FINGER VEIN RECOGNITION USING LOCAL

MEAN BASED K-NEAREST CENTROID

NEIGHBOR AS CLASSIFIER

By

ALI KHALILI MOBARAKEH

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

Master of Science

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

2012

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I would like thank God for conceding me many affluence and protecting me.

I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude and

respect to all who helped me through the duration of this thesis.

I would like thank my supervisor , Dr. Bakhtiar Affendi Rosdi, who guiding me,

teaching me how to improve my ideas supporting me, encourage me and helping me for

everything that I needed for this research.

Special thanks to my lovely wife Saba whom important reason of mine to expressed my

goals in my life for always encouraging me and also standing the detachment from each

other.

I am grateful for my father and my mother who confidence me in each steps of my life

and helping my dreams come true.

Lastly, I would like thank of all my friends, special Sepehr Monfared ,Mehran Mirsafai

,Sina Ashoori and Pegah Moradi, for helping me during the process of writing and

implementing the programs.

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

FINGER VEIN RECOGNITION USING LOCAL MEAN BASED K-NEAREST

CENTROID NEIGHBOR AS CLASSIFIER ..................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF PLATES ...........................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ x
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. xi
Abstrak ............................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1 ...................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Biometric ............................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Finger Vein Recognition ..................................................................................... 3
1.4 Biometric Identification and Verification ........................................................... 5
1.4.1 Biometric Identification System .................................................................. 5
1.4.2 Biometric Verification System .................................................................... 5
1.5 Classification methods ........................................................................................ 6
1.6 Problem statement ............................................................................................... 7
1.7 Research objectives ............................................................................................. 8
1.8 Scope of Research ............................................................................................... 9
1.9 Thesis outlines ..................................................................................................... 9
2 CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................. 11
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 11
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Biometric Systems............................................................................................. 11
2.3 Finger Vein Recognition ................................................................................... 13
2.3.1 Finger Vein Features .................................................................................. 16

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 2.3.2 General Model of Finger Vein Recognition .............................................. 17
2.4 Image Acquisition ............................................................................................. 19
2.4.1 Image processing ....................................................................................... 21
2.5 Feature extraction .............................................................................................. 26
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) ......................................................................... 26
2.5.1 Background mathematics ........................................................................... 26
2.5.2 Advantages of PCA .................................................................................... 29
2.5.3 Implementation of PCA ............................................................................. 29
2.5.4 Mathematics of PCA .................................................................................. 34
2.6 Classification ..................................................................................................... 36
2.6.1 The K-Nearest neighbor Classifier (KNN) ................................................ 36
2.6.2 The LMKNN classifier .............................................................................. 38
2.6.3 The Nearest centroid Neighbor (NCN) ...................................................... 39
2.6.4 The KNCN classifier .................................................................................. 41
2.6.5 LMKNCN Classifier .................................................................................. 43
2.6.6 Mathematics of LMKNCN ...................................................................... 44
2.6.7 Comparison between the LMKNCN and the LMKNN ............................. 48
2.7 Summary ........................................................................................................... 50
3 CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................. 52
METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................... 52
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 52
3.1 Proposed method ............................................................................................... 52
3.2 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) algorithm .............................................. 55
3.3 KNN classifier ................................................................................................... 56
3.4 LMKNCN classifier .......................................................................................... 57
3.5 Summary ........................................................................................................... 60
4 CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................. 61
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................................... 61
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 61
4.2 MATLAB Software........................................................................................... 61
4.3 Database information ........................................................................................ 62

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 4.4 How to Get the Optimum Size of the Images ................................................... 63
4.5 How to find the Accuracy ................................................................................. 65
4.6 Experimental Results and Analysis ................................................................... 66
4.6.1 The Results of KNN ................................................................................... 66
4.6.2 The Results of Proposed Method (using LMKNCN) ................................ 68
4.7 Comparisons ...................................................................................................... 70
4.8 Summary ........................................................................................................... 73
5 CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................. 75
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 75
5.1 Summary ........................................................................................................... 75
5.2 Future work ....................................................................................................... 76
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 77
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 80
A: Comparison Between Image size of 10×30 and 20×60 in different Number of
Training and Testing Images............................................................................................ 80
B:The Results of KNN ..................................................................................................... 90
C: The Result of LMKNCN ............................................................................................. 97

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Comparison of Various Biometric Methods at Seven Factors 15

Table 2-1 Comparison of Various Biometric Methods 15

Table 4.1 The obtained accuracy of KNN and LMKNCN for the different 71
number of training and testing finger vein images

vi
LIST OF PLATES

Plate 2.1 Image acquisition devices 19

Plate 2-1 The basic structure of finger vein capturing devises and one sample 20
of the original finger vein image
Plate 4.1 The captured images from one person 62

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Page
Figure 1.1 Finger vein authentication devices 3
Figure 2.1 (a,b) Biometric Industry Reveries and Percentage of Biometric 12
Market by Application 2005-2010(USD $M)
Figure 2.2 The general model of finger vein recognition 18
Figure 2.3 (a,b,c) Original captured images, binarized images, cropped 22
images
Figure 2.4 (a,b) using high pass filter to retain high frequency components 25
Figure 2.5 The resized finger vein images (top) and also their enhanced 25
images
Figure 2.6 Exapmle of PCA data 30
Figure 2.7 Plot of normalised data 32
Figure 2.8 The plot of new data pont after applying the PCA 33
Figure 2.9 The reconstruction from the data that was derived using only a 33
single eigenvector
Figure 2.10 The comparison between the KNN and the KNCN when k=5 42
Figure 2.11 A comparison between LMKNCN and LMKNN in two-class 49
classification problem and k=5 in two dimensional feature space.

Figure 3.1 The overall view of proposed method 53

Figure 3.2 Different types of implementations by LMKNCN and KNN 54
classifiers from each class
Figure 3.3 The PCA implementation flow 56
Figure 3.4 The basic advantages to propose LMKNCN classifier 58
Figure 3.5 LMKNCN algorithm implementation flow 59
Figure 4.1 Experimental testing results in two different sizes of images 62
Figure 4.2 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein 66
database, 9images to train, 1 image to test
Figure 4.4 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein 68

viii
 database, 9images to train, 1image to test
Figure 4.5 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein 69
database, 8images to train, 2images to test
Figure 4.6 Comparison between the percentage of having highest accuracy 71
between LMKNCN and KNN

Figure 4.7 The differences between the percentage of accuracies of KNN 73

and LMKNCN

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

PCA: Principal Component Analysis

ROI: Region of Interest

NIR: Near-Infrared

LED: Light Emitting Diode

KNN: K Nearest Neighbor

LMKNN: Local Mean Based K Nearest Neighbor

KNCN: K Nearest Centroid Neighbor

LMKNCN: Local Mean-Based K-Nearest Centroid Neighbor

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 FINGER VEIN RECOGNITION USING LOCAL MEAN BASED
K-NEAREST CENTROID NEIGHBOR AS CLASSIFIER

Abstract

Nowadays, the security requirement has been rapidly increased. Bank robbery, financial

losses and other security systems weakness due to identity theft are the evidences to

introduce the high importance of the identification systems. Biometrics is one of the best

technologies which link the identity of people to behavioral or physical characteristics of

them in order to provide security and safety. One of the newest methods of biometric

systems is finger vein recognition which is a unique and successful way to identify

human based on the physical characteristics of the human finger vein patterns. In this

thesis, a new type of classifier called LMKNCN is applied to classify finger vein

patterns. Finally, the significance of the proposed method is proven by comparing the

results of LMKNCN classifier with traditionally used classifier KNN. The experimental

results on our own finger vein database indicate that the proposed method in this

research confidently merits the performance of the finger vein recognition method as the

gained accuracy using the proposed method is higher than that of the traditionally used

method KNN. The obtained accuracy of LMKNCN for 9 training and 1testing finger

vein images is 100% while for KNN in same condition is 98.56%.

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 PENGECAMAN VENA JARI MENGGUNAKAN PENGELAS JIRAN-
SENTROID K-TERDEKAT BERASASKAN PURATA TEMPAT

Abstrak

Pada masa kini, keperluan keselamatan semakin meningkat. Rompakan bank, kerugian

kewangan dan kelemahan sistem keselamatan yang disebabkan oleh kecurian identiti merupakan

bukti-bukti untuk memperkenalkan betapa pentingnya sistem pengecaman. Biometrik ialah salah

satu teknologi terbaik yang menghubungkan identiti seseorang kepada ciri-ciri tingkah laku atau

fizikal mereka dalam menyediakan keselamatan.Salah satu kaedah terbaru sistem biometrik ialah

pengecaman urat jari yang merupakan satu cara yang unik dan berjaya untuk mengenalpasti

manusia berdasarkan ciri-ciri fizikal iaitu corak urat jari manusia. Di dalam tesis ini, sejenis

pengelas yang baru iaitu Pengelas Jiran-Sentroid K-Terdekat berasaskan purata tempatan

(LMKNCN) telah digunakan untuk pengelasan vena jari. Akhirnya, kepentingan kaedah yang

dicadang dibuktikan lagi dengan membandingkan keputusan pengelas LMKNCN dengan

pengelas KNN. Keputusan eksperimen menunjukkan bahawa pengelas LMKNCN melaksanakan

yang terbaik bukansahaja menggunakan taburan yang terdekat dan geometri jiran-jiran

disekeliling corak pertanyaan, tetapi juga mengambil kira vektor min tempatan K-jiran daripada

setiap kelas.Peratusan penjecamen untuk LMKNCN adelah 100% manakala bagi KNN adalah

98.56.

xiii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

These days, the need to distinguish friend from foe has become increasingly important

and increasingly difficult. It means that the reliable identification is very important thing

for many applications such as airport security and border control (Zhou and Abdel-

Mottaleb, 2005). Sometimes we hear about computer breaking by hackers, bank security

breaches and credit card that hacked.

A fundamental flaw in the conventional access control systems was taken

advantage by criminals in most of crimes. These systems cannot identify human by

“who we are” but by “ what we have”, Such systems recognize human by password and

ID card. These systems are very unreliable. If you lose your ID card or credit card, they

might get abused. So identification systems need(Sebestyen, 1962) to use more reliable

technology such as biometric which works based on the physical or behavior

characteristic of human (Schouten and Jacobs, 2009).

1
1.2 Biometric

Biometric is any technology which links the identity of people to behavioral or physical

characteristics of them in order to provide security and safety (Schouten and Jacobs,

2009). There are numerous physical or behavioral characteristic that recognize by

biometric technology such as DNA, voice, iris, retina, finger print and finger vein

(Kejun Wang, 2002). Time and accuracy are two important factors in this filed. It means

that the highest priority in biometrics system is how to identify with maximum accuracy

at the minimum time. This shows why we desire to use computer to identify and verify

people.

Although access cards or password or combination of both are very useful, they

can be easily stolen by others or criminals. So we cannot be sure enough about their

security and safety. In order to raise the safety level and confidence, the new method

must be found to solve this important problem which cannot be copy able and cheatable.

The best choice in this field is to utilize information from the same person who is

assumed to be identified or verified. Finger vein is one the most suitable case for this

purpose which considers 2 main factors (Kejun Wang, 2002):

1) This method is not dangerous for human body health.

2) Finger vein features are not cheatable and changeable even by surgery (Miura et al.,

2007).

2
1.3 Finger Vein Recognition

Finger vein is one of the methods which is less known than others. It is introduced as a

smart recognition of human identity in order to provide security and protection that is

one of the global issues of concern in the world these years (Miura et al., 2007). Finger

veins’ shape is fully unique and different to others. Even the vein of the left and right

sides of the body are completely different. Many vessels of skin are hidden. Therefore,

the possibility of cheating and counterfeiting in such a way is difficult. The changes of

vessel’ shape is very little despite aging. This method is one of the best methods to

distinguish the human from each other’s.

This technology not only uses very low cost devices with small and cheap single-

chip design, but also has very fast identification with highest accuracy. Because of these

characteristics, finger vein recognition is growing very fast in comparison to other

biometrics technology. Fig 1.1 (Yanagawa, 2010) shows some finger vein authentication

devices.

Figure 1.1 Finger vein authentication devices(Yanagawa, 2010)

3
 Historically, finger vein technology was introduced by R&D at Hitachi of Japan

in three phases (Yanagawa, 2010).In the first phase (1997-2000), the light transmission

technology which is used to capture the finger vein images developed by Hitachi.

In the second phase (2000-2003), Hitachi applied this technology into product form and

introduced the first physical access control system. Finally in the third phase (2003-

2005), Hitachi developed this technology and employed it in ATM application for bank

security system in order to verify the end-users.

Another important key is extracting the features of the finger vein images. In

order to compare finger vein images with each other and distinguish which images

belong to which category, these features should be extracted. There is variety of ways to

extract these valuable features but in this research Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

(Wold et al., 1987) is applied which is the usual and simple feature extraction method.

4
1.4 Biometric Identification and Verification

1.4.1 Biometric Identification System

It is very important to understand what identification and verification are, because these

are two different fields from each other. Identification means we don’t know “who this

person is” and we are trying to identify him/her. For example when you see someone on

street and this person says” hi”, first you look at the person ‘face and your mind tries to

recognize them using it, information which has taken from previous. This process is

same in the biometric identification solution. It means, you have a lot of picture which

has stored in your mind (database), when you see the unknown person, you will take

picture of this person and your biometric system tries to compare this picture with all the

pictures in your database and return the information about this person to understand who

this person is (Hitachi, 2009). So, in the biometric systems, identification system is

where one picture for example finger vein image is compared to all of the images in the

data base to determine whose image the input data belongs to.

1.4.2 Biometric Verification System

Verification is the process to verify a person’s identity. For instance somebody claims

that is a specific person and shows some information such as ID card or passport, then

you try to compare his/her image with specific persons images in your mind (database).

your mind will return a positive or negative response which indicates that person is

5
really who he/she claims (Hitachi, 2009). In this thesis, only identification is the field

which we purpose to concentrate.

1.5 Classification methods

In identification part of finger vein recognition, after feature extracting, next step is

classification which needs to employ one of the effective classifiers. There are several

methods in pattern classification such as K-nearest neighbor (KNN) (Fix and

J.L.Hodges, 1951), local mean-based K-nearest neighbor (LMKNN) (Mitani and

Hamamoto, 2006), K-nearest centroid neighbor (KNCN) (Gou et al., 2012a) and the

latest one local mean-based K-nearest centroid neighbor (LMKNCN) (Gou et al.,

2012b).

The K-nearest neighbor (KNN) rule is one of the most fundamental and

techniques which introduced by Fix and Hodges (Fix and J.L.Hodges, 1951) (It should

be noted that this paper was never published by author). This straightforward

nonparametric technique finds KNNs for query pattern, and then by majority voting

assigns the most represented class to the query pattern.

Local Mean-based K-Nearest Neighbor (LMKNN) is successful extension of

KNN which is first proposed by Mitani and Hamamoto (Mitani and Hamamoto, 2006) to

overcome negative influence of outliers ( neighbors which are located far from query

pattern) which occurs in the training set (TS) by applying the local mean vector of each

class to classify query pattern. This idea has been successfully conducted in the group-

based classification (Samsudin and Bradley, 2010) and distance metric learning.

6
K-Nearest Centroid Neighbor (KNCN) first introduced in 1997 (Sánchez et al., 1997).

This classifier has considered two main subjects:

 Spatial distribution around query pattern x

 Distance based proximity of K neighbors in training set.

Local Mean-based K-Nearest Centroid Neighbor (LMKNCN) is the latest classifier

in pattern classification proposed by Jianoing (Gou et al., 2012b). This is the very

successful extension of the LMKNN and KNCN. It means this method has been

proposed to solve the existing problems in the previous classifiers by combining them

together. Comparing with the KNCN an LMKNN, it can be summarized that the

LMKNCN has two advantages:

 It is robust to outliers by applying the local mean vector of each class due to the

LMKNN characteristics.

 It has very effective performance in the small training sample size.

1.6 Problem statement

In today’s society identification plays an important role. Identity recognition tries to

answer to these example questions: whether or not the individual is really who he/she

claims to be; whether or not the records or information from a specific person is

available, whether or not particular person has permission to enter the system.

7
 Finger vein is one of the most suitable means for this purpose because of

mentioned advantages. The highest priorities in this fields is actually how to recognize

and identify with maximum accuracy. This explains why we have the tendency to use

new method of classification to classify our data.

PCA is very effective feature extraction technique but in traditionally technique,

after feature extracting ( using PCA), KNN classifier employs to classify data which

just takes into account the proximity of the nearest neighbor. So to improve the

classification, the new method is proposed which employs the LMKNCN classifier

instead of KNN (Euclidean distance) and PCA as a feature extraction. The LMKNCN

classifier is considered both proximity and spatial distribution of the neighbors around

query pattern X in order to enhance the accuracy.

1.7 Research objectives

The objectives of this research are::

 To apply PCA for feature extraction and LMKNCN as a classifier for finger vein

recognition.

 To compare the performance of LMKNCN classifier with that of KNN classifier.

8
1.8 Scope of Research

In the current research, finger vein recognition is developed using PCA with a new

method of classification “LMKNCN classifier” (Gou et al., 2012b). The experimental

result are conducted on finger vein database (Rosdi et al., 2011) which was collected in

Universiti Sains Malaysia. Based on the proposed method, PCA is used for feature

extraction and LMKNCN classifier is employed as a new effective classifier to improve

the performance of the finger vein recognition. This method needs to be tested in a real

finger vein recognition application to evaluate the probable problems and limitations. In

addition, this method also can be used to encourage other investigators, who might want

to develop the finger vein recognition.

1.9 Thesis outlines

This thesis is organized into five chapters as follows:

Chapter 2 introduces the literature review of the biometric system, finger vein

recognition and PCA (as feature extraction). In addition some methods of classification

such as KNN, LMKNN, KNCN and the latest method LMKNCN are explained.

Mathematics of LMKNCN classifier is presented in this chapter.

Chapter3 describes the methodology of this research and also provides overview of our

proposed method.

9
Chapter 4 consists of some information about MATLAB software, database, image

acquisition and experimental results with related figures which have been obtained. In

addition, the obtained result is discussed to analysis the performance of the proposed

method and compare with the previous method (KNN).

Chapter 5 is the last chapter which consists of conclusion and the recommendation for

future work. This chapter also proves that the objectives of this research have been

achieved.

10
 2 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, first the biometric system will be explained, and then finger vein

recognition is presented. In addition the general model of finger vein recognition is

explained which includes image acquisition and identification process (feature

extraction, classification, comparison, making decision). . Finally some classifiers such

as KNN, LMKNN, KNCN and the latest one LMKNCN are discussed.

2.2 Biometric Systems

Biometric systems is basically one of the pattern recognition types which operate by

acquiring biometric data of an individual and then extracting the important features from

each data and comparing these features set whit the template set in the data base to get

final result.

A biometric system can operate in both verification and identification depends on what

application is needed (Jain, 2004) .Biometric characteristics consist of two different

classes (Bhattacharyya, 2009) :

11
 i) Physiological Characteristic which are related to the body shape such as finger

shape, face shape and other part of human body. Finger print, face recognition,

finger vein are some example of this calls of biometric systems.

ii) Behavioral characteristics which are related to human behavior for example

signature, keystroke dynamics and voice.

The number of governmental application of biometric system is fast growing

because the act of crimes is increasing substantially and it requires higher security and

more accurate system to verify citizen identity (M. Savastano, 2003). So industries tend

to produce the biometric devises such as control access devices, surveillance systems

and so on. Ratio of this growth and percentage of each application can be seen in Figure

2.1(a,b) between2005 to 2010.

Figure 2.1a Figure 2.1b

Figure 2.1(a,b) Annual Biometric Industry Reveries and Percentage of Biometric Market by
Application 2005-2010(USD $M) (Schouten and Jacobs, 2009)

12
2.3 Finger Vein Recognition

Almost any part of vein in human body can be used for identification such as retinal vein

, facial vein and finger vein. Finger veins are preferred because these vessels are closer

to the skin surface than other organs, so they are easier to be detected by camera (Shuxu,

2008).

There are some issues which should be considered when biometric features are being

applied in a practical biometric system(Jain et al., 2002).The reliable biometric system

such as finger vein should have following properties:

 Universality: everyone should have this biometric characteristic.

 Uniqueness: this biometric characteristic should be unique and specific to

prevent forge.

 Permanence: the characteristic should remain unchanged despite of aging.

 Measurability: the characteristic should be measured easily.

And also biometric system should include some other properties as follows

(Jain, 2004):

 Performance: the biometric system should be able to achieve desired accuracy and

computational speed at minimum time by considering the operational factors that

can affect the level of speed and accuracy.

13
 Acceptability: this particular characteristic should be accepted by users by

providing some factors such as user friendly interface, easy to use, not harmful to

the body health.

 Circumvention: the biometric system should be very reliable and robust to

prevent counterfeiting.

Based on above properties, the comparison of various biometric technologies can be

seen in Table 2.1 at seven factors and also the comparison of various biometric methods

in Table 2.2.

14
 Table 2.1 Comparison of Various Biometric Methods at Seven Factors(Shuxu, 2008)

Category Traits Univer Uniqu Perma Measura Perfor Accepta Circum

sality eness nence bility mance bility vention
Face H L M H L H H
Conventi FP M H H M H M M
onal Vein M M M M M M L
Iris H H H M H L H
Voice M L L M L H L

H: High M: Medium L: Low

Table 2.2 Comparison of Various Biometric Methods(Shuxu, 2008)

Category Traits Anti- Accuracy Speed Enrollment Resistance Cost

Forgery Rates
Face M L M M H L
Fingerprint L M M L L M
Conventional Vein H H H M M M
Iris M H M M H H
Voice M L M M H M

H: High M: Medium L: Low

15
2.3.1 Finger Vein Features

Finger vein recognition is a new physiological biometric technology that can distinguish

an individual (Lee et al., 2010, Lee and Park, 2011, Liu et al., 2010). Finger vein is a

network of vessels which locates under the finger skin and cannot be seen by the human

eyes. Based on the recent researches, the vein patterns are unique for each person

(Shuxu, 2008) and it can be used for security applications where high level of privacy

and security is very important issue ,for instance medical ,financial, industrials and other

applications.

This technology is very effective because it not only requires simple and cheap

single-chip design but also it has very fast identification process with higher accuracy

when compared with other biometric techniques in identification field such as iris, finger

print, facial etc. finger vein recognition is rapidly finding its way to commercial

development from research labs (Kejun Wang, 2002). In spite of above characteristics,

finger vein recognition technology has some special and unique advantages compared to

other biometric techniques as follows (Wu and Ye, 2009):

 Live body identification: finger vein technology works based on this proven fact

that deoxygenated hemoglobin in the vein absorbs the light rays so identification

only exist for the blood veins in live body.

 Non-contact: near-infrared are used to capture the image of the finger vein, so

user can be identified without contact to the sensing surface which improves the

health concerns.

16
  High accuracy: this technique can get higher level of accuracy and it is very

difficult to be forged and changed even by surgery(Wu and Ye, 2009).

2.3.2 General Model of Finger Vein Recognition

The general model of finger vein recognition can be seen in Figure 2.2 consists of

enrolment, getting live sample, storage, identification process (feature extraction,

classification and comparison) and the decision part which is the last part.

In the enrolment part, the samples of finger vein should be captured by related finger

vein devises (image acquisition) and then these data must be stored in the database. The

live sample also referred to user’s biometric template. This database which is captured

from several individuals is needed later in identification process. The identification

process is included image acquisition, feature extraction and classification which are

explained more in the next sections.

17
Enrolment Live sample

Image processing

(Cropping, Resizing, Enhancement)

Storage

(Data base)

Identification process

Feature
extraction

Classification

Comparison

Making decision

Figure 2.2 The general model of finger vein recognition

18
2.4 Image Acquisition

Based on proven scientific fact that the light rays can be absorbed by deoxygenated

hemoglobin in the vein(Zharov et al., 2004), absorption coefficient (AC) of the vein is

higher than other parts of finger. In order to provide the finger vein images, four low

cost prototype devises need as follows (Mahri et al., 2010, Himaga and Kou, 2008):

 An infrared LED ( Osram SFH485 infrared light emitting diodes (IR LED) with

wavelength 880nm which is located at top of our design)

 A camera to capture the images (Logitech V-UAV35 web-cam is employed as

the capturing devises at the bottom of our design)

 A computer to process the images

Plate2.1 Image acquisition devices (Rosdi et al., 2011)

19
As it can be seen in Plate 2.1, a user should insert his/her finger into the window which

is prepared for fixing the finger, then the LED will start to transmit the ray through the

user’ finger and on the other hand, the camera will capture these transmitted lights from

the bottom. The webcam focus should be fixed during the setup, at the suitable distance

where the captured images have a maximum resolution. Another effective device in

order to capture the clear vein images is the intensity of the LED which can be adjusted

by the LED controller to set the intensity of the ray manually to capture the best image

quality for each finger. Plate 2.2 shows the basic structure of finger vein devises and one

sample of the finger vein which is captured by the mentioned method.

Plate 2.2 The basic structure of finger vein capturing devises and one sample of the original
finger vein image(Rosdi et al., 2011)

20
It should be mention that the black sponge around the finger is used to prevent

reflectance of the light.

2.4.1 Image processing

To prepare the finger vein images for the identification process, three major steps should

be done before which are region of Interested (ROI) extraction, resizing the image,

enhancing the image(Rosdi et al., 2011).

2.4.1.1 ROI extraction

It is very important to extract the vein image from the undesired background. So in

order to enhance the final accuracy, the black unwanted background from the original

image should be omitted. An effective and simple algorithm is applied which has three

major steps as follows(Rosdi et al., 2011):

 In the first step images should be binarized (by using the matlab functions

”im2bw”and also”graythresh”)

 In the second step the center of the finger must be determined(CENTRAL).

 The last step is cropping the image to 480×160 pixels based on the determined

center of the finger.

21
Figure 2.3a shows the original captured image of finger vein, Figure 2.3b shows the

binarized image and obtained center of the finger and also Figure 2.3c shows the

cropped images for a finger at interval. The open window (2.5cm×2.5cm) which is used

in image acquisition can only reduce the finger rotation problem but it cannot prevent of

horizontal and vertical displacement problems that is why there are three different

centers for the same finger captured at an interval (Rosdi et al., 2011).

Figure 2.3 (a,b,c) Original captured images, binarized images, cropped images

(Rosdi et al., 2011)

22
2.4.1.2 Resizing

Size of the finger images is very important issue because inappropriate image size might

reduce the accuracy and increase the computational time. To overcome the time

complexity and also eradicate the pixel noise, the cropped image size 480×160 pixels is

reduced to the smaller size with the resize ratio 0.3(section 4.4) .

2.4.1.3 Image Enhancement

Generally the contrast of the captured images is low because of the variation of finger

profile (Rosdi et al., 2011), so the modified Gaussian high-pass filter is applied to

enhance the images contrast (Eui Chul Lee, 2011). Regarding to the high-pass filter

definition the image after filtering becomes sharper because the high-pass filter tends to

retain the high frequency information such as edges, geometry and finger vein and

reducing the low frequency information (Nowak, 1998). The related formula for this

filter is shown below (Eui Chul Lee, 2011):

𝐷2 (𝑥,𝑦)
−
2𝐷2
𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎 (1 − 𝑒 0 )+𝑏 (2.1)

And D(x,y) defined as follows:

𝐷(𝑥, 𝑦) = [(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 ]1/2 (2.2)

23
Where x and y are the position which are related to the center point (( 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )) of

convolution mask, D(x, y) is represented as the distance between center point and

relative position(x and y) and a and b are variable to adjust the amplitude and DC level

of the filtering mask.

A condition should be satisfy to determine the variable a and b which is the

summation of the coefficients of the filter should be 0.if this value is greater than 0, the

average brightness of filtering result image may be increased. Unlike, if the summation

is lower than 0 may make comparatively dark result. As shown in Figure 2.4 (a,b), the

finger vein and the geometry part of finger are high frequency components, so the

modified Gaussian high-pass filtering retains these high frequency components.

Figure 2.5 (Rosdi et al., 2011) shows the resized finger vein images(top) and also their

enhanced images.

24
 Figure 2.4 (a,b) high pass filter to retain high frequency components (Eui Chul Lee, 2011)

Figure 2.5 The resized finger vein images (top) and also their enhanced images (Rosdi et al.,
2011)

It should be mention that enhancement has not applied in our data base which is used in

this thesis, because the captured images (from section 2.4) have sufficient contrast to use

in our implementations without enhancing.

25
2.5 Feature extraction

Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

PCA is one of the fundamental and effective methods in case of dimensional reduction

(Delac et al., 2005). This kind of transformation method is used to simplify data

analysis. Dimensionally reduction and feature extraction of the images are the main

proposed of PCA (Saul et al., 2005) . Here is a briefing explanation of PCA working is

as follows:

In the first step the image features that define subspace of image are obtained .The

training set is projected onto the vectors in order to get weights. In the next step, this

process should be done exactly same as previous step to get the new weight of the test

images. Comparison between these weights of training image and the weights of the test

image is done in the last step to get the final result (Smith, 2002).

2.5.1 Background mathematics

Some elementary background mathematical skills which requires to understand the

process of PCA are given in this section (Smith, 2002).These following topics are

covered independently of each other.

26
2.5.1.1 Standard Deviation

Before calculating the standard deviation, the mean of the samples must be obtained by

the given formula (Smith, 2002):

∑ 𝑛
𝑋𝑖
𝑋̅ = 𝑖=1 (2.3)
𝑛

Then the standard deviation (SD) can be calculated as follows (Smith, 2002):

∑𝑛
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥̅ )
2
𝑆𝐷 = √ (2.4)
(𝑛−1)

Where, n is the total number of data set and x is the set value. Standard deviation of a

data set is measure of the spread of the data.

2.5.1.2 Variance

Variance is also used to measure of the spread of the data. However, the standard

deviation is the most common, but variance is sometimes used. In fact it is almost

identical to the SD. The formula is below:

∑𝑛 ̅ 2
𝑖=1(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋)
𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = (2.5)
(𝑛𝑥 −1)(𝑛𝑦 −1)

27
2.5.1.3 Covariance

Standard deviation and variance can only operate on one dimension. However many data

sets have more than one dimension and the aim is usually to see the relationship between

these dimensions. Covariance is measured between two dimensions. The variance

formula and covariance are very similar to each other .It means if you try to find

covariance of x by itself, it gives you the variance. Here is the formula for covariance:

∑𝑛 ̅ ̅
𝑖=1(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋 )(𝑌𝑖 −𝑌)
𝑐𝑜𝑣(𝑋, 𝑌) = (2.6)
(𝑛−1)

2.5.1.4 Eigenvectors

Eigenvectors are special method to multiply two matrices together. It should be

mentioned that the eigenvectors only can be found for square matrices. For example; as

it can be seen two multiplication between a matrix and vector in the equation 2.7and

equation 2.8, for equation 2.7 the result vector is not integer multiple of the original

vector but in equation 2.8 the result is multiplication of integer value 4 by the original

vector. So in equation 2.8, 4 is the eigenvalues, (32)is the eigenvector and also equation

2.7 shows the non-eigenvector (Smith, 2002).

(22 31) × (13) = (11

5
) (2.7)

28
(22 31) × (32) = (12
8
) = 4 × (32) (2.8)

2.5.2 Advantages of PCA

As it mentioned before, PCA is a way of identifying patterns in data and also express the

data to highlight their differences and similarities. In data of high dimension, the pattern

in data is hard to find and PCA can be applied to analysis these data.

The other important advantage of PCA is reducing the number of dimensions without

losing the information (Jain et al., 2002). This technique is also used to compress the

image.

2.5.3 Implementation of PCA

There are 5 steps to implement the PCA (Smith, 2002):

Step1: Subtract the mean

After getting the data, the mean from each of the data dimensions should be subtracted

which is the average across each dimension. So all X values have 𝑋̅ subtracted which is

mean of the X Values of all data and also 𝑦̅ subtracted from all y values .The result of

this step is producing the data set whose mean is zero. Figure 2.6 shows the PCA

29
example data, data with means subtracted on the right, original data on the left side and a

plot of the data.

Figure 2.6 Example of PCA data (Smith, 2002)

Step 2: Calculate the covariance matrix

This step is done exactly similar to the section 3 which calculate the coavarinace for the

data with two dimensonals.

30
Step3:Calculate the eigenvectors and related eigenvalues from the coavariance

matrix

As we mentioned, the eigenvectors and eigenvalues for coavariance matrix can be

calculated because this matrix is square. It should be noted that for PCA, most maths

packages for eigenvectors will give unit eigenvectors (Turk and Pentland, 1991). So by

taking the eigenvectors of the coavariance matrix, the lines that charactrise the data can

be extracted.

Step 4: Choosing the worth components and forming a feature vector

Whenever the eigenvectors and eigenvalues will be obtained from the coavariance

matrix,they have to be ordered from highest to lowst according to the eiganvalues.This

procces gives us the components in order of signicance So, now the worth components

can be detected from other components. If you leave out some lowest components, not

only you don’t lose much information, but also you will have less dimensions compare

the orginal (dimensionals reduction).

Forming the feature vectors is constructed by keeping the eigenvectors with the

largest eginvalues from the list of eginvectors, and forming the matrix for them in the

columns.a plot of normalised data (mean subtracted ) with the eigenvectors of the

coavariance matrix (top) can be seen in Figure 2.7.

31
 Figer 2.7 Plot of normalised data (Smith, 2002)

Step 5: Driving the new data set

This step is the last and also easiest one in PCA .Once the worth components

(eigenvectors) which we want to keep in our data and formed feature vector are chosen

,the transpose of the the vector has to be multiplied from the left of the original

data.Figure 2.8 shows the plot of new data point after applying the PCA analysis using

both eigenvectors and figure 2.9 shows the reconstruction from the data that was derived

using only a single eigenvector.

32
 Figer 2.8 The plot of new data point after applying the PCA (Smith, 2002)

Figure 2.9 The reconstruction from the data that was derived using only a single eigenvector
(Smith, 2002)

33
As it can be seen in Figure 2.9 with principle component, some information is lost

regarding to the concept of the choosing eigenvectors with the largest eigenvalues , but

dimensional reduction is done and we have now only one dimension which is the main

advantages of PCA (Huang et al., 2009).

2.5.4 Mathematics of PCA

PCA can analysis the 1-D images since finger vein images are 2-D, the first step is

dimensional reduction to present the 1-D images. Assume M vectors of size N (i.e. rows

of image multiply by columns by image), where 𝑝 is the pixel value:

𝒳𝑖 = [𝑝1 … 𝑝𝑁 ]𝑇 , 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑀 (2.9)

Based on PCA methods which mentioned in previous sections, the next step is

computing the mean center of images, where 𝑀 Represents the mean image.

1
𝑚 = 𝑀 ∑𝑀
𝑖=1 𝒳𝑖 (2.10)

To calculate the mean centered image the following formula is used:

𝑤𝑖 = 𝒳𝑖 – 𝑚 (2.11)

The covariance matrix should be obtained to determine a set of eigenvectors and

eigenvalues:

𝐶 = 𝑊𝑊 𝑇 (2.12)

34
Where 𝑊 is a matrix composed of the column vectors 𝑤𝑖 placed side by side.

If we assuming 𝜆 as a eigenvector , 𝑣 as eigenvalue and considering the proven

equation 𝜆𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 ,which shows the multiplication of integer value C(covariance) and

original vector 𝑣 ,we can obtain the following equation .

𝑊𝑊 𝑇 (𝑊𝑣) = 𝜆(𝑊𝑣) (2.13)

It should be mention that this equation is obtained by multiplying both sides of the given

equation by w and substitution of 𝐶 . (2.14)

It indicates that the first 𝑀- 1 eigenvectors λ and eigenvalues 𝑣 can be obtained by

calculating𝑊𝑊 𝑇 .

After finding the 𝑀 eigenvectors and eigenvalues, images can be projected onto 𝐿 ≪ 𝑀

dimensions by computing 𝛺 which is the projected value and could be calculated by the

following formula:

𝛺 = [𝑣1 𝑣2 … 𝑣𝐿 ]𝑇 (2.15)

To determine which finger vein images provides the best description of an input image;

the Euclidean distance should be calculated as follows:

∈𝑘 = ‖𝛺 − 𝛺𝑘 ‖ (2.16)

Where the minimum value of ∈𝑘 decide the unknown data into 𝑘 class.

35
2.6 Classification

2.6.1 The K-Nearest neighbor Classifier (KNN)

The KNN rule (T. M. Cover, 1967) is an effective and fundamental algorithms in pattern

classification. The first formulation of the nearest neighbor introduced by Hodges(Fix

and J.L.Hodges, 1951).Then John(Johns, SEP 1959) investigate the usage of the KNN

rule as example of an empirical bias rule.Kanal (L. Kanal et al., 1963) and Sebesteyen

(Sebestyen, 1962) suggested a method to use KNN in the pattern recognition problem.

The basic rationale for this rule is as follows:

 Find the K-nearest neighbor for a query pattern X

 Assign the most represented class to the query pattern by a majority voting

When k=1, KNN becomes 1-NN which is special from KNN. The KNN has not only

conceptual and implementatinal simplicity, but also it has been proved that in the bayas

sense has asymptotically optimal performance.

However the classification accuracy dramatically reduces in the small training

sample size, especially in the case of the outliers. This is one of the disadvantages of

KNN classifier which has seriously effect on the performance of the nonparametric

classifiers (Gou et al., 2012b).

36
2.6.1.1 Mathematics of KNN

The K-nearest classifier works based on the Euclidean distance between a test sample

and training samples. let T denotes the training set with M class(Gou et al., 2012b):

𝑻 = {(𝑿𝒊 , 𝒀𝒊 )}𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 (2.17)

Where 𝑋𝑖 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚 and𝑌𝑖 ∈ {𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … . , 𝑐𝑀 }.

Consider the 𝑋 as a given query and its unknown class 𝑌

Let 𝑇𝑘𝑁𝑁 (𝑋) = {(𝑋𝑖𝑁𝑁 , 𝑌𝑖𝑁𝑁 )}𝑁

𝑖=1 be the set of LMKNNs for x in the class 𝑐𝑖

using the Euclidean distance metric which computes by the simple following formula:

𝑑 (𝑋 , 𝑋𝑖𝑁𝑁 ) = √(𝑋 − 𝑋𝑖𝑁𝑁 )𝑇 (𝑋 − 𝑋𝑖𝑁𝑁 ) (2.18)

The distance 𝑑(𝑋, 𝑋𝑖𝑁𝑁 ) is between 𝑋𝑖𝑁𝑁 and given query.

Determining the class label of query 𝑋 by the majority voting of those identified

neighbors as follows:

𝑐 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 max ∑ 𝛿 (𝑐𝑗= 𝑌𝑖𝑁𝑁 )

𝑐𝑗
(𝑋𝑖𝑁𝑁 ,𝑌𝑖𝑁𝑁 )∈𝑇𝑘𝑁𝑁 (𝑋)

(2.19)

Where 𝛿(𝑐𝑗= 𝑌𝑖𝑁𝑁 ) is equal one if 𝑐𝑗= 𝑌𝑖𝑁𝑁 ,and it is equal zero otherwise.

It means that X belongs to the class c with the greatest voted class among k-nearest

neighbors.

37
2.6.2 The LMKNN classifier

As it mentioned in KNN ,the exiting outliers has seriously negative effect on

performance of the nonparametric classifier in small training sample size cases(Mitani

and Hamamoto, 2006), so the local mean –based K-nearest neighbor(LMKNN)

proposed as a successful extension of KNN to overcome this negative effect in the

training set(TS). The scientific logic behind this method (Saul et al., 2005) is that the

query pattern X is classified by employing the local mean vector of k nearest neighbor in

each class to make classification decision (Gou et al., 2012b).

2.6.2.1 Mathematics of LMKNN

Let 𝑇 = {𝑋𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚 }𝑁
𝑛=1 be a training set (TS) where N is the total number of training

samples ,𝑌𝑛 ∈ {𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … . , 𝑐𝑀 } denotes a subset in T from the class 𝑐𝑖 ,

𝑁
𝑇𝑖 = {𝑋𝑖𝑗 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚 }𝑗=1
𝑖
indicates a subset in T from the class 𝑐𝑖 and 𝑁𝑖 is the number of the

training samples.

Three step need to determining the query pattern X as follows (Gou et al., 2012b):

Step1: Firs the k nearest neighbor from the set 𝑇𝑖 of each class 𝑐𝑖 should be calculated

𝑁𝑁
for query pattern X. Consider the 𝑇𝑖𝑘 𝑁𝑁
(𝑋) = {𝑋𝑖𝑗 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚 }𝑘𝑗=1 as set of the KNNs for

query pattern X in the class 𝑐𝑖 by employing the Euclidean distance as follows:

38
 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁 𝑇 𝑁𝑁
𝑑 (𝑋 , 𝑋𝑖𝑗 ) = √(𝑋 − 𝑋𝑖𝑗 ) (𝑋 − 𝑋𝑖𝑗 ) (2.20)

𝑁𝑁
Step2: Now the local mean vector 𝑢𝑖𝑘 from the class 𝑐𝑖 by using the below formula:

𝑁𝑁
𝑢𝑖𝑘 = 1/𝑘 ∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑋𝑖𝑗
𝑁𝑁
(2.21)

Step3: in the final step minimum distance between the local mean vector for c and the

query pattern X in Euclidean space will be obtained and then assign X to the class c with

this minimum distance as follows:

𝑁𝑁
𝑐 = arg 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖 𝑑(𝑋, 𝑢𝑖𝑘 ) (2.22)

2.6.3 The Nearest centroid Neighbor (NCN)

Although the LMKNN is robust to outliers (Zeng et al., 2009, Gou et al., 2012b) in

classification performance, it still sensitive to the small sample size .The NCN

(Chaudhuri, 1996) is a successful extension of nearest neighborhood (NN)(Altιnçay,

2011) which considers not only the nearest distance between the neighbors and query

pattern X like NN ,but also takes into account the spatial distribution of the neighbors .

Thereby, two subjects should be considered complementary in the NCN

implementation:

 The distance criterion: the distance between centroid neighbors and

query pattern X should be as close as possible.

39
  The symmetry criterion: the centroid neighbors must be placed around

query pattern x as symmetrically as possible.

Let 𝑆 = {𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , … . , 𝑠3 } denotes a set of point, the centroid of this set calculates by

following formula:

𝑠𝑞𝑐 = 1/𝑞 ∑𝑞𝑖=1 𝑠𝑖 (2.23)

The whole iterative procedure of NCN to satisfy two mentioned conditions is as follows

(Gou et al., 2012b):

(i) The first nearest centroid neighbor of which corresponds to the nearest

neighbor should be found and assigns as𝑋1𝑁𝐶𝑁 .

(ii) The 𝑖th nearest centroid, 𝑋𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 (𝑖≥2) should be determined and then this new

centroid point and all previous centroid neighbors should be placed in𝑇𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 ,

𝑁𝐶𝑁
i.e.𝑋1𝑁𝐶𝑁 ,… . . , 𝑋𝑖−1 .

It should be notice that to compute the centroid, all points in 𝑇𝑖 must be tested ,even that

point were not considered in computing all the i-1 previous centroids, in order to obtain

the centroid to query pattern X.

Consequently, in a point of view, the first nearest neighbor guarantee the proximity to

the query pattern X .on the other hand, it is taken into account the spatial distribution

surrounding query pattern X due to the centroid criterion.

40
2.6.4 The KNCN classifier

Based on the concept of the NCN, the K nearest centroid neighbor (KNCN) has been

first introduced by Sanchez (Sánchez et al., 1997) in pattern classification. The KNCN

has proved that the symmetrical distribution among patterns in a training set can become

even more important than only the proximity criterion between the neighbors and query

pattern X(Sánchez et al., 2003). This classifier employs the hidden information in the

spatial distribution around X to obtain better classification, particularly in case with

small sample size(Sánchez and Marqués, 2006).It has also better performance in

prototype-based classification ,for example prototype selection and prototype

optimization(Lozano et al., 2006).In addition, Sanchez and Marques also gave an

intensive review of the KNCN in pattern classification(Sánchez 2002).

Same previous mathematics, consider 𝑇 = {𝑋𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚 }𝑁

𝑛=1 as a training set (TS) with M

classes 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … . , 𝑐𝑀 and given query pattern. The KNCN works as follows:

(i) The K-nearest centroid neighbor of X from each class of T should be

searched and say 𝑇𝑘𝑁𝐶𝑁 (𝑋) = {𝑋𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚 }𝑘𝑖=1

(ii) Assign x with the greatest voted class among K nearest centroid neighbors to

the class c according to the equation (2.19)

41
 Like to the KNN, the KNCN try to select a set of k nearest centroid neighbor for

a query pattern X from training set and in the next step ,assign x to the class c with the

greatest number of votes(majority voting) .however ,the KNCN selects the k neighbors

by considering the geometrically distribution around the query. Figure 2.10

shows the comparison between the KNN and the KNCN when k=5.

Figure 2.10 The comparison between the KNN and the KNCN when k=5(Gou et al., 2012a)

As it can be seen, the region of the KNCN which indicates the influence of the NCN

neighborhood is usually larger or at least equal to the corresponding region of the NN

neighborhood. The distances of NNs and NCNs to the query pattern X are shown by red

dashed line and black solid line. Also, The KNN and KNCN share one point which is

shown either 1 or a (Gou et al., 2012a).

42
2.6.5 LMKNCN Classifier

In this section, a brief review of the Local Mean-based K-Nearest Centroid Neighbor

(LMKNCN) is provided and more details will be explained in chapter 3.

The basic idea behind this classifier:

On the one point of view, the existing outliers in the small sample training sample size

has seriously effect on the performance of the K nearest neighbor classifiers (KNN) ,so

the LMKNN is introduced to overcome this negative effects of outliers by using the

local mean vector of each class. Consequently, the LMKNN is robust to outliers. On the

other hand, the KNCN is very effective in the small sample size according to the concept

of the NCN.

Combining of the LMKNN and KNCN is introduced a new method which has

both advantages robustness and effectiveness (Gou et al., 2012b).Based on the concept

of the LMKNN and KNCN ,the proposed LMKNCN works by not only taking into

account the proximity of the neighbors but also considering how patterns are

holographically placed around the query pattern X in the class.

43
2.6.6 Mathematics of LMKNCN

The main goal is predict the class label of query pattern X by using the nearest local

mean vector between all classes.

There are five steps for the LMKNCN algorithm(Gou et al., 2012b):

Consider these following definitions:

𝑋: query pattern

𝑘: Size of the neighborhood

𝑇 = {𝑋𝑖𝑗 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚 }𝑁
𝑛=1 ∶ A training set

𝑁
𝑇𝑖 = {𝑋𝑖𝑗 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚 }𝑗=1
𝑖
: A class training set

𝐶1 , … , 𝐶𝑀 : M is the number of classes in T,

𝑁1 , … , 𝑁𝑀 : The number of training samples in Ti

Step 1

In the first step, the distances between training samples and query pattern X should be

calculate in each class 𝑐𝑖 as follows:

𝑑 (𝑋 , 𝑋𝑖𝑗 ) = √(𝑋 − 𝑋𝑖𝑗 )𝑇 (𝑋 − 𝑋𝑖𝑗 ) (2.24)

44
The related matlab codes output of the first step is all distances between query pattern x

and training samples of the each class. It means this step is completely similar to the

KNN classifier.

Step 2

In the second step, the first nearest centroid neighbor of x in each class 𝑐𝑖 should be

𝑁𝐶𝑁
obtain and say 𝑋𝑖1

In order to find these nearest centroid neighbors in mathlab codes, first obtained

distances of the previous step should be sorted as follows:

[𝑚𝑖𝑛_𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑚𝑖𝑛_𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡] = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑑(𝑋, 𝑋𝑖𝑗)) (2.25)

𝑁𝐶𝑁
𝑋𝑖1 = 𝑋 𝑚𝑖𝑛−𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (2.26)

Then set 𝑅𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 (𝑋) = {𝑋𝑖1

𝑁𝐶𝑁
∈ Rm }

𝑅𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 (𝑋) is included all first nearest centroid neighbors in each class 𝑐𝑖

Step 3

K nearest centroid neighbors of x must be found, except for the firsts because it has been

found in step 2 based on the Euclidean distance.

𝑁𝐶𝑁
Let 𝑇𝑖𝑘 (𝑥) = {𝑋𝑖𝑗𝑁𝐶𝑁 ∈ Rm }𝑘𝑗=1 In each class 𝑐𝑖 due to the NCN criterion

So it should be started from j=2 to k:

45
Set 𝑆𝑖(𝑋) = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑅𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 (𝑋) (2.27)

𝐿 (𝑋)
𝑆𝑖 (𝑋) = {𝑋𝑖𝑙𝑁𝐶𝑁 ∈ Rm }𝑙=1
𝑖

Variable 𝐿𝑖 (𝑋) is the length of the 𝑆𝑖 (𝑋) and note that the variable k is not more than

𝑁𝑖

And then sum of the previous 𝑗 − 1 nearest centroid will compute by the following

formula:

𝑗−1
𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 = ∑𝑟=1 𝑋𝑖𝑟
𝑁𝐶𝑁
(2.28)

After that the centroids in the set 𝑆𝑖 must be calculated for all samples from each class

one by one separately as follows:

For 𝑙 =1 to 𝐿𝑖 (𝑋)

𝑋𝑖𝑙𝑐 = 1/𝑗(𝑋𝑖𝑙 + 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 (𝑋)) (2.29)

Next find the distances between the query pattern X and the obtained centroids 𝑋𝑖𝑙𝑐 :

𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑐 (𝑋, 𝑋𝑖𝑙𝑐 ) = √ (𝑋 − 𝑋𝑖𝑙𝑐 )𝑇 (𝑋 − 𝑋𝑖𝑙𝑐 ) (2.30)

The last part of the step 3 is searching the 𝑗 𝑡ℎ nearest centroid neighbors of each class 𝑐𝑖 :

[𝑚𝑖𝑛_𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑁𝐶𝑁 , 𝑚𝑖𝑛_𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑁𝐶𝑁 ]= 𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑐 (𝑋, 𝑋𝑖𝑙𝑐 ))

𝑁𝐶𝑁
𝑋𝑖𝑗 = 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛_𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑁𝐶𝑁

𝑁𝐶𝑁
And then finally add 𝑋𝑖𝑗 to 𝑅𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 (𝑋)

46
 𝑁𝐶𝑁
Set 𝑇𝑖𝑘 (𝑥)=𝑅𝑖𝑁𝐶𝑁 (𝑋)

Step 4

𝑁𝐶𝑁
In set 𝑇𝑖𝑘 (𝑥) for each class, the local centroid means vector will be calculate:

𝑁𝐶𝑁
𝑢𝑖𝑘 = 1/𝑘 ∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑋𝑖𝑗
𝑁𝐶𝑁
(2.31)

Next compute the distances between query pattern X and local centroid mean vector
𝑁𝐶𝑁
𝑢𝑖𝑘 for each class by using the distances formula which is used in step 1.

Step 5

Designate X to the class c by finding the nearest local centroid mean vector:

𝑁𝐶𝑁
𝑐 = arg 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖 𝑑(𝑋, 𝑢𝑖𝑘 ) (2.32)

The last step indicates that c is allocated to query pattern X

It should be mention that this method is similar to LMKNN and 1-NN for K=1.

Based on the above process, LMKNCN considers two subjects:

(i) The proximity criterion to query pattern X

(ii) The symmetrical placement of neighbors around X

These subjects illustrates that the class label with a nearest local centroid mean vector is

dedicated to the query pattern by not only taking account to the nearest neighbors but

also considering symmetrically spatial distribution of patterns.

47
2.6.7 Comparison between the LMKNCN and the LMKNN

These two methods are very similar together but the main important difference between

them to make classification decision is that LMKCNC classifier utilizes more hidden

information in spatial distribution among K neighbors.

For better understanding and clarify this comparison refer to the figure 2.11 (Gou et al.,

2012b).

Figure 2.11a Fig 2.11b

48
 Fig 2.11c Fig 2.11d

Figure 2.11 .(a.b.c.d)A comparison between LMKNCN and LMKNN in two-class

classification problem and k=5 in two dimensional feature space.

It can be seen that the query pattern X is assigned by small square and cross and circles

are used to indicate the local mean vector of class 1 and class 2.Figure 2.11a and 2.11c

show the local mean vector of classes which are calculated by using KNN and Figure 2-

11b and 2.11d show the mentioned vectors by using KNCN. The lines in (c) and (d)

show the distances between query pattern X to the local mean vectors of class 1 and

class 2 to query pattern X Two ellipses in (a) and (b) are magnified in (c) and (d) to

clearly understand .So the prototypes in ellipse (a) are exactly same as the corresponding

bigger ones in (c) and the prototypes in ellipse (b) are the same as the corresponding

bigger one in the Figure(d)(Gou et al., 2012b).

49
 It should be mentioned that 𝑢1𝑁𝑁 and 𝑢2𝑁𝑁 show the local mean vector of classes

(1and 2) in the LMKNN and 𝑢1𝑁𝐶𝑁 and 𝑢2𝑁𝐶𝑁 indicate the local centroid mean vectors in

the LMKNCN. It can be seen that the local mean k-nearest neighbors in the LMKNN is

completely different as the related ones of LMKNCN in each class, because the nearest

neighbors those obtain by the LMKNN are different from the nearest centroid neighbors

obtained by LMKNCN as shown in Fig11.

According to the Figure 11b and 11d , it can be observed that the local centroid

mean vector can demonstrate the spatial distribution information around query pattern

X. Based on the NCN definition, the geometrical distribution of neighbors and also the

proximity are considered in LMKNCN.

2.7 Summary

In this chapter, characteristics of biometric are explained. The required characteristics

are universality, uniqueness, and permanence, and measurability, reliable and desired

performance. A part from these characteristics, finger vein has rapidly growth due to

some special advantages include contactless, live body identification and high accuracy.

The general model of the general model of finger vein recognition consists of enrolment,

getting live sample, storage, identification process (feature extraction, classification and

comparison) and the decision making .The identification process is an important and

complex stage which includes image acquisition, feature extraction and classification.

50
 In addition PCA and related mathematics are explained. Dimensionally reduction

and feature extraction of the images is the main proposed of the PCA. Finally some

classifiers such as KNN, LMKNN, KNCN and LMKNCN are discussed. LMKNCN

classifier is the latest algorithm in pattern classifications which takes into account not

only proximity of the neighbors, but also symmetrical distribution of the neighbors

around query pattern X. This classifier will be further discussed in coming chapter 3.

51
 3 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

In this chapter, first the overall view of the proposed method are explained and simple

flow of this proposed is shown. Then, the different types of implementations using

LMKNCN and KNN are given. In addition the reasons of using PCA to implement on

LMKNCN and KNN are discussed. For better understanding the PCA flow is also

provided. More over the LMKNCN classifier are explain in details by presenting the

related mathematics.

3.1 Proposed method

To compare the mentioned classifiers (KNN & LMKNCN) which is the main

contribution of this work, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been chosen as a

feature extraction method. The robustness of PCA and the fact that this method is quite

common and powerful are the reasons of this choice. As it is known from the theory of

PCA, after extracting the features from both training and test data, a comparison

between them is made using Euclidian distance. In the proposed method in this thesis,

52
when feature extraction part is conducted, the distances between the test and training

features are achieved using LMKNCN classifier. The distances are compared with each

other and the data having the lowest distance from the test data is chosen and the

accuracy is . Finally the related accuracy for the same method using KNN as classifier

will be obtained and compared with that of LMKNCN in order to prove the significant

of proposed method. It should be mention that all implementations are performed on the

same finger vein database. Figure 3.1 shows the over view of the proposed method.

• PCA as a feature
1 extraction

• using LMKNCN as a
3 classification method

Figure3.1 The overall view of proposed method

To obtain the reliable and powerful comparison, we have tried to conduct the

implementation on finger vein database considering the all possible number of training

and testing images from each class in 9 different implementations as follows, Figure 3.2:

53
 1 image to train, 9 images to test

2 images to train, 8 images to test

3 images to train, 7 images to test

Using LMKNCN
Classifier
4 image to train, 6 images to test

5 images to train, 5 images to test

Using KNN 6 images to train, 4 images to test

Classifier

7 images to train, 3 images to test

8 images to train, 2 images to test

9 images to train, 1 image to test

Figure 3.2 Different types of implementations by LMKNCN and KNN classifiers from each

class

54
3.2 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) algorithm

We used PCA in this thesis as a feature extraction. As it mentioned in section2.4, PCA is

a powerful method to extract and analysis the feature of the images. PCA can find the

patterns and reduce the dimension without much loss of information. Figure 3.3 shows

the PCA implementation flow.

In this thesis, the finger vein images are resized first before implementation,

because the original size of images in database is 480×160 pixels and this size of image

requires much calculations, so to reduce the implementations time, we resized the

original images to two smaller sizes 10×30 and20×60 .Experimental evaluation from

these two sizes, has been proved that the size 10×30 is more suitable for using in our

implementation (it will be more explained in section 4.4).

55
 Figure 3.3 The PCA implementation flow(Smith, 2002)

3.3 KNN classifier

As it is mentioned in section 2.5.1, the KNN classifier is the fundamental and simple

algorithm in pattern classification which just takes into account the proximity of

56
neighbors around the query pattern X. In this thesis, in order to conduct the comparison

between KNN and LMKNCN, KNN classifier is employed in the classification part of

PCA as a method which uses the Euclidean distance to do the classification.

3.4 LMKNCN classifier

The latest method in pattern classification is the Local Mean Based K-Nearest Centroid

Neighbor classifier (LMKNCN) which is latest and very effective algorithm in pattern

classification. This method introduces a class label with nearest local centroid mean

vector for each query pattern in order to improve the classification performance(Gou et

al., 2012b).

LMKNCN works base on the three main objects:

1. Proximity

2. Spatial distribution of k neighbors

3. Local mean vector of k neighbors from each class

The main target is applying this method as effective classifier to classify the finger vein

data sets and demonstrates that these experimental results perform significantly better

than the KNN classifier.

57
 As it mentioned, the outliers has seriously adverse effects on the KNN-based non-

parametric classifier and also we know the LMKNN classifier introduced to improve the

KNN by using the local mean vector of each class which is very robust to outliers.

According to the NCN concept, the KNCN classifier is very effective in the small

sample size case

LMKNCN is proposed by combining these two methods, Figure 3.4:

i) Effectiveness of KNCN

ii) Robustness of LMKNN

• Effective in small
KNCN sample case
LMKNCN
• Robust to outliers
LMKNN

Figure 3.4The basic advantages to propose LMKNCN classifier

58
Figure 3.5 shows the LMKNCN algorithm implementation flow.

•Claculating all distances between query pattern X and training samples for each
1 class Ci

•Sorting the obtained distances

2

•Finding the nearest distance of each class to query pattern X

3

•Finding the K nearest neighbors of X from each class except the first one
4

•finding the centroids of sets for all samples

5

•computing the distances between the query pattern X and the obtained centroids
6

•finding the nearest centroid neighbors of each class

7

•calculating the local centroid mean vector for each class

8

•calculating the distances between the query pattern X and obtained loacal mean
9 vectors

•assigning X to class C by finding the nearest local mean vector

10

Figure 3.5 LMKNCN algorithm implementation flow(Gou et al., 2012b)

59
3.5 Summary

This chapter first presented the proposed method of this research. In addition, the PCA

algorithm is discussed more by providing the PCA implementation flow .Finally two

main classifiers, KNN and LMKNCN, are explained and the implementation flow of

LMKNCN is also provided in order to better understanding of the proposed method.

60
 4 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, first some information about MATLAB software (which is used in our

implementations) and database is provided. Then, the optimum size of finger vein

images is chosen for using in further implementations. In addition, how to gain accuracy

is described. Analysis and discussions are done based on the experimental results. The

performance of proposed method is evaluated by comparing with the traditionally used

method (KNN).

4.2 MATLAB Software

MATLAB is a very useful program to develop the algorithm, visualization, data analysis

and numerical computing. The PCA codes and LMKNCN codes, which used in this

research, are programmed by MATLAB software. The MATLAB version 7.5 (R2007b)

is used in this project to develop the finger vein recognition.

61
4.3 Database information

The captured images have been collected from 51 male and female volunteers whom

ranged from 21 to 56 years old. 10 images are captured from each subject. Four fingers

are used for capturing included right index finger, right middle finger, left index finger,

and left middle finger. So, our database totally contains 2040 images from 204 different

fingers and each finger image has a dimension of 480×160 pixels. The captured images

from one person can be seen in Plate 4.1.(Rosdi et al., 2011)

Plate 4.1 The captured images from one person

62
4.4 How to Get the Optimum Size of the Images

The original size of finger vein image is 480×160 pixels which is very large and time

consuming to be used in our implementations ,so we need to resize the images to the

smaller sizes ( ratio of 0.3) by taking account into the two important conditions,

maximum accuracy and minimum time of implementation. Based on the experimental

results (on finger vein database), the optimal identification accuracy is observed when

the size of image is at 10×30 and 20×60 by considering the time of implementation. To

determine the optimum size of the images, some experimental testing have been done

using PCA for two different mentioned sizes, Figure 4.1:

63
 X:147

Y:95.59

X:105

Y:95.88

Figure 4.1 Experimental testing results in two different sizes of images

64
As it can be seen in figure 4.1,the difference between the obtained accuracy of the

implimentations on images with the size of 10×30 and 20×60 for almost all of

implimentaions is around 0.29 .Althought the implementaion with images size of

20×60 has slightly higher accuracy than the smaller one ,the computational time with

this size of images is almost four times more than the image with the size 10×30.

Consequently, by considering these two imporatnt factors, accuracy and computational

time ,the size of 10×30 has been chosen for using in next implementaions.

4.5 How to find the Accuracy

As mentioned, the comparison between methods is done at different number of training

and testing finger vein images, if a test image is correctly identified, number of correct

identification is increased by one and if a test image is not correctly recognized, this will

not contribute to the number of correct identification so this will increase the number of

error, the final accuracy can be calculated by the following simple formula:

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦% = × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

65
4.6 Experimental Results and Analysis

4.6.1 The Results of KNN

As mentioned, the experimental results are conducted on the finger vein database which

is acquired from section 2.3 (Rosdi et al., 2011) .The following graphs show the results

of the MATLAB implementations on finger vein database using PCA as a feature

extraction method and KNN as a classifier. The comparison is done at nine different

numbers of training and testing finger vein images, Figure 4. (2,3) shows the two

implementations with train number 9 and 8(for more implementations refer to Appendix

part B) :

X:39

Y:98.53

Figure 4.2 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 9images to train, 1
image to test

66
 X:22

Y:97.55

Figure 4.3 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 8images to train,
2images to test

To understand what actually is done to get these results, it should be mentioned that each

one of the experiments must be implemented 300 times to determine by using how many

eigenvectors the highest accuracy is obtained. The total number of eigenvectors in our

experiment is 300, because the size of images that we used in this research are 10×30.

Hence 10 times 30 equals to 300.

67
4.6.2 The Results of Proposed Method (using LMKNCN)

Here are the experimental results of the proposed method (using LMKNCN as classifier

in PCA which is chosen as a feature extraction method) on finger vein database. It

should be noted that all figures are provided just to show the values of highest accuracy

in each implementation for different numbers of training and testing finger vein images

.Figure 4. (4-5) (For more implementations refer to Appendix part C):

X:35

Y:100

Figure 4.4 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein database, 9images to

train, 1image to test

68
 X:39

Y:99.75

Figure 4.5The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein database, 8images to

train, 2images to test

To the fair comparisons, the identical value of K is fixed (K=2) in all

implementations(Gou et al., 2012b) for KNN and LMKNCN classifiers. As it can be

seen in all experimental implementations, the proposed LMKNCN classifier has best

performance especially in cases in which the number of training samples has increased;

this confirms the robustness feature of our proposed method. It also can be observed that

LMKNCN classifier works well by reducing the influence of the outliers due the nearest

local centroid means vector (LMKNN).

69
4.7 Comparisons

To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, the accuracy of the LMKNCN

classifier is compared with the KNN .The comparison is done at the different number of

training and testing images .From the result shown in Table (4.1), it can be observed that

the performance of the proposed algorithm (using LMKNCN as classifier in PCA) is

much better than that of the KNN classifier using PCA for all different numbers of

training images from one to nine.

To explain the reasons of this excellent performance should be referred to the

basic concept of the LMKNCN and the differences between this method and previous

one which is KNN. First, as it can be seen in experimental results, the LMKNCN has

higher accuracy in case of small sample size compare with the KNN classifier in all

different number of training sample images since the LMKNN classifier is robust to the

outliers using the local mean vector of each class especially in the small training sample

size, and the KNCN which is one of the main parts of LMKNCN classifier is effective in

small sample size case because of the NCN concept.

So combining of robustness of LMKNN and effectiveness of KNCN, which are

the main parts of LMKNCN classifier, are the most important reasons to achieve this

excellent performance compare with the KNN classifier in the field of pattern

classification. Table 4.1 shows the obtained accuracy of KNN and LMKKNCN

classifiers from each implementation for the different numbers of training and testing

finger vein images.

70
 Table 4.1The obtained accuracy of KNN and LMKNCN for the different number of
training and testing finger vein images

No train/test KNN LMKNCN

9train,1test 98.53 100

8train,2test 97.55 99.75

7train,3test 97.71 99.87

6train,4test 96.45 99.75

5train,5test 95.59 99.02

4train,6test 94.12 97.79

3train,7test 91.67 97.2

2train,8test 84.68 93.26

1train,9test 70.86 86.06

It is also understood from Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7 that the proposed method of
LMKNCN gets highest accuracy in 100% of implementations.

71
 The comparision of KNN and LMKNCN
100
90
80
70
Accuracy(%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1train 2train 3train 4train 5train 6train 7train 8train 9train
,9test ,8test ,7test ,6test ,5test ,4test ,3test ,2test ,1test
KNN 70.86 84.68 91.67 94.12 95.59 96.45 97.71 97.55 98.53
LMKNCN 86.06 93.26 97.2 97.79 99.02 99.75 99.87 99.75 100

Figure 4.6 Comparison between the percentage of having highest accuracy between LMKNCN
and KNN

It is cleary observed from the figure 4.6 that using LMKNCN classifier, instead of

traditionally one KNN after feature extracting increased the percentage of accuracy in all

different number of train samples. The mentioned contribution is clearly understood as

the difference between the accuracies is much bigger when the number of training

images is 1, and 2 meaning that the proposed method has the highest efficiency in terms

of small sample size. The accuracy of implementation with LMKNCN classifier has

increased around 16% with train number 1 and around 9% with the train number 2

compared to KNN. In other number of train images, the changes of accuracy are

between 2% to 5%.This specific changes in accuracy with train number 1 and 2 shows

the robustness and effectiveness of LMKNCN classifier in small training sample size

due to the concept of LMKNN and KNCN which are explained before.

72
 The comparsion between KNN and LMKNCN
100
90
80
70
Accuracy(%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1train, 2train, 3train, 4train, 5tran.5 6train, 7train, 8train, 9train,
9test 8test 7test 6test test 4test 3test 2test 1test
KNN 70.89 84.68 91.67 94.12 95.59 96.45 97.71 97.55 98.53
LMKNCN 86.06 93.26 97.2 97.79 99.02 99.75 99.87 99.75 100

Figure 4.7 The differences between the percentage of accuracies of KNN and LMKNCN

4.8 Summary

In this chapter first, MATLAB software and database properties, which are used in our

thesis, are explained. Then the optimum size of images that can be selected for using in

our experimental implementations is discussed. In addition, the concept of accuracy is

discussed and the related formula to determine the accuracy is provided.

From the experimental result from section4.6, the LMKNCN classifier

outperforms the KNN classifier in all different numbers of training set and testing set

and also it is improved by increasing the training sample size. To perform a fair

comparison, we fixed the number of K equal 2(K=2) in all implementations. The

experimental results demonstrate that our proposed method has satisfactory

73
classification behavior with varying the training samples size with compare with KNN.

Consequently, these results proves that the combination of the KNCN and local mean

vector using PCA as feature extraction has a significant effect on classification accuracy

in the field of pattern classification.

74
 5 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary

In this thesis, a new idea on finger vein recognition was examined. As the database in

finger vein recognition is “image”, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), which is

known as a powerful method for feature extraction, has been used to extract the valuable

information and features from the database. For the purpose of classifying the data after

extracting the features, LMKNCN and KNN are chosen to be evaluated and compared to

determine the most appropriate method for finger vein recognition.

LMKNCN is a newly proposed method in statically pattern recognition which

not only employs the nearest and geometrical distribution of neighbors around query

pattern, but also takes into account the local mean vector of K-neighbors from each

class. The main goal of the LMKNCN classifier is to overcome the problems existing in

the KNCN and LMKNN to improve the classification performance. All of the reasons

motivated us to propose a new method which takes advantage of both LMKNCN as a

classifier instead of the traditional one (KNN) after feature extracting.

The experimental results on our own finger vein database indicate that the

proposed method in this research confidently merits the performance of the finger vein

75
recognition method as the gained accuracy using the proposed method is higher than that

of the traditionally used method “PCA using KNN as a classifier” in 100% of

implementations. Another contribution which is worth mentioning is that it can be

observed from the results that the proposed method improves the performance of the

finger vein recognition a lot in case of small training sample size.

5.2 Future work

In this thesis, the performance of the proposed method on the finger vein database is

examined. Although PCA, which has been used to extract the feature of the finger vein

images, is a powerful and common method in this field, the idea of using LMKNCN as

classifier in some more improved methods of feature extraction such as KPCA and

KECA is the next step to be taken in the future.

76
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APPENDICES

A: Comparison Between Image size of 10×30 and 20×60 in different Number of

Training and Testing Images

Figure 1.aComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 9 image to train and 1 image to

test

80
Figure 1.bComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 9 images to train and 1 image

to test

81
Figure 2.aComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 8 images to train and 2 images

to test

82
Figure 2.bComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 8 images to train and 2 images

to test.

83
Figure 3.aComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 7 images to train and 3 images

to test

84
Figure 3.bComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 7 images to train and 3 images

to test

85
Figure 4.aComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 6 images to train and 4 images

to test

86
Figure 4.bComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 6 images to train and 4 images

to test

87
Figure 5.aComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 5 images to train and 5 images

to test

88
Figure 5.bComparison between image size of 10×30 and 20×60, 5 images to train and 5 images

to test

89
B:The Results of KNN

Figure 6 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 7images to train, 3
images to test

90
Figure 7 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 6images to train,
4images to test

91
Figure 8 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 5images to train, 5
images to test

92
Figure 9 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 4 images to train, 6
images to test

93
Figure 10 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 3images to train,
7images to test

94
Figure 11 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 2images to train, 8
images to test

95
Figure 12 The result of implementation using KNN on finger vein database, 1image to train,

9images to test

96
C: The Result of LMKNCN

Figure 13 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein database, 7images to

train, 3images to test

97
Figure 14 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein database, 6images to

train, 4images to test

98
Figure 15 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein database, 5images to

train, 5images to test

99
Figure 16 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein database, 4images to

train, 6images to test

100
Figure 17 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein database, 3images to

train, 7images to test

101
Figure 18 The result of implementation using LMKNCN on finger vein database, 2images to

train, 8images to test

102