INTRODUCTION

This chapter seeks to explore into the background of the study statement of the problem,
significance of the study, limitation and delimitation of the study and finally definition of the
terms.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Rutendo secondary school was opened in February 2014 and is not a fully established school. Its
enrolment is currently seated at 207 and 75% are girls. The school was open in February 2014
has staff establishment of five teachers currently. The school has four primary feeding schools
from four surrounding farms resettlements. The school has facilities which includes two soccer
fields, one netball field, one volleyball field and one handball field. It also offers indoor activities
which includes chess and darts as well as draft on its sport calendar. The school community has
at least two soccer teams from each farm which participate in social sports competitions which
are contacted periodically and women have no sports games they partake but they support their
husband by mobilising them to play social games. Rutendo secondary school teachers also
participate in school based activities in sport and the school has its sport calendar and syllabus
used to run sport. The teachers have interest in sport but none of them has sport qualifications
to run sports. The school is in zone six of the district but at most they become last in the zone.
Since the school was established, it managed to field not less than ten girls at district and level
and not less than five at provincial level in athletics. In ball games, the school usually represent
the zone at district level in netball and women soccer only but they were used to reach quarter
finals or semi-finals especially in women soccer. For the past two years, the school has
experienced rapid transfer of athletes to well established schools were sport activities seems
brighter and normally from parents’ request. The school introduced chess, volleyball and
handball to increase access to learners in sport activities. The school is failing to pay affiliations
and to meet the sport calendar which caused non participation on NASH games sometimes.
Parents are used to contribute funds to support sports activities since sometimes schools walk to
the hosting school for zonal competitions of which it’s challenging even to other surrounding
schools students.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Attitude of girls towards sport activities at Rutendo secondary school in Mwenezi district,
Masvingo province.
Sub problems
The sub problems of the research were taken as:
●What constitute the type of attitude prevailing towards sport activities at the school?
●Does the school have enough resources which instil interest towards sports activities?
●Are there enough and knowledgeable educational practitioners who assist the girls in taking
sporting activities?
●Does the school time table gives the students enough time to take part in sporting activities?
●What measures are to be taken to improve the attitude of girls towards sports?

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

●The researcher believed that the study will assist school heads, sports directors and coaches to
establish the needs for the girls towards sport activities, and to craft the measures to improve
the performance of the girls in sport activities in the disadvantaged districts.
●The study will help in the development of the community sport clubs for the women in the
various districts for they are not numbered.
●The study will help to evaluate the effectiveness in distribution of human labour in secondary
schools in rural areas.
●The study will helps the National Association of Secondary Heads ensure sport activities to be
taught in secondary schools so as to groom the girl child psychologically, physiologically and
sociologically.
●The study will also help the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education to foster on women
discrimination and gender equity towards sport participation in secondary school.
●The community will also encourage their children with or without interest in participating in
sport and to support them materially.
●The study will also help to discrimination of girl child in sport participation in schools and will
improve the welfare of girls in secondary schools.
●The investigation will create better opportunities for the girl students in secondary schools to
excel further their performance as they are marginalised.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
●To establish the causes of undesirable attitude of girls towards sport participation.
●To create better opportunities for the girl students in secondary schools to excel further in
sport.
●To create equal opportunities in sport participation or gender balance in secondary schools.
●To craft measures to improve the attitude of girls towards sport participation.
●To ensure a conducive and frank environment which promote girls participation in sport
activities.
●To establish competence gaps in implementation of sport activities and improve them
accordingly.
ASSUMPTION OF THE STUDY
In carrying out the study the researcher took into consideration a number of theoretical
assumptions and it was assumed that:
●The researcher assumes that the coaches and heads are relaxed in implementing sports
activities and they have less motivation or push factors towards that goal.
●Staff establishment in schools is very poor especially in the rural areas and the staff has more
responsibilities to look at the school.
●Schools in rural areas are underfinanced that they have insufficient funds to carry out the sport
calendar effectively.
●The researcher will contact interviews to the concerned stakeholders that includes the school
head, coaches at the school as well as teachers and girl students (participants and non-
participants) at the school to gather information and the results will be generalised.
●Interviewee would be punctual for the interviews to be administered by the researcher
effectively.
●The catchment of the school is composed with different people from different regions who have
different perceptions and cultural practices, this may pose the researcher to find challenges in
getting biased responses.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
●The study will be contacted at Rutendo secondary school girl pupils, parents, School
Development Committee (SDC), prefects and staff members only and the results will used by the
researcher to derive his conclusion.
●The data collection process and materials to contact the research like transport costs to source
information and materials and printing and photocopying the questionnaires as well as delivering
them was expensive hence the researcher worked with a limited number of participants to
minimise costs and also used his bicycle for out-reach programs to reduce transport cost. In some
cases he made use of well-wishers to carry him to and from in contacting his research in the
resettlement farms cutting transport costs.
●The researcher gathered information on responses using personal interviews and
questionnaires in collecting data and not any other methods to maintain authenticity on data
collected.
●There was no replacement of responses from reluctant participants who failed to hand over
their response in time and the researcher made use of the available responses. The researcher
gathered the participants together to fill the questionnaires and collected them himself to avoid
non-submission of responses.
●The researcher based his literature on scholarly views postulated towards the topic despite how
narrow facts was.
DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The study will establish the attitudes of girls towards sports at Rutendo secondary school, in
Mwenezi district 119km south-west direction from district offices under Bubi conservancy along
Masvingo-Beitbridge road ,Masvingo province and the results will are generalised. The
researcher works as a teacher in the district and province that’s where he stays and is taking
Physical Education Sport and Mass Display (PESMD). The teacher has decided to make use of the
school because the school has the least number of female athletes and has becoming almost the
last in the NASH district zone-I competitions. The school is in the same category of disadvantaged
rural schools which are not taking sports seriously and the school share common challenges with
other schools around. The results will be generalised to all rural schools and under-developed
districts around.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Sport…an activity involving physical exertion and skill in which an individual or team competes
against another or others for entertainment.

sport | Definition of sport in English by Oxford Dictionaries

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sport

1.
2.
Definition of sport - an activity involving physical exertion and skill in which an individual or team
competes against another or others for entertainment.

Sport facilities …
 SPORTS & GAMES :: SPORTS FACILITIES :: SPORTS COMPLEX ...

www.visualdictionaryonline.com/sports-games/sports-facilities/sports-complex.php

1.
2.
sports complex click to hear. Installations (buildings, playing fields, etc.) that are used for
participating in sports. ... Facility that features pools designed for aquatic activities such as
swimming, diving and ... English French Visual Dictionary

Sport equipment…Sporting equipment, also called sporting goods, has various forms depending
on the sport, but it is essential to complete the sport. ... Sporting equipment can be used as
protective gear or as tool used to help the athletes play the sport.

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Of the girls surveyed, very few knew how to avoid breast pain while exercising( iStock )
 HALF OF GIRLS AVOID
SECONDARY SCHOOL
SPORTS DUE TO
CONCERNS ABOUT
THEIR BREASTS,
RESEARCH FINDS
Study calls for better advice on which bras to wear as girls report
school sport causing them embarassment and pain
 Rachael Pells
 @rachaelpells
 Wednesday 20 January 2016 01:01
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Indy/Life

As many as half of all girls at secondary schools are actively avoiding sport due
to embarrassment or pain caused by their breasts and need better advice on
which bras to wear, research has found.

Out of more than 2,000 adolescent girls surveyed by academics, very few knew
which sort of bra to wear or how to avoid breast pain while exercising.

The results, taken from schoolgirls aged between 11 and 17, found that three-
quarters of those surveyed had at least one concern about their breasts, including
embarrassment when getting changed for sports and pain during exercise. Their
concerns peaked at the age of 14, with 87 per cent saying they wanted to learn
more about breast health, according to the Research Group in Breast Health at
Portsmouth University.
 TOP ARTICLES2/5READ MOREGame of Thrones season 8: Emilia Clarke revealsshe cried
while filming final scenes

Read more
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Read more This iPhone app will build you a custom bra

The results may provide an explanation for why 90 per cent of 14-year-old girls
in the UK do not do enough exercise to meet recommended activity levels.

Researchers from Portsmouth University, St Mary’s University in Twickenham

and Chichester University came together to produce the study, which is the first
of its kind in the UK to examine the impact of breasts on schoolgirls taking part
in sport or exercise.

“Puberty is a really difficult age for young girls so it was an important

opportunity for us to see where their worries lie,” said Dr Nicola Brown, a
lecturer at St Mary’s and a co-author of the report.

“We were really surprised to find that so many girls were embarrassed or
worried about their breasts and also the level of influence this had on their
activity levels. What we want to work towards is getting education into schools
about this issue of breast support and try to help illuminate all of these barriers
to physical activity.

“We know that girls tend to drop out at this time so if we can do something to
increase their knowledge of breast health and good bra fittings, the need to wear
a sports bra, then hopefully we can reduce these barriers.”
UK news in pictures
Show all 50
 Only 10 per cent of girls surveyed said they always wore a sports bra when
exercising, despite research suggesting pain can be reduced, regardless of breast
size, by using the appropriate sports bra. Those with larger breasts – D-cup and
above – were more likely to opt out of sport and exercise altogether, with
around 15 per cent of girls surveyed admitting to thinking they were unable to
exercise since their breasts were too big.

According to the report, breasts move during exercise by up to 21 centimetres in

a figure-of-eight pattern. This causes pain for approximately three-quarters of
women, making it more likely for girls to opt out of sports activities.

A sports bra can reduce breast movement by a similar amount for AA-cup to G-
cup breasts. If breast movement is not reduced, there is a risk of irreparably
damaging the fragile Cooper’s ligaments, resulting in breast sag.

Professor Joanna Scurr, who leads the Research Group in Breast Health, said:
“Previous studies of adult women have shown time and again that the same
concerns are directly responsible for women no longer taking part in sport or
exercise.

“What makes this worse is, as scientists, we know proper breast support reduces
or even eliminates the problems associated with breast movement during sport.
All that is needed is better education, preferably at puberty for all girls.”
MORE ABOUTWOMEN'S HEALTHSCHOOL SPORTSECONDARY SCHOOLS
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School sports
'By secondary it’s too late' – readers on promoting girls' school sports
Teachers, parents and pupils have their say on what needs to be done to encourage more
girls to enjoy physical education
Guardian readers and Tom Stevens
Tue 28 Nov 2017 12.29 GMTLast modified on Tue 28 Nov 2017 12.49 GMT
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741

Girls taking part in PE at Rowledge primary school. Photograph: S Jones/Rowledge

primary school
Recent research by Women in Sport, has revealed that there’s still a gulf in attitudes
towards physical activity between girls and boys across secondary schools in England
and Northern Ireland. The charity, which aims to make sport more accessible for females
across the UK, found that girls are still turning away from school sports in high numbers.
We asked teachers, parents and pupils what should be done to stop this trend.
‘As a girl, being successful at sport is still not desirable in the UK’
Laura, teacher

Laura
The girls I teach generally love PE. You just have to try to make the lessons fun and be
positive with them. Allowing them enough time to change at the end of the lesson is
really important. When we are doing a more physically demanding sport, I reassure them
that they can try hard and not worry about sweating, because I will allow them more time
to change and cool down before they need to rush off to their next lesson. They respond
well when things like this are taken into account.
It’s a societal norm that little boys like contact sports and little girls aren’t being
encouraged to be physical. This modelling takes place before they even start school and
is very subtle. Having previously worked in Australia, the attitudes of young people are
different. More women are physically active and therefore their young girls have family
role models who are encouraging them to be the same. Being successful at sport as a girl
is still not desirable in the UK. Encouragement needs to start at home. We can only do so
much at school during our two hours of PE lessons a week.
‘It’s not just about PE lessons, it’s the entire approach’
Lesley, teacher
Advertisement
I’m a year 6 primary school teacher. Last year my class was very sporty. A large group of
girls loved playing football. They played at lunchtimes with the boys, were part of a
mixed school team, went to matches and played at an after-school club. At secondary
school there’s no football for girls, just the boys. At playtime the boys play football and
the girls don’t. It’s not just about PE lessons, it’s the entire approach.
Both my children, a boy aged 13 and a girl aged 10, are very active. But all their
activities are done outside of school. Girls need more choice and PE needs to be about
being active, raising heart rate and staying healthy – not just about being competitive all
the time. The classes also need to be mixed and offer more choice with a focus on being
active for life rather than just team sports.
‘Most of the issues involve changing rooms, PE kits and performance anxieties’
Angie, teacher

Primary school PE has often been undertaken without specialists in PE, and without
techniques that help empower students
Angie
I currently teach girls PE in a small rural secondary school. I’m responsible for providing
them with a positive experience, encouraging them to take part and instilling a desire to
get involved in physical activity. I acknowledge their fears and vulnerabilities and help
them overcome them. Most of the issues involve changing rooms, PE kits and
performance anxieties.
Girls at my school are outperforming the boys in terms of participation numbers and their
level of competitive success. But we make a big effort in year 7 to help the girls feel safe
and comfortable. It’s the first year that they will have single-gender PE, and it’s
important to address their often low perceptions of themselves following their primary
school experiences. Primary school PE has often been undertaken without specialists in
PE, and without specific PE differentiation techniques that can help students feel
empowered if done well or create feelings of woeful inadequacies and anxieties if done
poorly. We encourage an inclusive philosophy rather than an elitist one.
‘There’s no assessment of physical needs or capabilities’
Alex, parent
 ‘Girls are not encouraged to be physical’
Advertisement
In my daughter’s school, girls are made to wear pencil skirts. The trousers option was too
uncomfortable so no one wore them. Despite protests, the school insisted on girls wearing
skirts they could not stretch their legs in, constantly berating them for hitching them up,
which I thought was necessary to walk across a large campus. The girls all stopped
playing sport because they had to change to do anything at break, while boys kicked a
football around in school trousers. Girls’ sport is dumbed down to the lowest common
denominator to accommodate those trying to avoid it.
Most sports department heads are men. Girls are not encouraged to be physical. They’re
only encouraged to look good and not encouraged to play football, cricket, rugby but
“girls’” sports like netball. There’s no assessment of physical needs or capabilities. Kids
who do sport outside of school are lumped in with kids doing the minimum. We need to
have mixed classes for football, cricket and athletics. This will show some girls are a lot
better than most boys and tests them more. Otherwise sporty girls don’t have enough to
stretch them.
‘Some of the worst sexism my daughter suffered came from fellow pupils’
Emma, parent
My 17-year-old daughter was very sporty and had a competitive streak. This was not
fostered at primary school and was entirely frustrated at secondary school. She played in
a mixed football team with an appalling, sexist coach. My daughter tried hard to engage
girls in sport at school, but there was no support from staff. Finally my daughter found
gender equality in a rowing club outside of school. As a parent I was deeply shocked at
how little positive encouragement there was for girls in schools, and how even a
determined and competitive sporty girl’s spirit was squashed. My daughter’s friends were
not sporty, so I had no parent to share my frustration with. It’s completely opposite with
my younger son. He does not want to play football, but has found that he has to like and
follow it just to fit in.

My daughter's friends were not sporty, so I had no parent to share my frustration

with
Emma
Boys are encouraged to see themselves as sporty. Girls are not. Mixed teams at primary
schools add to this problem. Some of the worst sexism my daughter suffered came from
fellow pupils; boys refusing to pass to girls, boys complaining about girls having use of
the pitch at lunchtime. There was a horrible incident at a professional football team’s
summer camp when my then 11-year-old daughter was subjected to sexual verbal abuse
by some boys. I complained but received no acknowledgement. This kind of abuse by
boys was routine, accepted, brushed off and in my view is a big contributor to girls
falling away from school sports.
Advertisement
The hiring of top-quality female coaches, establishing girls’ teams at primary school and
a total change in attitude by male PE teachers and coaches would make a
difference. Schools have to want to make a change and it starts with male students and
male PE teachers. There is no connection between sports clubs and schools any more, and
no pathway for ambitious kids.
‘More should be done to find and encourage sports enthusiasts to teach PE in
primary schools’
Sam, parent
Watching my daughter become increasingly involved in team sports has been an absolute
joy and is mainly down to an inspirational teacher who runs a girls’ all-sports club after
school every Friday. From humble beginnings in year 3 and 4 she and at least 10 of her
classmates, now in year 6, all play netball, football, rugby and cricket together at school
and for local clubs. Without this great teacher inspiring seven- and eight-year-old girls,
I’m pretty sure my daughter and her friends wouldn’t have got involved in sports they
now all love to play.
We’ve been lucky at my daughter’s school, because they have had an opportunity to take
part and had teachers who want to inspire girls. More should be done to find and
encourage sports enthusiasts to teach PE in primary schools. I think by secondary school
it’s too late.
‘The media has a considerable effect on participation levels of girls in sport’
Anna, pupil
 Anna
Having been educated in an all-girls Catholic private school, I experienced girls’
participation in sport through a frosted window. Moving forward I decided to continue
my education at a local comprehensive sixth-form college, where my eyes were opened
to the alarming rate at which young girls are dropping out of sport. Pursuing my passion
for sport, I decided to apply to be an ambassador for the This Girl Can campaign. Fast
forward two months and I am engaging in a conference for young ambassadors at the
London Olympic park, proposing ideas to increase participation levels for young girls in
sport in our local areas.
The media have a considerable effect on participation levels of girls in sport. Scrolling
through any form of social media, one can notice pictures of airbrushed women with
enhanced features pouting in a gym. These unrealistic and frankly sickening images are
affecting the mentality of young women and turning them away from sport altogether.
The introduction of social sport would have a considerable impact on participation levels
of young girls in sport. Why should sport always be competitive? When participating in
sport I believe you should feel happy, comfortable and confident. With the growing
number of women-only exercise classes, I believe that we can increase the number of
girls participating in sport.
‘Girls’ sport is seen as far less important’
Maddy, pupil
Advertisement
I took PE at GCSE level and as a sixth former. I’m now running the year 10 netball group
alongside a PE teacher. The problem is that girls’ sport is seen as far less important, and
there is less encouragement for them to participate. There are also fewer opportunities for
games in sports such as football, rugby and basketball, even if there is significant interest.
At my school the boys have been given the school minibus, even though a female team
had it booked, giving the impression that the boys are more important.
My school is fairly good, but for several years in PE we would do netball twice a year,
while the boys never repeated a sport. This meant that we rarely played football, a sport
in which a number of girls in our year had an interest, and may have joined clubs outside
of school if they’d been given a taster in PE (which is one of the functions that it serves).
Girls’ rugby has been in decline in recent years because there are no female coaches. The
most important thing to do is combat this view that boys’ sport is more important than
girls’. This can mean that they feel sidelined and ignored. Even something as simple as
the girls training with the boys can do much to combat this.

FacebookTwitterPinterest
‘The most important thing to do is combat this view that boys’ sport is more important.’
Photograph: Yakobchuk Olena/Getty Images/iStockphoto
‘I abhorred being stuck in pilates and dance while my male friends played full-
contact rugby’
Erin, pupil

You can sit and argue about biological differences and puberty all day, but I really
don’t see why this matters so much
Erin
I remember enjoying sports at school right up until the age it became gender segregated. I
was always a tomboy and played football during breaks with the lads. Once I reached
secondary school we were almost permanently divided into boys’ and girls’ groups for
PE. Girls had a more limited range of sports. I abhorred being stuck in pilates and dance
 while my male friends played full-contact rugby. The school tried to encourage me with
after-school health and fitness sessions. I quit shortly after discussions of spray tanning
and cellulite came up from the other students. I eventually found some relief in a
kickboxing club out of town.
Boys and girls are segregated into gendered groups and given different expectations for
their physical performance. This doesn’t happen with, say, mathematics or art. I don’t
really see why it happens with sport. You can sit and argue about biological differences
and puberty all day, but I really don’t see why this matters so much. If we are constantly
telling boys and girls to have such different physical expectations for their bodies, it’s
going to have a long-term impact. This same mentality can be seen across all kinds of
professional sports.
We need to stop segregating PE based on gender, and have more team sports where
everyone is encouraged to explore and play to their personal strengths. One person may
be a good goalkeeper and another great at tactics and strategy. Give everyone the
opportunity to find something they enjoy or are good at. Encourage sportsmanship and a
positive attitude. Nothing turns me off a game more than toxic competitiveness, and I’m
sure there are many that feel the same.

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REASONS WHY GIRLS DROP OUT OF SPORTS

By age 14, girls are dropping out of sports at two times the rate of boys. Through more
than 25 years of research, the Women’s Sports Foundation has identified key factors
which contribute to this alarming statistic. Read on to learn more about how these factors
influence girls’ sport experiences and why they need to stay in the game.
1. Why they drop out: Lack of access.
Girls have 1.3 million fewer opportunities to play high school sports than boys have.
Lack of physical education in schools and limited opportunities to play sports in both
high school and college mean girls have to look elsewhere for sports –which may not
exist or may cost more money. Often there is an additional lack of access to adequate
playing facilities near their homes that makes it more difficult for girls to engage in
sports.
Why they need to stay in: Through sports, girls learn important life skills such as
teamwork, leadership and confidence.
2. Why they drop out: Safety and transportation issues.
Sports require a place to participate – and for many girls, especially in dense urban
environments, that means traveling to facilities through unsafe neighborhoods or lacking
any means to get to a good facility miles away. And if there isn’t a safe option like
carpooling with other families, the only option for a girl and her family may be to stay
home.
Why they need to stay in: Girls active in sports during adolescence and young adulthood
are 20% less likely to get breast cancer later in life.
3. Why they drop out: Social stigma.
Despite recent progress, discrimination based on the real or perceived sexual orientation
and gender identity of female athletes persists. Girls in sports may experience bullying,
social isolation, negative performance evaluations, or the loss of their starting position.
During socially fragile adolescence, the fear of being tagged “gay” is strong enough to
push many girls out of the game.
Why they need to stay in: Sports are an asset to American families, fostering
communication and trust between parents and children.
4. Why they drop out: Decreased quality of experience.
As girls grow up, the quality level of their sports experience may decline. The facilities
are not as good as the boys’ venues and the playing times may not be optimal. The
availability of quality, trained coaches may be lacking in their community or these
coaches may be more focused on the boys’ programs that have more money for training.
Equipment, and even uniforms aren’t funded for many girls’ programs at the same levels
as boys so their ability to grow and enjoy the sport is diminished. In short, sports just
aren’t “fun” any more.
Why they need to stay in: More than three-quarters of working women feel that sports
participation helps enhance their self-image.
5. Why they drop out: Cost.
School sports budgets are being slashed every day, all across the country. Fewer
opportunities within schools mean families must pay to play in private programs while
also footing the bill for expensive coaches, equipment and out-of-pocket travel
requirements. This additional expense is just not possible for many families.
Why they need to stay in: Girls’ involvement with sports is related to higher levels of
family satisfaction, in both single-parent and dual-parent families.
6. Why they drop out: Lack of positive role models.
Today’s girls are bombarded with images of external beauty, not those of confident,
strong female athletic role models. To some girls, fitting within the mold that they are
constantly told to stay in is more important than standing out. Peer pressure can be hard
for girls at any age; when that pressure isn’t offset with strong encouragement to
participate in sports and healthy physical activity, the results may lead girls to drop out
altogether.
Why they need to stay in: High school female athletes have more positive body images
than non-athletes.
Source:
Women’s Sport Foundation
 References
1. Girls drop-out at different rates depending on where they live.
2. Staurowsky, E. J., DeSousa, M. J., Gentner, N., Miller, K. E., Shakib, S., Theberge, N.,
& Williams, N. (2009). Her Life Depends On It II: Sport, Physical Activity, and the
Health and Well-Being of American Girls and Women.
3. Sabo & Veliz (2008) Go Out and Play: Youth Sport in America.
4. Sabo & Snyder (1993) Sports and Fitness in the Lives of Working Women.
5. Sabo & Veliz (2008) Go Out and Play: Youth Sport in America.
6. Miller, Sabo, Melnick, Farrell & Barnes (2000), Health Risks and the Teen Athlete.
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Home » Successful Sports Parenting Channel » Sports Parenting Basics Center » Parenting Girls »
Sports Dropout Rate for Girls Six Times Rate For Boys
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Sports Dropout Rate for Girls Six Times Rate For Boys
By BROOKE DE LENCH
 Basics

 Parenting Girls
  Successful Parenting
While participation by girls in sports has increased at all levels (Olympic, professional, college and
high school, and youth) and society is more accepting than ever of female athleticism, the fact
that girls continue to drop out of sports at six times the rate of boys is an indication that we still
have a long way to go as a society in reaching the goal of gender equality in sports. Not only are
they less likely to participate in sports once they reach adolescence but, worse, they are more
likely to become sedentary, inactive "couch potatoes." With such inactivity comes an increased
risk of obesity and other health problems.
The statistics from the Centers for Disease Control are sobering:
 only one-quarter of girls in their senior year of high school engage in regular exercise
compared to one half of boys.
 The percentage of children involved in vigorous physical exercise dropped by half, from
66% to 33%, between 1984 and 1990; and
 Only one-fifth of the nation's girls have daily physical education, and only one state
(Illinois) requires it by law.
Why do girls drop out of sports at the cusp of adolescence when they need sports the most?
There are a number of reasons:
 With adolescence comes a greater desire for cooperation and connectedness over
competition: Soaring estrogen levels as girls enter puberty prompt a shift in attitude by
many girls away from competition and towards relationships and connectedness, so that
they get turned off to playing sports, which becomes increasingly competitive at the
middle school and high school level. As Anne Driscoll, author of Girl to Girl: Sports and
You!, observed in a 2000 article in The Boston Sunday Globe , "Girls ... by their very nature,
are relational. ... [T]he primary aim of girls is to relate to others, to be in relationships with
others. That is to say, their most important drive is to connect and to stay connected.
Many athletic girls struggle with the fact that competition is not about connecting. It's
about vanquishing the other. And vanquishing is not nice."
 Girls are less tolerant of poor sports behavior than boys. The values that female athletes
seem to naturally embrace - playing a sport not just to win but to have fun, considering
the team's success as important as their own, playing hard, but playing fair, and being,
above all, good sports - clash with the winner-take-all mentality and abusive behavior by
athletes, coaches and fans which increasingly characterize today's youth sports, especially
at the middle and high school levels. According to one recent study, girls are about half
as likely than boys to exhibit cynical attitudes and engage in illegal or unsporting conduct.
The concern is that such winning-at-all-costs philosophy will threaten the growth of
 women's sports by turning girls and women off to sports. Many of the girls who continue
to play sports persist only because of the social and more emotional aspects (i.e. they feel
connected to teammates and coaches).
 Teenage girls experience a crisis of confidence. Studies confirm what women know from
their own experiences as teenagers: that girls suffer a severe crisis in confidence and
larger drop in self-esteem during adolescence than boys (who gain self-confidence as they
mature). As a result, girls are more likely to quit sports and other challenging activities
than boys because they don't view themselves as being good enough.
 Poor coaching. Of the eleven reasons cited by girls in a classic 1988 study as to why they
dropped out of sports, the fourth highest was that coach was a poor teacher; number
nine was that the coach played favorites. Coaches who berate and belittle girls turn sports
into such a hurtful, harmful experience that dropping out becomes for many a way to
avoid further damage to their self-esteem.
 Teenage girls still think sports are unfeminine. Back when I was in high school it was not
real cool for a girl to be a jock. That is why I didn't go out for basketball my senior year:
even though it was one of my best sports, I didn't want my senior class to vote me "most
athletic" (I was pretty sure that I would have won the award otherwise - I was captain of
the field hockey team that won a Massachusetts state championship and on the softball
team). Sadly, it is still mostly true today. High school girls interviewed by Roselind
Wiseman for her best selling book, Queen Bees and Wannabes, said girls can be athletic
and have high social status but only if they have thin, "feminine" bodies, and that a large,
"masculine" build was unacceptable (which is why many excellent female athletes worry
about getting bulky if they lift weights).
 Middle school and high school sports are about winning, not participation. Girls are
hard-wired to desire connection, cooperation and collaboration and resist overt
competition. Unlike boys, who are more willing to sit on the bench because it allows them
to connect with other boys, girls who go out for a sports team expect to play. Many girls
quit sports as they enter their teen years because they know that the only way to keep
playing is to play sports like boys in a hyper-competitive, winner-take-all environment
where only the most skilled girls play.
 Girls sometimes don't receive the support they need from their family. The primary
place where girls learn about gender roles is the family. Families still tend to engage,
perhaps unconsciously, in gender stereotyping, conveying to girls the message that girls
are inherently less athletic than boys, and that sports are less important for girls than they
are for boys.
Adapted from the book, Home Team Advantage: The Critical Role of Mothers in Youth
Sports (HarperCollins)by Brooke de Lench.

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Volume 21
Issue 6

December 2006
Article Contents
 Abstract
  Introduction
 Method
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 Conflict of interest statement
 References
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Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review
of qualitative studies
Steven Allender Gill Cowburn Charlie Foster
Health Education Research, Volume 21, Issue 6, 1 December 2006, Pages 826–
835,https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyl063
Published:

20 July 2006

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Abstract
Qualitative research may be able to provide an answer as to why adults and children do or do
not participate in sport and physical activity. This paper systematically examines published and
unpublished qualitative research studies of UK children's and adults' reasons for participation
and non-participation in sport and physical activity. The review covers peer reviewed and gray
literature from 1990 to 2004. Papers were entered into review if they: aimed to explore the
participants' experiences of sport and physical activity and reasons for participation or non-
participation in sport and physical activity, collected information on participants who lived in the
United Kingdom and presented data collected using qualitative methods. From >1200 papers
identified in the initial search, 24 papers met all inclusion criteria. The majority of these reported
research with young people based in community settings. Weight management, social
interaction and enjoyment were common reasons for participation in sport and physical activity.
Concerns about maintaining a slim body shape motivated participation among young girls. Older
people identified the importance of sport and physical activity in staving off the effects of aging
and providing a social support network. Challenges to identity such as having to show others an
unfit body, lacking confidence and competence in core skills or appearing overly masculine were
barriers to participation.
Topic:

 physical activity
 adult
 child
 sports
 elderly
Issue Section:
Original Articles
Introduction
It is generally accepted that physical activity confers benefits to psychosocial health, functional
ability and general quality of life [1] and has been proven to reduce the risk of coronary heart
disease [2] and some cancers [3]. Here, physical activity refers to ‘any bodily movement produced
by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure’ [4].
Conditions associated with physical inactivity include obesity, hypertension, diabetes, back pain,
poor joint mobility and psychosocial problems [5–7]. Physical inactivity is a major public health
challenge in the developed world and is recognized as a global epidemic [8]. Within the United
States, the rate of childhood obesity is expected to reach 40% in the next two decades [9] and
Type 2 diabetes is expected to affect 300 million people worldwide within the same time [10].
The UK government has set a target for ‘70% of the population to be reasonably active (for
example 30 minutes of moderate exercise five times a week) by 2020’ [8, 11] (p. 15). This target
could be described as ambitious; only 37% of men and 24% of women in the United Kingdom
currently meet this benchmark [12]. The Health Survey for England (HSE) [13] found that the
number of physically inactive people (less than one occasion of 30-min activity per week) was
increasing and that this trend was consistent for both genders and across all age groups [14].
Conventionally, sport and forms of physical activity such as aerobics, running or gym work have
been the focus of efforts to increase population activity levels. The HSE measure includes
activities, such as gardening and housework, which are not traditionally considered as physical
activity. Sport England found that in the 10-year period between 1987 and 1996 participation in
traditional types of sport and physical activity stagnated or fell in all groups other than the 60- to
69-year old age group. This trend was socially patterned by gender, socio-economic status, social
class and ethnicity [15]. There are many broad influences upon physical activity behavior
including intra-personal, social, environmental factors and these determinants vary across the
life course [4].
Ambitious national targets and increased funding of community sport and physical activity
projects (such as the Sports Hub in Regent's Park, London) [16] show that sport and physical
activity is gaining social, political and health policy importance. The increased interest in physical
activity is welcome, but the trend data hints that current interventions to promote sport and
physical activity are inadequate. Further, it questions whether the evidence base supporting
physical activity policy provides an adequate understanding of the reasons for participation or
non-participation in physical activity.
Historically, research into determinants of sport and physical activity participation has tended to
adopt quantitative methods, which undertake cross-sectional surveys of pre-determined
questions on individual's knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about sport and physical activity. For
example, the HSE [13] asks adults about activity in five domains: activity at work, activity at home
(e.g. housework, gardening, do it yourself maintenance (DIY)), walks of ≥15 min and sports and
exercise activities. Large studies such as these can successfully assess the direction and strength
of trends in participation but are unable to explain how children and adults adopt, maintain or
cease to participate in sport and physical activity throughout their lives.
An alternative approach is required which is sensitive to the contextual, social, economic and
cultural factors which influence participation in physical activity [17]. Qualitative methods offer
this in-depth insight into individuals' experiences and perceptions of the motives and barriers to
participation in sport and physical activity [18] and are recognized as increasingly important in
developing the evidence base for public health [19]. Although qualitative research is a blanket
term for a wide range of approaches, this type of research typically aims to understand the
meaning of individual experience within social context. The data for qualitative studies often
come from repeated interviews or focus groups, are generally more in-depth and have fewer
participants than quantitative research. Additionally, the inductive nature of qualitative research
allows for theory to emerge from the lived experiences of research participants rather than the
pre-determined hypotheses testing of quantitative approaches.
Thomas and Nelson [20] describe qualitative methods as the ‘new kid on the block’ in sport and
physical activity research and a small body of qualitative research on sport and physical activity
in the United Kingdom is known to exist. This paper aims to systematically examine published
and unpublished qualitative research studies which have examined UK children's and adults'
reasons for participation and non-participation in sport and physical activity.
Method
The review of qualitative research covered the period from 1990 to 2004. This 15-year period
was considered adequate to cover the most recent research on barriers and motivation to
participation in sport and physical activity. Research papers were sourced in three ways. First, a
wide range of electronic databases were searched, including Medline, CINAHL, Index to Thesis,
ISI Science Citation Index, ISI Social Science Citation Index, PAIS International, PSYCHINFO, SIGLE
and SPORTS-DISCUS. Second, relevant references from published literature were followed up and
included where they met inclusion criteria. Third, additional ‘gray’ literature not identified in
electronic searches was sourced through individuals who were likely to have knowledge in this
area, including librarians and researchers active in the field. This third step ensures inclusion of
papers which may not be submitted to peer review journals including reports for government
bodies such as Sport England or the Department of Health. Search terms included ‘sports’,
‘dancing’, ‘play’, ‘cycle’, ‘walk’, ‘physical activity’, ‘physical education’ and ‘exercise’.
Papers which met the following criteria were entered into the next phase of the review:
 (i) the aim of the study was to explore the participants' experiences of sport and physical
activity and reasons for participation or non-participation in sport and physical activity;
 (ii) the study collected information on participants who lived in the United Kingdom;
and,
 (iii) the study presented data collected using qualitative methods.
Two researchers (GC and SA) reviewed each paper independently. Results were compared and
discrepancies discussed. Data were extracted using a review schema developed by the research
team. In most cases, the original author's own words were used in an attempt to convey the
intended meaning and to allow for more realistic comparison between studies.
Results
More than 1200 papers were identified by the initial search strategy. A total of 24 papers were
accepted into the final stage of the review, with all but two published during or after 1997. Half
of the papers (12) reported research where data were collected in community settings. Of the
others, four were set in general physician (GP) referral schemes (in which GPs refer patients to
physical activity groups), three in schools, two in sports and leisure clubs and one in a group of
three national sports governing bodies. Table I shows that studies described participants by
socio-economic status (working class, low income, private or public patient), ethnicity (South
Asian and Black in one study, or Scottish, Pakistani, Chinese, Bangladeshi in another) and level of
exercise (Elite or other, participant or non-participant).
Table I
Participant characteristics

Descriptor Count

Description of participants in research

Descriptor Count

Socio-economic status 3

Working-class families

Low-income women

Public and private patients

Exercise level 2

Elite runners, runners and joggers

Exercisers and non-exercisers

Ethnicity 2

Scots, Pakistanis, Chinese, Black Africans, Bangladeshi and African

Caribbean

South Asian and black people (18–30 years)

Other 3

Physically impaired, hearing impaired, visually impaired, learning

difficulties

Gay men, disabled men and health workers

Members of three English Sporting National Governing Bodies

Descriptor Count

Not specified 14

Total 24

Description of participants' age

Younger children 2

5- to 15- year old children and their parents

9- to 15-year old children

Teenage girls and young women 5

14-year-old girls

15-year-old girls

Year 9 girls

Teenage girls

Young women (16–24 years)

Young people (18–30 years) 1

South Asian and black people (18–30 years)

Middle-aged people (30–65 years) 3

 Descriptor Count

Men 30–61 years old

People aged 30–65 years

Middle-aged men

Older people (50+ years) 4

Older people (50+ years)

Newly referred older women (50+ years)

People aged >60 years

Not specified 9

Total 24

View Large
Almost two-thirds of papers (15) did not specify a theoretical framework. Of the nine that did,
three used grounded theory, three used a feminist framework, one used figurational sociology,
one used gender relations theory and one used Sidentop's model of participation.
The age profile of participants was described in different ways although some grouping was
possible (Table I). Two studies involved children aged <15 years (5–15 years old and 9–15 years
old), seven studies involved research with teenage girls or younger women (aged between 14
and 24 years), 11 related to middle-aged participants (30–65 years) and four reported on adults
50 years or older. The results are organized in two sections: reasons for participation in physical
activity and barriers to participation in physical activity. Within each section, results are
presented in order of the age group which participated in the study.
Reasons for participation in sport and physical activity
Table II summarizes the main findings of this review. Although most people recognized that there
were health benefits associated with physical activity, this was not the main reason for
participation. Other factors such as weight management, enjoyment, social interaction and
support were more common reasons for people being physically active.
Table II
Summary of main findings

Age group Motivations Barriers

Young children Experimentation Competitive sports

Unusual activities Highly structured activities

Parental support

Safe environment

Teenagers and young women Body shape Negative experiences at school

Weight management Peer pressure

New social networks Identity conflict

Family support PE uniforms

 Age group Motivations Barriers

Peer support Boys' dominance in class

Competitive classes

Lack of teacher support

Adults Sense of achievement Negative school experiences

Skill development Anxiety in unfamiliar surrounds

Medical sanction Lack of social network

Support networks Identity conflict

Enjoyment Lack of role models

Older adults Social support Unclear guidance

Health benefits Lack of role models

Enjoyment

View Large
Young children
Participation for young children was found to be more enjoyable when children were not being
forced to compete and win, but encouraged to experiment with different activities. MacPhail et
al. [21] found providing children with many different types of physical activity and sport-
encouraged participation. Enjoyment and support from parents were also crucial [22]. Parents
play a large role in enabling young children opportunities to be physically active and Bostock [23]
found that mothers with young children discouraged their children from playing in an
environment perceived as unsafe. Porter [24] showed that parents are more supportive of
activity with easy access, a safe play environment, good ‘drop-off’ arrangements and activities
available for other members of the family.
Teenagers and young women
Concerns about body shape and weight management were the main reasons for the participation
of young girls. A number of studies [25–27] reported pressure to conform to popular ideals of
beauty as important reasons for teenage girls being physically active. Flintoff and Scraton [28]
interviewed very active girls who described having learnt new skills, increased self-esteem,
improved fitness and developed new social networks as motivation to be physically active.
Support from family and significant others at ‘key’ transitional phases (such as changing schools)
was essential to maintaining participation [29]. Those who continued participating through these
transitionary periods recalled the importance of positive influences at school in becoming and
staying physically active. For girls, having peers to share their active time with was important.
Adults
A wide range of adults were studied including patients in GP referral schemes, gay and disabled
groups, runners and South Asian and Black communities.
Adults exercise for a sense of achievement, skill development and to spend ‘luxury time’ on
themselves away from daily responsibilities [30]. Non-exercisers recalled negative school
experiences as reasons for not participating into middle age [31].
Studies of GP exercise referral schemes found that the medical sanctioning of programs was a
great motivator for participation [32]. Other benefits reported by referral scheme participants
were the social support network created and the general health benefits of being active [30, 33].
Among disabled men, exercise provided an opportunity to positively reinterpret their role
following a disabling injury [34]. For this group, displaying and confirming their status as active
and competitive was beneficial. Participants in this study described the support network offered
by participation as the real value of physical activity and sport. In particular, meeting other
disabled men and sharing similar experiences was a key motivator. The building of skills and
confidence was another motive for disabled men's participation in sport [35].
The enjoyment and social networks offered by sport and physical activity are clearly important
motivators for many different groups of people aged between 18 and 50 years. The reasons for
participation can, however, differ subtly between people within a single group. For example,
Smith [36] interviewed members of a running club and found a distinction between ‘runners’ and
‘joggers’. Runners were elite members of the club and were motivated by intense competition
and winning. Conversely, joggers did not consider themselves competitive in races but aimed to
better their own previous best time. Joggers were more motivated by the health benefits of
running and the increased status afforded to them by non-exercisers who saw them as fit and
healthy.
Older adults
Hardcastle and Taylor [37] suggest that a complex interplay of physical, psychological and
environmental factors influence participation among older people. Older adults identified the
health benefits of physical activity in terms of reducing the effects of aging and being fit and able
to play with grandchildren [38].
While GP referrals [32, 39] encouraged the uptake of exercise in older age groups participation
appears to be maintained through enjoyment and strong social networks. This is exemplified by
Cooper and Thomas' [40] study of ballroom dancers in London. Social dancers described dance
as helping them challenge the traditional expectations of older people being physically infirm.
Participation over time was supported by the flexible nature of ballroom dancing. Different styles
of dance provide more or less vigorous forms of activity to suit the skills and limitations of each
dancer. Equally important was the social network provided by the weekly social dance
encouraging the maintenance of participation across major life events such as bereavement
through the support of other dancers in the group. Other studies also highlight the importance
of social networks in maintaining participation [41].
Barriers to participation in sport and physical activity
On a simple level, barriers to participation in physical activity include high costs, poor access to
facilities and unsafe environments. Other more complex issues relating to identity and shifting
social networks also have a great influence. There were no studies reporting on the barriers to
participation in sport and physical activity facing young children.
Teenagers and young women
Negative experiences during school physical activity [physical education (PE)] classes were the
strongest factor discouraging participation in teenage girls [29]. For many girls, impressing
boyfriends and other peers was seen as more important than physical activity. While many girls
wanted to be physically active, a tension existed between wishing to appear feminine and
attractive and the sweaty muscular image attached to active women [25].
A number of studies [27, 29, 42] showed that tight, ill-fitting PE uniforms were major
impediments to girls participating in school sport. These concerns over image and relationships
with peers led to an increased interest in non-active leisure.
Flintoff and Scraton [28] cited the disruptive influence of boys in PE class as another major reason
for girls' non-participation. The competitive nature of PE classes and the lack of support for girls
from teachers reinforced these problems. Girls were actively marginalized in PE class by boys and
many described not being able to get involved in games or even getting to use equipment.
Teachers were found to be complicit in this marginalization by not challenging the disruptive
behavior of boys in class. Coakley and White [29] noted that boys were also disruptive out of
class and some boys actively discouraged their girlfriends from participating in sport as it made
them look ‘butch’. Mulvihill et al. [22] and Coakley and White [29] both argue that gender
stereotyping has serious negative effects on the participation of girls. Realistic role models for all
body types and competency levels were needed rather than the current ‘sporty’ types.
Orme [42] found that girls were bored by the traditional sports offered in PE. Mulvihill et al. [22]
found that many girls were disappointed with the lack of variety in PE and would rather play
sports other than football, rugby and hockey. Being unable to demonstrate competency of a skill
to peers in class also made people uncomfortable with PE. Non-traditional activities such as
dance were more popular than traditional PE as they provided the opportunity for fun and
enjoyment without competition [28].
Coakley and White [29] showed that the transition from childhood to adulthood was a key risk
time for drop-out. Teenagers did not wish to be associated with activities which they described
as ‘childish’ and instead chose activities that were independent and conferred a more adult
identity upon them. One participant in this study described leaving a netball team of younger
girls because it was ‘babyish’. A number of young women interviewed by these researchers
described their belief that ‘adult’ women did not participate in physical activity or sport.
Adults
Anxiety and lack of confidence about entering unfamiliar settings such as gyms were the main
barriers to participation in GP referral schemes. Not knowing other people, poor body image and
not fitting in with the ‘gym’ culture were the prime concerns of this group [33]. The adults
reported in the studies reviewed did not identify with role models used to promote physical
activity and people from this age group suggested that realistic exercise leaders would be more
effective in encouraging participation [41]. The lack of realistic role models was also a problem
for members of the South Asian and Black community [43]. This group did not see physical activity
as a black or Asian pursuit, but rather as white, middle-class, male domain. The authors argue
that there were few opportunities or facilities available to this group.
Self-perception is incredibly important in motivating people to participate in all types of physical
activity. The stigma attached to being socially disadvantaged was shown to decrease exercise
among low-income women in the Midlands [23]. Women in this study did not want others to see
them walking due to the social stigma attached with not owning a car.
Arthur and Finch's [35] study of adults with disabilities found that few relevant or positive role
models existed. Disabled men reported a lack of knowledge about the appropriate types or levels
of activity in relation to their disability. Additionally there were few opportunities to meet other
people who were active and disabled. This study also found that the dominance of masculine
stereotypes in sport was a particular challenge to participation among gay men. These men
expressed concerns about not fitting in and not being one of the ‘lads’. Gay men reported
withdrawing from organized sport due to feeling uncomfortable in the associated social
situations [34].
Shaw and Hoeber's [44] discourse study of three English sports governing bodies reinforced the
negative impact of macho culture in sport. Their study found that discourses of masculinity were
predominant at all levels of the organization from coaching to senior management. The use of
gendered language was shown to actively discourage women from advancing in these
organizations. Discourses of femininity (characterized by loyalty, organizational, communicative
and human resource skills) were associated with middle and lower management positions
compared with masculine discourses (centered on elite coaching, competition and the
imperative to win), which were associated with senior organizational roles.
Older adults
Some older adults were unsure about the ‘right amount’ of physical activity for someone of their
age [38]. As in other age groups, the lack of realistic role models in the community was a
deterrent. Exercise prescriptions were perceived as targeted at young people and not relevant
to older groups. Porter [31] found that older people were anxious about returning to physical
activity and identified cost and time barriers as the main problems.
Discussion
This paper has reviewed the qualitative research into the reasons for participation and non-
participation of UK adults and children in sport and physical activity. The review covered all
qualitative papers relating to sport and physical activity in the United Kingdom from 1990 to
2004.
Although we did find >20 studies, few studies met the basic qualitative research quality criteria
of reporting a theoretical framework [45]. It would appear that little theory is being generated
empirically and suggests that any understanding of reasons for participation and non-
participation in physical activity in the United Kingdom may be limited.
Shaw and Hoeber [44] provide one example of the benefits a theoretical framework brings to
qualitative research in their analysis of the gendered nature of discourses in three national
sporting bodies. Their feminist discourse analysis framework directed the research toward the
particular forms of language used in a specific social setting and the implications of this language
for marginalizing some groups while supporting the dominance of others. The authors used this
framework to show how the masculine discourses used in senior positions actively reduced the
career opportunities for women, while men were shown to be actively deterred from regional
development officer posts by the feminine discourse surrounding these roles.
Motivations and barriers to participation
Fun, enjoyment and social support for aspects of identity were reported more often as predictors
of participation and non-participation than perceived health benefits. For young children and
teenage girls in particular, pressure to conform to social stereotypes is a key motivator. Along
with older groups, children see enjoyment and social interaction with peers as reasons to be
physically active. Although girls report a willingness to be active, this must be on their own terms
in a safe non-threatening environment.
A clear opposition can be seen between girls wanting to be physically active and at the same time
feminine [25] and the strong macho culture of school and extracurricular sport [46]. One area
where the evidence base is strong is the negative impact which school PE classes have on
participation of young girls. Changing PE uniforms, providing single sex classes and offering
alternate, non-competitive forms of PE are easy, realistic ways in which PE could be changed and
which the research suggests would improve long-term participation. Additionally, teachers need
to take a more active role in ensuring that students are involved and enjoying PE classes. There
appears to be some change in this area. The Youth Sports Trust/Nike Girls Project ‘Girls in Sport’
program involved 64 schools across England with the intention of creating ‘girl-friendly’ forms of
PE and with changing school practices and community attitudes [47]. Preliminary results show
changes in the style of teaching in PE, ‘girl-friendly’ changing rooms, positive role models for girls
in sport, extended and new types of activities, relaxed emphasis on PE kit and an emphasis on
rewarding effort as well as achievement.
A number of papers reviewed made the point that the role models for children and young adults
are usually beautiful and thin in the case of women and muscular in the case of men. The desire
to be thin and, in the case of girls, feminine, leads to increased motivation to be physically active
[28]. This desire is not as strong in older populations and from the mid-20s on, role models with
a perfect body have a negative effect on participation [43].
While the masculine nature of organized and semi-organized sport culture marginalizes women,
this review has shown that groups of men are also marginalized. Robertson [34] has suggested a
rethinking of youth sports and in particular the links between sport and masculine identities.
Identity formation is a key transition in adolescence, and there is some evidence that physical
activity advances identity development. Kendzierski [48] reported that individuals with an
exercise self-schema (self-perception as a physically active person) tended to be active more
often and in more types of activity than those with a non-exercise schema (self-perception as not
physically active). This relationship between leisure activity and identity may also be dependent
on gender and the gendered nature of activities [49]. Alternate models of sporting clubs, such as
those in which children can try a number of traditional and non-traditional sports in one place,
could also provide improved take up and maintenance of participation.
Implications for the promotion of sport and physical activity
With the exception of the walking and cycling action plan, there appears to be little reference to
empirical research on reasons for and barriers to participation in physical activity in government
policy [11, 50–55]. The Department for Culture, Media and Sports (DCMS) acknowledge this gap
in knowledge in their ‘Game Plan’ document:
… throughout the sport and physical activity sector the quality and availability of data on facilities,
participation, long term trends, behavioural and other factors is very poor [11] (p. 14).
Our review has found some evidence of relevance to policy makers about why children and adults
do or do not participate in sport and physical activity. Despite this there appears to be little
reference to large population surveys and no reference to qualitative research in policy
documents. Similar findings to those presented in this review have been observed in studies
conducted in other countries. A qualitative study of participation in physical activity in Australia
found similar motivating factors such as fun, enjoyment and socializing with friends and similar
barriers including time constraints and negative pressure from peers [56]. Unless more
recognition is paid to these factors it is no surprise that the effectiveness of current individual
approaches to promote physical activity will remain short term and modest [57, 58]. Ongoing
research for physical activity in the United Kingdom needs to develop theoretical frameworks to
underpin health promotion interventions, programs and campaigns that draw on the existing
evidence.
Little is known about the reasons why people do and do not participate in physical activity and
the relationship between their levels of participation and different stages in their lives. A number
of the papers reviewed [29, 34, 35] found that significant shifts in the life course have
implications for participation in physical activity. A mix of quantitative and qualitative methods
could build an evidence base to understand changes to sport and physical activity at critical
transitional phases during childhood, adolescence and adult life. This review provides a starting
point for new work.
Conclusion
This review has identified qualitative studies of the reasons for and barriers to participation in
sport and physical activity. Participation is motivated by enjoyment and the development and
maintenance of social support networks. Barriers to participation include transitions at key stages
of the life course and having to reorient individual identities during these times. The theoretical
and evidence base informing policy and health promotion is limited and more work needs to be
done in this area.
Conflict of interest statement
None declared.
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Literature Review
'A Review of Correlates of Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents'
Article· Literature Review in Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 32(5):963-75 · June 2000
with 57,733 Reads
DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200005000-00014 · Source: PubMed
Cite this publication

James F. Sallis
o

Judith J Prochaska
o 44.21
o Stanford University

Wendell C Taylor
o 38.6
o University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston
Abstract
Understanding the factors that influence physical activity can aid the design of more effective
interventions. Previous reviews of correlates of youth physical activity have produced conflicting
results. A comprehensive review of correlates of physical activity was conducted, and
semiquantitative results were summarized separately for children (ages 3-12) and adolescents
(ages 13-18). The 108 studies evaluated 40 variables for children and 48 variables for adolescents.
About 60% of all reported associations with physical activity were statistically significant.
Variables that were consistently associated with children's physical activity were sex (male),
parental overweight status, physical activity preferences, intention to be active, perceived
barriers (inverse), previous physical activity, healthy diet, program/facility access, and time spent
outdoors. Variables that were consistently associated with adolescents' physical activity were sex
(male), ethnicity (white), age (inverse), perceived activity competence, intentions, depression
(inverse), previous physical activity, community sports, sensation seeking, sedentary after school
and on weekends (inverse), parent support, support from others, sibling physical activity, direct
help from parents, and opportunities to exercise. These consistently related variables should be
confirmed in prospective studies, and interventions to improve the modifiable variables should
be developed and evaluated.
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Citations (2821)
References (133)
 ... Based on the social ecological model of Sallis et al. [21], a new model was developed
to depict parental attributes that might influence children's outdoor play (see Figure 1).
Referring to this model and previous systematic reviews [39,40] a classification of
parental correlates in six different categories was conducted: (1) socio-demographic and
biological correlates (e.g., age, ethnicity); (2) parents' psychological, cognitive and
emotional correlates (e.g., parents' self-efficacy, depression); (3) parents' social and
cultural correlates (e.g., parental PA, parental encouragement); (4) parenting practices
(e.g., presence of rules, hyper-parenting styles); (5) parents' perceived physical
environmental correlates (e.g., satisfaction with play facilities, perceived traffic situation);
and (6) parents' perceived social environmental correlates (e.g., social cohesion, social
safety). . Socio-ecological model of different levels of influence on outdoor play in children
(according to Sallis et al. [21]). ...
... The scoring system to measure the strength of evidence was based on a modification of
previously published scoring systems [40,47,49,50]. Positive (+) or negative (−) associations were
assumed if 60-100% of the samples analyzed provided significant associations in the same
direction. ...
... A variety of previous systematic reviews underlines the importance of parental
encouragement and social support as a key factor for children's PA [39,40]. However, the present
review revealed that this encouragement/support is only related to the amount of outdoor play
of girls but not boys. ...
Parental Correlates of Outdoor Play in Boys and Girls Aged 0 to 12-A Systematic Review
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o Int J Environ Res Publ Health
o

Karolina Boxberger
o

Anne Kerstin Reimers

View
Show abstract
 ... Parental activity has frequently been investigated as a correlate and determinant of
child's activity [9][10][11], given genetic [12], behavioural and social influences [9]
parents have on their child's behaviour [11]. Yet evidence of an as- sociation between
parent and child physical activity is mixed [9][10][11], likely due to the widespread use of
self-re- ported measures of physical activity. ...
... Parental activity has frequently been investigated as a correlate and determinant of child's
activity [9][10][11], given genetic [12], behavioural and social influences [9] parents have on their
child's behaviour [11]. Yet evidence of an as- sociation between parent and child physical activity
is mixed [9][10][11], likely due to the widespread use of self-re- ported measures of physical
activity. ...
... Parental activity has frequently been investigated as a correlate and determinant of child's
activity [9][10][11], given genetic [12], behavioural and social influences [9] parents have on their
child's behaviour [11]. Yet evidence of an as- sociation between parent and child physical activity
is mixed [9][10][11], likely due to the widespread use of self-re- ported measures of physical
activity. Studies assessing the link between objectively measured physical activity in par- ents and
children are more scarce. ...
The association between maternal-child physical activity levels at the transition to formal
schooling: cross-sectional and prospective data from the Southampton Women's Survey
Article
Full-text available
o Feb 2019
o INT J BEHAV NUTR PHY
o

Cyrus Cooper
o

Kathryn Hesketh
o

Soren Brage
o
Esther M F van Sluijs
View
Show abstract
 ... Thus, it is necessary to better understand the key factors that are related to PA behavior
by taking gender differences into account. However, despite assumptions of socio-
ecological models and the need for comprehensive analysis of a wide range of potential
correlates from different levels [25], studies just focus on a specific subsection of variables
such as environmental factors [26,27]. As a consequence, the relative relevance of single
correlates remained unclear and misleading conclusions might have been drawn. ...
... The available data covers the important fields of potential PA correlates that were categorized
into categories that have been postulated in previous literature: Demographic, psychological and
behavioral, biological, social and physical environmental factors [20,26]. ...
... Identifying correlates of PA is considered to be of public health significance because such
knowledge is necessary to tailor efficient interventions that increase the proportion of people
who meet health-related PA guidelines [26]. However, different reviews from the past 25 years
have come to discrepant conclusions regarding correlates of PA [26,47,48]. ...
Exploratory Determined Correlates of Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents: The MoMo
Study
Article
o Feb 2019
o Int J Environ Res Publ Health
o

Jennifer Schneider
o

Steffen Schmidt
o
Alexander Woll
o

Anne Kerstin Reimers

View
Show abstract
 ... Prevention of diseases and the stimulation of a wholesome daily routine are the best
way to insure a healthy new generation. This is why parents should be familiar with the
topic and should take an active part in the search of activities for their youngsters (6,7,8).
...
... Regular training strengthens the body and im- proves the coordination and concentration,
which contributes to succeeding in the academic sphere. In a study by Sallis et al. (2000) it was
deter- mined that the level of physical activity is lower in cases of lacking support from parents
and relatives (7). Studies so far show that children and adoles- cents are prone to be more active
when their par- ents and friends are (10,11,12), when they are encour- aged to be (8) and are
accompanied in physical ac- tivities (7,10,11,13). ...
... Regular training strengthens the body and im- proves the coordination and concentration,
which contributes to succeeding in the academic sphere. In a study by Sallis et al. (2000) it was
deter- mined that the level of physical activity is lower in cases of lacking support from parents
and relatives (7). Studies so far show that children and adoles- cents are prone to be more active
when their par- ents and friends are (10,11,12), when they are encour- aged to be (8) and are
accompanied in physical ac- tivities (7,10,11,13). ...
The Reflection of Exercise on the New Generation
Article
o Dec 2017
o
Monika Stoyanova Popova
o

Luiza Hadzieva
o

Silvia Filkova
o

Martin Krustev
View
 ... A large number of systematic reviews which have focused on promoting PA in young
female population have excluded qualitative studies (e.g. Biddle et al., 2014;Camacho-
Minano et al., 2011;Pearson et al., 2014;Sallis et al., 2000), thus pre- cluding the possibility
to recognise the potential benefits of qualitative method- ologies in understanding this
population. Furthermore, the main focus has been on quantifying benefits in the short
term (from pre to post intervention); but in order to produce sustainable behaviour
change a holistic approach that includes mixed methods may be needed to capture PA
habits over time ( Bauman et al., 2012). ...
... On the other hand, schools have been acknowl- edged as an ideal setting for the promotion of
positive health behaviours, and it is argued that schools should assume a leadership role in
ensuring that young people engage in sufficient PA each day ( Kahn et al., 2002;Pate et al., 2006).
However, a dependency on the schools as primary providers of PA is likely to contribute to the
dramatic drop reported in female participation rates when par- ticipation in PA moves from an
adult-managed to a participant-led activity (Sallis et al., 2000). There has been a call for an
increase in community-based inter- ventions as opposed to school-based interventions. ...
An Ecological Approach to Exploring Physical Activity Interventions Aimed at Young UK-Based
Females: A Narrative Systematic Review
Article
Full-text available
 o Jan 2018
o PSYCH
o

Reisha Hull
o

Rita de Oliveira
o

Lisa Zaidell
View
 ... Whilst an appreciation must also be made for the differences between primary (3-11y)
and secondary (12-16y) school aged children. Factors consistently reported to
significantly influence primary school aged physical activity levels include; sex (being
male), parental overweight status, parent support physical activity preferences, intention
to be active, perceived barriers (inverse), previous physical activity, healthy diet,
program/facility access, and time spent outdoors [123,[131][132][133][134][135]. Whilst
commonly reported factors significantly associated with secondary school aged physical
activity are sex (being male), ethnicity (white), age (inverse), perceived motor
competence, depression (inverse), previous physical activity, community sports,
sedentary time (inverse), and parental support, highlighting that in older age groups
(adolescents vs children) social and mental health/well-being factors increase in their
influence, whilst biological factors remain constant [123,[131][132][133][134][135]. ...
... Factors consistently reported to significantly influence primary school aged physical activity
levels include; sex (being male), parental overweight status, parent support physical activity
preferences, intention to be active, perceived barriers (inverse), previous physical activity,
healthy diet, program/facility access, and time spent outdoors [123,[131][132][133][134][135].
Whilst commonly reported factors significantly associated with secondary school aged physical
activity are sex (being male), ethnicity (white), age (inverse), perceived motor competence,
depression (inverse), previous physical activity, community sports, sedentary time (inverse), and
parental support, highlighting that in older age groups (adolescents vs children) social and mental
health/well-being factors increase in their influence, whilst biological factors remain constant
[123,[131][132][133][134][135]. ...
Paediatric physical activity and health: Moving towards a measure of quality
Article
Full-text available
o Dec 2018
o

Claire M. Barnes
o

Cain C. T. Clark
View
 ... The 'Sport Commitment Model' pro- poses that children's participation is determined
by sport enjoyment, social constraints, and involvement opportunities ( Scanlan et al.
1993aScanlan et al. , 1993b. Sallis, Prochaska, and Taylor's (2000) comprehensive review
of correlates of physical activity for children (ages 3-12) and adolescents (ages 13-18)
noted different motives for age and gender findings. Self-determination theory related to
physical activity highlights the dominant role of intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivations
(Frederick-Recascino 2002), and the link to the notion that competence facilitates
internalization (Valllerand 2007), which enhances commitment (Ryan and Deci 2000). ...
An examination of children’s motives for triathlon participation as a function of age
Article
Full-text available
o Dec 2018
o

Rachel Batty
 o

Ashleigh-Jane Thompson
o

Andrew J Martin
o

Petr Pancoska
View
Show abstract
 ... The causes of the occurrence and prevalence of postural disorders among children are
various: obesity (Milošević, Obradović, & Srdić, 2007a, Milošević, Obradović, & Srdić,
2007b), a low nutritional status (Protić-Gava, 2008), insufficient physical activity which
further decreases when a child starts school (Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000), which
later in life represents a serious problem. For example, it can affect motor manifestation,
and especially explosive leg strength (Aleksandrović & Kottaras, 2015). ...
THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE OCCURRENCE AND PREVALENCE OF FLAT FEET AMONG
PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Article
o Nov 2018
o

Ivana Anđelković
o
Sladjan Karaleic
o

Rade Stefanović
o

Vesko Milenković
View
Show abstract
 ... Consistent with previous data, boys engaged in more MVPA than girls and age was
negatively associated with MVPA. 23 However, the MVPA decline with age was similar in
boys and in girls, since age-by-sex interaction was not statistically significant, which is
contrary to other findings. 24 BMI was not significantly associated with MVPA in this
sample. ...
Why are children different in their moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels? A multilevel
analysis
Article
o Dec 2018
o J Pediatr
o

Marcos A. Moura-Dos-Santos
o

Ana Reyes
o
José Maia
o

Sara Pereira
View
Show abstract
 ... The importance of self-regulation change identified here was similarly supported by
both theory ( Bandura, 2005) and corresponding research with adults (Annesi & Johnson,
2015;Annesi, 2017;Teixeira et al., 2015). However, even given the high importance of a
self-regulatory skill focus indicated, some attention to increasing participants' self-
efficacy to overcome barriers to physical activity and improving mood should remain,
largely because of the considerable volume of research supporting their associations with
physical activity in children (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010;Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000). ...
Effects of a Standardized Curriculum on Physical Activity and Body Composition in after-School
Program Participants with BMI Scores above the 90th Percentile: Assessing Theory-based
Predictors
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o

James J Annesi
View
 ... The requirement of improving life-style and exercise through physical activity is
regarded as an instrumentality for increasing the positive well-being of children (28). A
negative relationship was proven between physical activity and depression in adolescents
(11,25). Moreover, the relationship between regular sport and depression-anxiety was
investigated and regular sport was found beneficial for reducing depression and anxiety
(5,26). ...
The Effect of Volleyball Training Program on Private Primary and Secondary School’s Students
Depression Levels
Article
o Dec 2018
o

İbrahim BOZKURT
o

Elif Aycan ATAK

o

Gaye ERKMEN
o

Mehibe AKANDERE
View
 ... Socio-ecological models propose that there is a complex interaction between the
factors that influence physical activity, such as the individual behavioural character- istics
and skills, the physical and sociocultural environment, as well as demographic, biological,
psychological, and cognitive-emotional factors (Cohen, Scribner and Farley 2000;Craggs
et al. 2011;Sallis, Prochaska and Taylor 2000). During growth, sex and age appear to
explain differences observed in the patterns of physical activity. ...
DIET AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AS A UNIVERSAL FOUNDATION FOR CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
AND LIFELONG HEALTH
Article
Full-text available
 o Dec 2018
o

Raquel Leitão
View
Show abstract
 ... Systematic reviews have demonstrated an inverse relationship bet- ween the
perception and number of barriers and levels of PA 3,4 . Further- more, the perceived
barriers to PA can vary between age groups and according to the context of people's lives
5 , as demonstrated in several cross-sectional studies on adolescents 6,7 , adults 8,9 , and
older adults 10,11 . ...
PERCEIVED BARRIERS TO LEISURE-TIME PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN THE BRAZILIAN POPULATION
BARREIRAS PERCEBIDAS PARA A PRÁTICA DE ATIVIDADE FÍSICA NO LAZER DA POPULAÇÃO
BRASILEIRA PERCEPCIÓN DE BARRERAS A LA ACTIVIDAD FÍSICA DURANTE EL TIEMPO LIBRE EN
LA POBLACION BRASILEÑA (Physical Education Professional) Edina Maria de Camargo 2
(Physical Education Professional)
Article
o Dec 2018
o

Pablo Antonio Bertasso De Araujo

o

Rech
o

Ricardo Cassiano
View
Show abstract
 ... [38] Identifying the predictors of PA can help to develop effective PA interventions and
strategies. [39] In the present study, the significant independent predictors of females'
total PA time were sufficient sleep and low intake of French fries/potato chips. In addition,
the predictor of low PA of college students from the United States, Costa Rica, India, and
South Korea was reported as low intake of fruit and vegetables. ...
A Profile of Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviors, Sleep, and Dietary Habits of Saudi College
Female Students
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o

Nora Alfadda
o

Manan A. Alhakbany
o

Hana A. Al-Zamil
o

Hazzaa Al-Hazzaa
View
Show abstract
 ... It has been found that girls are less active than boys, older children less active than
younger and black girls less active than white girls (Ogden et al., 2006;Robinson & Killen,
 1995;Zakarian, Hovell, Hofstetter, Sallis, & Keating, 1994; Centers for Disease Control,
1997). Psychological determinants of physical activity are self-efficacy ( Dishman et al.,
2004), a perception of physical competence (Sal- lis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000), positive
attitude ( Trost et al., 1997), enjoyment of physical activity (Dishman et al., 2005) and
perceiv- ing benefits from engaging in physical activity ( Zakarian et al., 1994).
Sociocultural factor includes support for participation in activity from peers and siblings,
parental level of physical activity (Sallis, Pattersen, Buono, Atkins, & Nader, 1988;Adkins,
Sherwood, Story, & Davis, 2004), parental support (Sallis & Saelens, 2000) and parental
income. ...
The Mind-Body Connection: How Physical Activity and Physical Fitness Affect Academic
Performance
Book
o Dec 2018
o

Vedrana Sember
o

Shawnda A Morrison
View
 ... Studies show that self-determined motivation to engage in physical activity is
influenced by perceived enjoyment and challenges that activities can generate in children
and adolescents (Motl et al., 2001;Cairney et al., 2012). The pleasure experienced during
physical education classes was also identified as a predictor of future physical activity in
both children and adolescents ( Sallis et al., 2000). ...
Teachers’ Interpersonal Style in Physical Education: Exploring Patterns of Students’ Self-
Determined Motivation and Enjoyment of Physical Activity in a Longitudinal Study
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o
Juan Antonio Moreno-Murcia
o

Jaime León
o

Gracielle Fin
o

Rudy José Nodari-Junior

View
Show abstract
 ... Merkityksellisten toisten tiedetään olevan keskeisessä roolissa lasten sosiaalisen
identiteetin rakentumisen ja erilaisten elämän- tapaisten käytäntöjen omaksumisen
kannalta. Vanhemmilta ja sisaruksilta saatu kannustus ja motivointi onkin yksi tapa pyrkiä
kasvattamaan ja sosiaalistamaan lapsi liikunnalliseen elämän- tapaan ( Sallis, Prochaska &
Taylor 2000;ks. myös Palomäki, Huotari & Kokko 2016). ...
Lasten ja nuorten liikunnan harrastaminen ja sen taustalla vaikuttavat syyt
Chapter
Full-text available
o Mar 2019
o

Arttu Saarinen
o
Tuomas Zacheus
View
Show abstract
 ... PA refers to any body movement pro- duced by skeletal muscles that result in energy
expenditure [4]. Adequate daily PA is associated with critical health benefits in all
children [5], including children with disabilities [6]. ...
Longitudinal trajectories of physical activity and walking performance by gross motor function
classification system level for children with cerebral palsy
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o DISABIL REHABIL
o

Steven E. Hanna
o

Kristie Bjornson
o

Lisa Avery
o

Alyssa Laforme Fiss

View
Show abstract
 ... Multiple factors have been associated with the achievement of physical activity
guidelines, including individual-level characteristics (e.g., demographics, socio-economic
status, knowledge, perceptions) and characteristics of the physical environment (e.g.,
urbanicity, accessibility to MVPA opportunities). While there are multiple individual-level
factors that have been found to influence MVPA behaviour (e.g., ethnicity, adiposity,
education/literacy), the relationship with MVPA is inconsistent throughout the
literature [9,10]. In contrast, age, gender, and socioeconomic status, are individual-level
factors consistently associated with children's activity levels. ...
Exploring the Effect of Perceptions on Children’s Physical Activity in Varying Geographic
Contexts: Using a Structural Equation Modelling Approach to Examine a Cross-Sectional
Dataset
Article
Full-text available
o Nov 2018
o

Leah G. Taylor
o

Andrew F Clark
o

Jason Gilliland
o

Piotr Wilk
View
Show abstract
 ... While in Australia, this prevalence is shown to be high especially among adult female
adolescents [3]. Thus, more studies have been conducted to identify factors that can
promote physical activity (PA) among adolescents [4][5]. Researchers have begun to
realize the importance of participation in sports and physical activity and, consequently,
there has been an increase in the number of studies related to this area [6][7][8]. ...
Benefits and Barriers of Physical Activities among Technical University Students
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2018
o

Rosli Saadan¹
o

Penerbit Akademia Baru

o

Mohamad Nizam Nazarudin

o

Mohd Firdaus
View
Show abstract
 ... Next to mechanisms through which the environment has a direct effect on goals and
behaviour, social cognitive theory offers opportunities for exploring the effect of the
 environment on other variables, such as self-efficacy and outcome expectation ( Glanz et
al., 2016). In turn, these variables have been shown to affect health behaviour change
( Sallis et al., 2000) and particularly the effect of self-efficacy in relation to increase in
physical activity, has been well documented ( King et al., 2002). One of the key questions
for this Source: (Bandura, 2004;Pajares, 2002) Health behaviour systematic review is to
what extent the different concepts and mechanisms have been used to design and
implement the examined interventions. ...
A systematic literature review of persuasive architectural interventions for stimulating health
behaviour
Article
o Feb 2019
o Facilities
o

Nienke Moor
o

Masi Mohammadi
o

Coosje Hammink
View
Show abstract
 ... Late adolescence is a transition period in life as young people enter early adulthood,
making it a potential risk group for lifestyle diseases, which is a reason to monitor this
group [4]. Further research is needed to explore environmen- tal and sociocultural
explanations and, if one is to be suc- cessful in encouraging and motivating adolescents
to perform physical activity, more knowledge is necessary [17]. There is a disconnect
between what is available and what adolescents want to do [11]. ...
Physically inactive adolescents’ experiences of engaging in physical activity
Article
Full-text available
o Feb 2019
o

Anna-Karin Lindqvist
o

Katarina Mikaelsson
o

Stina Rutberg
o

Peter Michaelson
View
Show abstract
 ... Vigorous PA levels decline by as much as 17.8% in boys and 11.0% in girls from middle
to high school [16]. Increased knowledge about exercise, self-motivation, peer modeling
and support, parental support, and availability of supplies or equipment are all positively
associated with PA in adolescents [17,18]. mHealth modalities could address each of
these correlates to PA. ...
Efficacy and Effectiveness of Mobile Health Technologies for Facilitating Physical Activity in
Adolescents: A Scoping Review (Preprint)
Article
Full-text available
o Feb 2019
 o

Alexandra M Lee
o

Sarah Y. Chavez
o

Jiang Bian
o

Francois Modave
View
 Correlates of Physical Activity of Students in Secondary School Physical Education: A
Systematic Review of Literature
Article
Full-text available
o Feb 2019
o BMRI
o

Yulan Zhou
o
Lijuan Wang
View
Show abstract
 “Oh oobe doo, I wanna be like you” associations between physical activity of preschool
staff and preschool children
Article
Full-text available
o Nov 2018
o PLOS ONE
o

Tom Stian Fossdal

o

Karin Oddbjørg Kippe

o

Pål Lagestad
o

Bjørn Helge Handegård

View
Show abstract
 Social Status and Adolescent Physical Activity: Expanding the Insurance Hypothesis to
Incorporate Energy Expenditure
Article
 o Nov 2018
o

Alexandra M. Lee
o

Michelle I. Cardel
View
Show abstract
 Multi-behavioral obesogenic phenotypes among school-aged boys and girls along the
birth weight continuum
Article
Full-text available
o Feb 2019
o PLOS ONE
o

Adrianne Rahde Bischoff

o

Laurette Dubé
o

Catherine Paquet
o
Andre K Portella
View
Show abstract
 Emergency Preparedness of Secondary School Athletic Programs in Arizona
Article
o Dec 2018
o J ATHL TRAINING
o

Javier F. Cardenas
o

Tamara Valovich McLeod

View
 Influencia del apoyo familiar en los niveles de ira en deportistas (Influence of family
support in anger levels in athletes)
Article
Full-text available
o Dec 2018
o

Antonia Pelegrín Muñoz

o
Higinio González-García
View
Show abstract
 Physical activity and depression, anxiety, and self-esteem in children and youth: An
umbrella systematic review
Article
o Dec 2018
o

Sarah Anne Moore

o

Guy Faulkner
o

Leila Pfaeffli Dale

o

Leigh Vanderloo
View
Show abstract
 Quantifying the Impacts of Green Schools on People and Planet
Conference Paper
Full-text available
o Sep 2012
 o

Ihab Elzeyadi
View
Show abstract
 Sportbezogene Sozialisation: Handbuch Sport und Sportwissenschaft
Chapter
o Jan 2018
o

Ulrike Burrmann
View
 Born to be Wise: A population registry data linkage protocol to assess the impact of
modifiable early-life environmental exposures on the health and development of
children
Article
Full-text available
o Dec 2018
o

Rick Burnett
o

Michael Jerrett
o
Matilda van den Bosch
o

Michael Brauer
View
Show abstract
 Quantifying the Impacts of Green Schools on People and Planet
Chapter
Full-text available
o Sep 2012
o

Ihab Elzeyadi
View
Show abstract
 A Green Lesson: Measuring the Impacts of LEED Certification Credits on People, Planet,
and Profit of K-12 Schools
Conference Paper
Full-text available
o May 2015
o

Ihab Elzeyadi
View
Show abstract
 Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: Findings from the transportation,
urban design, and planning literatures
Article
o Apr 2003
o ANN BEHAV MED
o

Lawrence D Frank
o

James F Sallis
o

Brian Saelens
View
Show abstract
 Association of socioeconomic factors and motives with the level of physical activity of
young Athenian adults
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o

Evangelos Alexandridis
o
Christina Fragkou
o

Georgia Petta
o

Zacharias Dimitriadis
View
Show abstract
 Sport Participation, Locus of Control, and Academic Performance among Early
Adolescents: Racial and Linguistic Status Differences
Article
o Feb 2019
o SOCIOL SPECTRUM
o

Andrea Taliaferro
o

Mido Chang
o

Hyejin Bang
 o

Cindy Lee
View
Show abstract
 Socioecological correlates of perceived motor competence in 5–7‐year‐old Finnish
children
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o SCAND J MED SCI SPOR
o

Lisa Michele Barnett

o

Donna Niemistö
o

Arja Sääkslahti
o

Marja Cantell
View
Show abstract
  Associations of Parental General Monitoring with Adolescent Weight‐Related Behaviors
and Weight Status
Article
o Dec 2018
o OBESITY
o

John M. Felt
o

Jan L. Wallander
o

Kay W. Kim
o

Mark Schuster
View
Show abstract
 Het beweeg- en voedingsgedrag van VMBO-leerlingen uit Rotterdam
Technical Report
Full-text available
o Sep 2007
o
Tinus Jongert
o

Sanne Irene De Vries

o

Ingrid Bakker
o

K. van Overbeek
View
 Evaluatie Scoren voor Gezondheid 2008-2009
Technical Report
Full-text available
o Aug 2009
o

J. Mikolajczak
o

Tinus Jongert
o

Sanne Irene De Vries

 o

Ingrid Bakker
View
Show abstract
 Die Rolle von Sport und Bewegung für die körperliche und psychische Gesundheit:
Psychologische Therapie bei Indikationen im Kindes- und Jugendalter
Chapter
o Jan 2019
o

Claus Vögele
View
Show abstract
 Make Room for Play: An Evaluation of a Campaign Promoting Active Play
Article
o Feb 2019
o J HEALTH COMMUN
o

Amy Latimer
o

Guy Faulkner
o
Carly S. Priebe
o

Tanya R Berry
View
Show abstract
 The Patterns of Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity and Physical Education
Enjoyment Through a 2‐Year School‐Based Program
Article
o Feb 2019
o J SCHOOL HEALTH
o

Arto Gråstén
o

Sami Yli-Piipari
View
Show abstract
 DEVELOPMENTAL MEDICINE & CHILD NEUROLOGY SYSTEMATIC REVIEW Family factors
associated with participation of children with disabilities: a systematic review
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o DEV MED CHILD NEUROL
 o

Stella Arakelyan
o

Robert Rush
o

Donald Maciver
o

Kirsty Forsyth
View
Show abstract
 Physical activity patterns associated with a pedagogical intervention in six to eight year
old children in an urban school
Article
o Jan 2019
o

María Alejandra Prieto

o

Povea Camilo
 o

Jaime Cespedes
o

Germán Briceño
View
Show abstract
 Surveying the Terrain—Realising the Potential of Researching with Young Families:
Forging Frontiers and Methodological Considerations
Chapter
o Jan 2019
o

Alice Brown
View
Show abstract
 Using parental active travel behavior and beliefs to predict active travel to school
among children
Article
o Jan 2019
o INT J SUSTAIN TRANSP
o

Dangaia Sims
o
Melissa Bopp
View
Show abstract
 Changes in Patient-Reported Outcome Measures From the Time of Injury to Return to
Play in Adolescent Athletes at Secondary Schools With an Athletic Trainer
Article
Full-text available
o Jan 2019
o J ATHL TRAINING
o

Alison R Snyder Valier

o

Janet Simon
o

Thomas P Dompier
o

Zachary Y. Kerr
View
 Show more
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Correlates of physical activity in a national sample of girls and boys in Grades 4 through 12
August 1999 · Health Psychology
 James F Sallis

Wendell C Taylor

Judith J Prochaska
  [...]
 John C. Geraci
Psychological, biological, social, and physical environmental variables were examined for their
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 [...]

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The purposes of the study were to assess differences in physical activity levels and correlates of
physical activity among overweight (≥ 85th percentile of body mass index for their sex and age)
and non-overweight (< 85th percentile) youth. The sample included 509 seventh through twelfth
graders. Activity was measured by a 7-day, 46-item activity checklist. Overweight girls were more
sedentary ... [Show full abstract]
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A Randomized Controlled Trial of Single Versus Multiple Health Behavior Change: Promoting
Physical A...
May 2004 · Health Psychology
 James F Sallis

Judith J Prochaska
Targeting multiple behaviors for change may provide significant health benefits. This study
compared interventions targeting physical activity and nutrition (PAN) concurrently versus
physical activity (PA) alone. Adolescents (N=138) were randomized to the PAN or PA intervention
or control condition (n=46 per group). Primary outcomes were change in PA accelerometer and
3-day dietary recording from ... [Show full abstract]
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Do All Children Have Places to be Active? Disparities in Access to Physical Activity Environments
in...
November 2011

Debbie Lou

Wendell C Taylor
Children who live in lower-income communities and communities of color are more likely to be
overweight or obese than White children and children from more affluent backgrounds. They
also are likelier to live in neighborhoods with barriers to physical activity such as lower-quality
sidewalks, fewer parks and greater danger from crime and traffic. Regular physical activity can
improve health and ... [Show full abstract]
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Last Updated: 18 Oct 2018

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