfect in the first place and cannot be maintained so well
in service—even in sealed units. Consequently working stresses
in the insulation are lower in practice than in cables and much
lower than in capacitors.
For example, it is not present practice to use and maintain
degassed oil in a transformer. One must distinguish here
between 'degassed' and 'de-aerated'. De-aerated is taken to
mean the absence of air or gas in suspension and this can and
should be achieved. Degassed means the absence of air or
gas in solution and demands, first, the initial degassing of the
oil before impregnation. This is practicable. It also means
preserving the oil from any contact with air or other gas not
only during manufacture but continuously throughout its
service life. This would require absolute hermetic sealing of the
transformer without an air or gas cushion. The sealing must
be sustained during service and maintenance operations. This
is not as yet practicable in large high-voltage power trans-
formers. The future possibilities are discussed in Section 5.5.
A large transformer may contain 30 tons of paper and
pressboard and 150 tons of oil. It is quite possible to dry this
paper down to 0 • 1 % moisture. To achieve this as an average
for the whole mass of the paper would, however, invite the
risk of thermal decomposition in parts of it (Section 3.1.2).
Fortunately indeed this degree of elimination of moisture is
not essential.
It has been explained that power factor as a measure of
power loss is not so vital in a transformer as in a cable or
capacitor. The capacitance is of minor importance. The total
dielectric losses are quite negligible in comparison with the
I2R and core losses in the transformer. Local high values may
be objectionable in causing hot spots in the insulation. These
will not, however, be shown in an overall power-factor
measurement. The effect of moisture on these values is not of
importance, and consideration of moisture can be limited to
electric strength and mechanical ageing.
Measurements in service show moisture values of the order
of 1^4%.22-23'25 In general service conditions, normal
operation will keep the moisture in the oil 36 ' 23 down to 10-20
parts in 106, and in an oil-impregnated-paper winding down
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
to about 2%. It is not thought practicable to expect moisture
contents less than 1% in a transformer in service, even if
sealed.23
The custom of expressing the amount of water in the oil in
parts in 106 and in the insulation in per cent, combined with
the relative quantities of these materials in a power trans-
former, obscures the true relations. A practical quantitative
example is enlightening and sometimes startling.
From the values just quoted, a.typical transformer in good
condition in service will have, say, 15 parts in 106 of water in
the oil and 2% in the insulation. Assuming again 150 tons of
oil and 30 tons of paper, the total quantity of water in the
insulation will be
30 x 2240 x 2
= 134 gal
10 x 100
It is not generally realized that a transformer in good work-
ing condition will normally have so much water in its
insulation.
The total quantity of water in the oil will be
150 x 2240 x 15
= 0-58 gal
8-6 x 106
even though there is five times as much oil as there is paper.
It is nevertheless not negligible, because if increased from 15
to, say, 25 parts in 106, i.e. from 0-58 to 0-97 gal, the water
in the insulation according to Fig. 8 would be increased from
134 to 200 gal.
It seems unlikely, however, that, in a large transformer with
variable temperature and moisture conditions throughout its
insulation in both space and time, the equilibria postulated in
Figs. 3, 5 and 8 are ever reached.11
The reduction in electric strength in service due to moisture
is small. Fig. 9 derived from a range of published measure-
ments shows that the electric strength is only reduced about
10% for 3% moisture.
The most dangerous effect of moisture arises where a
transformer is idle. Moisture absorption is then entirely
dependent on the oil maintenance. Periodic measurement of
the electric strength of a sample of oil is not enough because,
as stated in Section 2.3, this can be high in an otherwise clean
oil even with serious amounts of water in the oil. Apart from a
direct measurement of moisture the most valuablefieldmethod
is a crackle test (B.S. 148,1951). This test is liable to be treated
unjustifiably with some contempt because of its cheapness and
simplicity, but should always be carried out unless resistivity
measurements are possible.8*37
The difficulty of determining the state of the insulation in a
transformer in service (Section 3.1.1) is due to the variable
temperature conditions throughout a large mass of insulation.
The amount of water in transformer insulation in service
cannot be measured by insulation resistance, power factor or
dispersion.11 One method in some use is to install samples of
the paper or pressboard insulation in an accessible position
inside the tank before the impregnation process is begun.
These can be abstracted and the moisture content measured
whenever it is desired to check satisfactory treatment on
arrival on site or indeed periodically in subsequent service.
More recently an accessible probe to serve the same purpose
has been suggested.11 If the insulation of the heating coil of the
winding temperature indicator is utilized, conditions corres-
ponding to the winding hottest-spot temperature will be
attained.
5.2.1 Gas absorption
The gas absorption qualities of transformer oil have
been described in Section 2.2.2. The effect of supersaturation
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
and the formation of air or gas bubbles on the electric strength
of oil and the probability of damage can readily be imagined
from the previous Section on corona.
Serious failures of large high-voltage transformers have
been attributed to this bubble formation. It is a trouble that
has only arisen in recent years with the development of various
systems of sealing the oil in the transformer against the
oxygen in the atmosphere and the ingress of moisture.6-3
These systems are discussed in Section 5.5
5.3 Factor of safety
The orthodox method of ensuring reliability and long
life in service has been to consider normal working stresses
and to multiply these by a factor of safety intended to cover all
abnormal or emergency service conditions. Test values are
established based on these factors of safety and become
acceptance tests. Values of 3-5 originated in mechanical
engineering, e.g. for bridges and boilers. The standard pressure
and over-voltage tests for transformers have been derived in
this way. These relatively severe tests are in some ways
inefficient because, although they may serve their purpose in
ensuring the safety margin specified, they are not only
expensive in testing plant, but frequently create other stresses
not required by the test but which nevertheless have to be
included in the design.
The more modern approach is to consider not only normal
working conditions but also all abnormal and emergency
stresses and to base the tests on the worst values thus obtained.
In meeting these tests, the designer must then allow some
margin to cover design and manufacturing variations.
This method becomes practicable only as these extra-
ordinary conditions become realized and understood both in
nature and in degree. In the ideal case, no so-called factor of
safety would then be necessary for the various acceptance
tests. In practice, the test values can be reduced.
In power-transformer engineering the introduction of
impulse tests, of categories of system earthing conditions and
lightning protection have tended in this direction, and reduc-
tions in the standard scale of pressure and over-voltage tests
are being suggested.
This trend would be strengthened if non-destructive tests
such as corona, moisture detection (Section 5.2) and decom-
position (Section 3.2) can be developed into practical routine
safeguards.
5.4 Probable life
The nominal ageing of insulation in accordance with
Montsinger or Arrhenius rules has been discussed in Sec-
tion 3.2. By supposing an ultimate life to this ageing process
various National Loading Guides38 or Codes of Practice39
have been standardized, and detailed tables and charts have
been developed giving overload values and durations for a
wide range of loading conditions.
However, the theoretical and arbitrary life due to this
'ageing' of the insulation is not synonymous with the actual
life of the transformer in service. The latter is in fact much
longer—so much so as to be not yet known. There is need
for a statistical analysis by supply system engineers of the
rate of failure with age. An explanation for the absence of
such operation records may be that in a supply system with
a typical growth in transformer capacity of 10% per annum
only roughly 2 % of the transformers will be over 40 years' old.
It is explained in Section 3.2 that the orthodox ageing is
determined by the loss of some function of mechanical
strength (the electric strength being little affected even for
extreme ageing), and it is therefore concluded that the
transformer will then be vulnerable to short-circuit forces.
437
This vulnerability, though plausible, has not been established
in practice. Experimental tests have shown40 that trans-
formers 'aged to the point where practically no tensile
strength remained in the insulation, yet withstood standard
short-circuit tests followed by standard insulation tests'.
Moreover, even if these facts are ignored, and it is assumed
that the short-circuit strength is reduced far below its original
value and, indeed, below the stresses occurring in service, so
that the transformer is now vulnerable to a short-circuit, it
will still remain in operation until such a short-circuit occurs.
Short-circuits in service are rare. Those of a severity
recorded as such by the average supply authority occur from
once a year to once in ten years or more,30 and one national
estimate41 suggests one maximum short-circuit (i.e. a dead
short-circuit under fully asymmetrical conditions) once in a
transformer's life-time.
Quantitative calculations are not possible, but taking into
account the progressive nature of short-circuit stresses and
the cumulative effect on the strains,30 together with a suggested
short-circuit distribution,41 and assuming the ageing is such
that the short-circuit strength is reduced to one-sixth of the
original value, it may be judged that, even in this extreme
condition, the transformer still has a probable life of eight
years.
To complete the picture (though outside the scope of the
paper) the margin is much greater for distribution trans-
formers because the short-circuit stresses are much lower.
It seems, therefore, that, even if the margin on the orthodox
ageing calculations just explained are ignored, the estimated
life of a transformer could be extended by say an additional
eight years for a power transformer and, say 12 years for a
distribution transformer.
It is general practice, at present, to retain transformers in
service until they fail, so that this additional life is, in fact,
utilized. Even that is not the end, as repair will usually be
possible and give them a further lease of life.
5.5 Preservation
The dominant weakness of oil-impregnated-paper
insulation, stressed in Section 1, of being easily contaminated
particularly by moisture, emphasizes the need for preservation
of the original purity throughout its service life if its initial
strength is to be maintained.
This problem simplifies to that of preventing moisture from
entering the oil-impregnated paper via the oil.
The orthodox method of oil preservation is by the con-
servator vessel with dehydrating breather plus an oil seal
between the breather and the atmosphere to prevent the
drying agent from attempting to dry the world. This has been
standard practice for large high-voltage transformers.
The ideal method, preventing both water and air from
getting into the transformer, would be to seal the transformer
tank hermetically with flexible metallic bellows to take care
of oil expansion, as is done in oil-filled cables. If the bellows
were so efficient that pressure variations were negligible this
would also prevent the supersaturation of the oil and con-
sequent formation of air bubbles as discussed in Section 2.2.2.
This construction is not yet attainable in high-voltage
transformers owing to the relatively large quantity of oil, its
high expansion coefficient and the practical limitation of
metallic bellows.
The same principle is approached by using a flexible
plastic diaphragm as an expansion joint.35 Such membranes
must be both oil-tight and impermeable to gas and vapour
over long periods and must, of course, withstand continuous
contact with hot oil. The practical application of this method
depends upon the successful search for a suitable material.
If, however, a form of sealing can be attained that is free
438
of these pressure variations and so perfect and reliable in
service that the use of degassed, as distinct from de-aerated
(Section 5.2) oil is possible, the insulation stress level could
approach the standard reached in cables or even capacitors
(Section 4). The reduction in both size and cost of the complete
transformer would then be remarkable.
For this standard to be possible, not only must the initial
degassing, processing and sealing be practically perfect but,
and this is the more difficult matter, the construction must be
such that the seal is maintained continuously in service—a
seal proof against moisture and air occlusions and also
against overhauls and maintenance in operation. This must
also apply to the oil circulating in radiators and heat
exchangers.
At present, however, there is some doubt as to whether
complete sealing, even if it can be achieved, is desirable. It
is shown in Section 3.2 that paper and other cellulose
materials generate water in the natural course of ageing
(Fig. 7). It is also established42 that, at sufficiently high
voltage gradients, gas is evolved if moisture is present.
A construction that prevents moisture entering the trans-
former will equally prevent it escaping, so that this generated
water will be trapped, reducing the electric strength and
increasing the ageing of the paper. The actual degree of these
effects is, however, not yet known.
Various methods of semi-sealing, often with nitrogen, to
eliminate possible oxidation effects as well as moisture (see,
however, Section 2.2.2) have been suggested. These have been
comprehensively reviewed in Reference 35.
It is not, however, possible to prevent temperature varia-
tions in a transformer, but there does not seem to be any
need actually to introduce moisture traps and pressure
changes and thus run the serious risk of premature ageing,
supersaturation of gas in the oil and the consequent formation
of gas bubbles.
The orthodox conservator-breather system has proved
satisfactory in service in all parts of the world and over
many years.43 A recent survey36 of large transformers with
long service records and various oil preservation systems,
including the standard conservator-breather, showed that
electric strength and all other oil properties were unaffected
by age up to at least 17 years. It has been shown already
(Section 5.2) that the insulation itself is automatically main-
tained in good condition by normal service operation. This
may be partly because the temperature which, according to
Montsinger and Fabre, ages the paper acts also to increase
its life by reducing the moisture content.
It has been deduced in Section 2.2.1 that, in modern high-
voltage power transformers, neither acidity nor oxidation is
serious and that moisture (and gas absorption if pressure
sealing is used) is the only service danger. Moisture measure-
ments in both oil and insulation are possible (Section 5.2)
in laboratory conditions. In the field, electric-strength crackle
and resistivity tests on the oil are practical.
Nevertheless the uncertainty and doubt at present of these
and the laboratory tests such as power factor are such that,
in addition and as a last resort after the electric strength has
been checked, the best guide in service is to look at some
part of the transformer. If the top of the core and clamps
that are in the hottest oil and most accessible are clean or
have only a thin film, and if the oil looks clean and feels
oily and smells of oil and not of burnt feathers, the trans-
former may well be assumed to be in satisfactory working
condition so far as its insulation is concerned.
6 Conclusions
The principal conclusions are epitomized below. They
should be interpreted in detail by reference to their contexts.
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
 (a) Oxidation, sludge formation, and acidity in oil are
negligible for high-voltage power transformers working in
normal operating conditions (Section 2.2.1).
(b) The electric strength of oil is virtually infinite. Measured
values are due to impurities and are correspondingly variable
(Section 2.3).
(c) The power factor of oil is not, in itself, a significant
guide to oil quality unless circumscribed by particular con-
ditions (Section 2.3).
(d) The thermal drying of paper merges into its decom-
position due to the generation and removal of moisture. The
distinction is, of course, vital and delimits impregnation
processes and heavy overloading in service (Section 3.1.2).
(e) Moisture in winding insulation is normally quite appre-
ciable but need not seriously affect the electric strength
(Section 5.4).
(/) The practical application of high-temperature papers
to increase rating is a matter of economics with very small
cost differentials (Section 3.2).
(g) 'Corona-free' insulation is not absolutely attainable.
The expression merely denotes zero reading on the particular
measuring apparatus employed (Section 4.2).
(h) It is not yet possible to segregate harmful or destructive
corona. Limiting values cannot therefore be set. Nevertheless,
progressive and intensive studies are being made of corona
and corona measurement (Section 5.1.2).
(/) The power factor of oil-impregnated paper is, in itself,
not a reliable guide to insulation quality. The power factor
of transformer windings is still less significant (Sections 4.4
and 5.2).
(j) The ideal of solid-oil-impregnated paper, as distinct
from the usual oil-barrier insulation, depends upon the com-
plete elimination of oil voids. Minute imperfections can be
disastrous (Section 5.1).
(k) The orthodox thermal ageing formulae, on which
standard loading guides are based, are relative and therefore
only applicable to comparative studies (Section 3.2).
(/) The actual life of transformer insulation in service is
not indicated by the orthodox ageing calculations. It is so
much longer as to be not yet known (Section 5.4).
(m) The conservator-breather-dryer system in general use
for many years all over the world has given excellent service.
It has been found to have the unexpected attribute that, with
it, the insulation is automatically maintained in good condition
by normal service operation (Section 5.5).
(n) Sealed or semi-sealed constructions permitting pressure
variations in the oil are undesirable (Sections 2.2.2, 5.2.1
and 5.5).
(/>) The ideal of degassed oil in service will be possible
only when permanent hermetic sealing can be attained and
maintained in normal operation. Remarkable improvement
in transformer insulation will then develop (Section 5.5).
7 Acknowledgments
Attention is particularly directed to the reports of the
C.I.G.R.fi. study group meetings given in References 23, 25
and 35. These papers are necessarily written by an individual
author. They are, however, both national and international
in character as they summarize the conclusions and views,
at the time, of most of the world's transformer experts,
representing both the manufacturing and operation sides.
The Bibliography gives a short pertinent selection of the
literature on this subject. Many of the references include, in
their turn, their own bibliographies, so that most of the
relevant literature on this problem is accessible.
This literature is probably so extensive because of the
practical, as distinct from the academic, complexity of the
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963
subject. It is certainly contradictory and discordant in vital
respects. Some of the relations, though disputable when
applied in general, are justified when suitably bounded by
space, time and circumstance.
The author has endeavoured to incorporate a distillation of
all this published information with his own judgment and
experience in the hope that discussion will lead to explicit
confirmation or amendment of the conclusions reached.
Acknowledgments are due to the authors mentioned in the
Bibliography and to Ferranti, Ltd., for permission to publish
the paper.
8 Bibliography
1 HALL, H. c , and KELK, E. : 'Physical properties and impulse strength
of paper', Proceedings I.E.E., 1956, 103 A, p. 564
2 NORRIS, E. T.: 'General discussion on transformer oils', / . Inst.
Petrol., 1946, 32, p. 434
3 KAUFMAN, R. B., PIERCE, J. L., and UHLIG, E. R.: T h e effect of
transformer oil preservation methods on the dielectric strength of
oil', Trans Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs, 1957, 76, Part III, p. 1315
4 KAUFMAN, R. B., SHIMANSKI, E. J., a n d MACFADYEN, K. W . : ' G a s
and moisture equilibria in transformer oil', ibid., 1955, 74, Part I,
p. 312
5 DICKSON, M. R. : T h e effects of dissolved gases in the design and
operation of oil-immersed transformers' (E.R.A. Report Ref.
Q/T139)
6 CHADWICK, A. T., RYDER, D. H., and BRiERLEY, A. E. : 'Oil preserva-
tion systems; factors affecting ionization in large transformers',
Trans Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs, 1960, 79, Part III, p. 92
7 MAURER, L., and WOYNER, T. : 'Unterschuchen an Betriebsoelen
aus Wandertransformatoren fur 220 kV Elektrotechn', Elektrotech.
Z., 1956, 77, p. 885
8 STANNETT, A. w.: T h e resistivity test for insulating oils', Elect.
Times, 12th January 1956, p. 43
9 ROHLFS, A. F., and TURNER, F. j . : 'Correlation between the break-
down strength of large oil gaps and oil quality gauges', Trans
Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs, 1956, 75, Part III, p. 1439
10 CLARK, F. M.: 'Are- new types of transformer oil needed?', Gen.
Elect. Rev., May 1948, p. 9
11 STANNETT, A. w.: T h e measurement of water in power trans-
formers', Proceedings I.E.E., 1962, 109 A, Suppl. 3, p. 80
12 GAZZANA-PRIAROGGIA, P., PALANDRI, G. L., a n d PELAGATTI, U. A . :
'Influence of ageing characteristics of oil-filled cable dielectric',
ibid., 1961, 108 A, p. 467
13 'Papers for electrical purposes': B.S. 698: 1956
14 'Presspaper for electrical purposes': B.S. 255: 1960
15 'Pressboard for electrical purposes': B.S. 231: 1950
16 'Paper covered rectangular copper conductors for transformer
windings', B.S. 2776: 1956
17 MURPHY, E. J. : 'Gases evolved by the thermal decomposition of
paper', Trans Electrochem. Soc, 1943, 83, p. 161
18 CLARK, F. M.: 'Chemical changes affecting the stability of cellulose
insulation', ibid., 1943, 83, p. 143
19 CLARK, F. M. : 'Moisture in oil-treated transformer insulation',
Jndustr. engng Chem., 1952, p. 887
20 MONTSINGER, v.: 'Loading transformers by temperature', Trans
Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs, 1930, 49, p. 776
21 DAKIN, T. w.: 'Electrical insulation deterioration treated as a
chemical rate phenomena', ibid., 1948, 67, Part I, p. 113
22 FABRE, J., and PICHON, A.: 'Deteriorating processes and products
of paper in oil. Application to transformer', C.I.G.R.fi., Paris,
1960, Report No. 137
23 LANGLOIS BERTHELOT, R. : 'Factors affecting the thermal performance
of oil immersed transformer windings', C.I.G.R.£., Paris, 1962,
Report No. 135, 1962
24 POPOV, i.: Temperature rise and length of life of transformers',
C.I.G.R.E\, Paris, 1962, Report No. 101
25 AIGNER, v.: 'Corona detection in transformers', C.I.G.R.fi., Paris,
1962, Report No. 145
26 HARTILL, E. R., RYDER, D. H., JAMES, R. E., SMITH, L., a n d TAYLOR,
F. w.: 'Some aspects of internal corona discharges in transformers',
C.I.G.R.fi., Paris, 1962, Report No. 102
27 MEADOR, J. R., and DILLOW, N. E. : 'Dielectric tests on transformers-
as influenced by further BIL research', Trans Amer. Inst. Elect.
Engrs, 1960, 79, Part III, p. 99
28 MOLE, c : 'Design and performance of portable AC discharge
detector' (E.R.A. Report Ref. V/T115)
29 SMITH, D. c. G. : T h e relation between dispersion and moisture
content in paper insulation' (E.R.A. Report Ref. V/T128)
30 NORRIS, E. T. : 'Mechanical strength of power transformers in
service', Proceedings I.E.E., 1957, 104 A, p. 289
31 STANDRING, w. c , and HUGHES, R. c.: 'Impulse breakdown charac-
teristics of solid and liquid dielectrics in combination', ibid., 1962,.
109 A, p. 473
32 NORRIS, E. T.: 'Design', Journal I.E.E., 1947, 94, Part 1, p. 91
33 ALBRIGHT, w. D., and MOORE, H. R. : 'Inner-cooled shell-form
power transformers', Trans Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs, 1959, 78,
Part III, p. 46
439
34 HARTMANN, HANS: 'Progress in the design of transformers',
C.I.G.R.k, Paris, 1946, Report No. 108
35 LUTZ, H.: 'Transformer oil preservation systems and associated
problems', C.I.G.R.E., Paris, 1960, Report No. 134
36 DEGNAN, w. j . , and SHIMANSKI, E. J. : 'A field survey of transformer
oil quality', Trans Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs, 1956, 75, Part I, p. 575
37 FORREST, J. s.: 'An electrical resistance test for insulating oils',
Journal I.E.E., 1948, 95, Part II, p. 337
38 'Guides for loading oil-immersed distribution and power trans-
formers', American Standards Association, Appendix C.57 92
39 'Guide to loading of transformers', British Standard Code of
Practice, C.P.I010, 1959
Centre, Sub-Centre and Section Chairmen's Addresses
North-Eastern Centre: Chairman's Address
THE GROWTH OF POWER TRANSFORMERS
R. Bruce, M.Sc, Member
Introduction.—The development of transformers over
the years has been a gradual process of evolution, their
principle having remained unchanged. Great strides have
been made, however, by more balanced designs and new
ideas in design, aided by improvements in materials and
manufacturing techniques, in raising the limits of voltage
and rating to the present levels, with higher efficiencies and
proven reliability.
An important factor in recent progress, resulting in greatly
increased rating for a given weight of transformer, has been
the development of cold-reduced grain-oriented core plate,
which is capable of low-loss operation at higher flux density
than the now almost obsolete hot-rolled plate.
The properties of the new material have prompted much
thought in adjustments of the conventional methods of core
manufacture, in order to utilize its characteristics in the most
beneficial way, in particular, by the use of mitred corner
joints and techniques for minimizing or eliminating 'through'
clamping bolts.
Practical problems arising from physical non-uniformities
of the plate, such as thickness variation and waviness, are
being gradually reduced. In particular, we look forward to
improvements in uniformity of magnetostriction and per-
meability characteristics, which will be beneficial in the further
reduction of noise levels.
Mechanical design considerations.—With the growth of
transformer ratings and the increase in weights, it is now
necessary to give greater attention to mechanical design.
The mechanical problem is divisible into two main parts:
(a) Winding design with respect to short-circuit forces.
(6) Lifting and transport, associated with the design of the
tank to withstand vacuum and pressure.
The calculation of axial forces has been a subject of earnest
pursuit for many years—the application of digital computers
has made practicable complex calculations previously not
attempted—but such calculated forces can be accepted only
Abstract 4124 of Address delivered at Newcastle upon Tyne 8th October
Mr. Bruce is with C. A. Parsons and Co. Ltd.
440
40 SUMNER, w. A., STEIN, G. M., and LOCKIE, A. M. : 'Life expectancy of
oil-immersed insulation structure', Trans Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs,
1953, 72, Part III. p. 924
41 A.I.E.E. Committee Report: 'Thermal limits of transformers for
short-circuit conditions', ibid., I960, 79, Part III, p. 1083
42 KRASUCKI, z.: 'Processes leading to discharges in oil-impregnated
paper' (E.R.A. Report Ref. L/T410)
43 NORRIS, E. T.: 'Transformer oil', / . Inst. Petrol., 1958, 44, p. 367
44 RUSHALL, R. T. : 'Dielectric properties of oil-soaked pressboard as
affected by water', Proceedings I.E.E., 1953, 100, Part IIA, p. 81
45 RODGERS, w. M. : 'Economic implications of higher temperatures
for power transformers', A.I.E.E. Paper DP62-623
as a design guide and a confirmation of the degree to which
mispositioning of windings on a limb can be tolerated.
It is significant that any slight movement of a winding
under fault conditions results in an increase in force on a
repeated short-circuit, thus emphasizing the necessity of
preventing displacement by effective clamping.
It is generally accepted that the hoop stresses caused by
radial forces in outer windings can be withstood by the
tensile strength of the copper conductors themselves, but in a
large transformer with windings of soft copper, a severe
short-circuit may cause small permanent elongation. This
elongation is a safeguard against a repetition of the process
due to its work-hardening effect, but if there is a possibility
of long-term annealing at operating temperatures, subse-
quent faults may have some cumulative action. The use of
work-hardened copper for windings is being considered as a
means of eliminating elongation, the compromise to be
sought being windability with a sufficiently high proof stress.
The use of silver-bearing copper may also have some benefit
in ensuring the elimination of long-term annealing.
In extremes of transport conditions, where the saving of
every ton in weight is imperative, the use of aluminium
transformer tanks can be attractive. Benefits in transport-
weight reductions by such means must be marginal, but may
nevertheless be necessary. In the overall design of core and
windings, and tank, the method of lifting should be so devised
that materials are utilized to the best advantage and thus kept
to minimum weight.
Processing.—Oil-impregnated papers and pressboards are
still regarded as the best materials for the insulation within
high-voltage transformers. The natural moisture-absorption
properties of such materials is an accepted disadvantage, but
once dried and oil-impregnated, and maintained free from
subsequent contamination, wholly satisfactory behaviour is
assured.
The shrinkage of absorbent insulating materials resulting
from the drying process is a matter which demands close
attention, and workshop techniques must be devised which
will ensure that the shrinkage is fully taken up and the
PROCEEDINGS I.E.E., Vol. 110, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1963