Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1, 8-19
Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/jaem/5/1/2
©Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/jaem-5-1-2
Department of Biology, Faculty of Applied sciences, Umm AlQura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
*Corresponding author: comup.fm@hotmail.com
Abstract Plastic disposal is one of the greatest problems facing the environment today, as vast amounts of
synthetic plastic remain non degradable. A number of microorganisms have the ability to degrade different types of
plastic under suitable conditions, but due to the hardness of these polymers and their non-solubility in water,
biological decomposition is a slow process. Natural plastics are made from plant and animal sources, or produced by
a range of microorganisms, must be introduced. Some bacterial strains can produce and store bioplastics using
carbon sources under suitable fermentation conditions. Such biomaterials are called polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
or biological polyester. They are safe, have no toxic by-products and can be degraded easily by microorganisms.
Keywords: biodegradation, synthetic plastic, natural plastic, PHA, biodegradability tests
Cite This Article: Fatimah Alshehrei, “Biodegradation of Synthetic and Natural Plastic by Microorganisms.”
Journal of Applied & Environmental Microbiology, vol. 5, no. 1 (2017): 8-19. doi: 10.12691/jaem-5-1-2.
Figure 1. The percentage of municipal solid wastes in Makah city according to the Holy Makah Municipality report (2014)
Journal of Applied & Environmental Microbiology 9
Due to the presence of plastics in municipal wastes, are linear [12]. Examples include phenol–formaldehyde,
many countries do not allow the incineration of these polyurethanes, etc…
wastes. Instead, plastics are disposed of through open,
uncontrolled burning and land-filling. Various health 2.2. Design Properties
problems can be present as a result of open burning of
these wastes which release pollutants into the air. In addition, Plastics are also classified based upon their relevance to
the burning of Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics produces the manufacturing process and design. Different parameters
persistent organic pollutants known as furans and dioxins, can be used, such as electrical conductivity, durability,
and the burning of polyethylene, polyurethane, polyvinyl tensile strength, degradability and thermal stability.
chloride and polystyrene produces toxic irritant products
that lead to immune disorders and lung diseases, and are 2.3. Degradability Properties
classified as possible human carcinogens [5].
Plastic can degrade by a variety of mechanisms such as The chemical properties of plastics can be used as criteria
chemical, thermal, photoxidation and biodegradation, all for differentiating them into degradable and non-degradable
of which take an extremely long time depending on the polymers [13]. Non-biodegradable plastics, usually known
molecular weight of polymer, it could take up to 1000 as synthetic plastics, are derived from petrochemicals.
years for some types of plastics to degrade [6]. They have a lot of repetitions of small monomer units;
Microorganisms can also play a vital role in this process, make them a very high molecular weight.
as over 90 genera of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes have In comparison, biodegradable plastics are made from
the ability to degrade plastic [7]. Generally, the biodegradation renewable resources that are completely biodegrade in
of plastic by microorganisms is a very slow process, and their natural forms, such as components of living plants,
some microorganisms can’t degrade certain plastics [8]. animals and algae as source of cellulose, starches, protein
Biodegradable plastics are materials designed to and algal materials. They can also be produced by a range
degrade under environmental conditions or in municipal of microorganisms [14]. Biodegradable plastics usually
and industrial biological waste treatment facilities, and break down upon interaction with UV, water, enzymes
thus open the way for new waste management strategies and gradual changes in pH. There are four types of
[9]. Some strains of Microorganisms can produce degradable plastics: Photodegradable bioplastics,
Polyhydroxy Alkonates (PHA), a bio plastic that is safe, compostable bioplastics, bio-based bioplastics and
has no toxic effects and can be easily biodegraded [10]. biodegradable bioplastics [15].
This study focuses on the role of microorganisms in the Photodegradable bio plastic has light sensitive groups
biodegradation of synthetic and natural plastics polymers, connected directly into the backbone of the polymer.
and describes the biodegradation pathways. Ultraviolet Radiation exposure for a long time can
disintegrate their polymeric structure, rendering them
open to further bacterial degradation. Landfills, however,
2. Categories and Classification of Plastics typically lack sunlight, thus keeping these plastics non-
degraded [15].
There are various types of plastics, classified according Bio-based bioplastics are defined as “plastics” in
to their properties and chemical structure. which 100% of the carbon is derived from renewable
agricultural and forestry resources, such as corn starch,
2.1. Thermal Properties soybean protein and cellulose.
Compostable bioplastics are decomposed biologically
Based on the plastic’s thermal properties, plastics can in a composting process that occurs at a similar rate to
be dividing in two groups: thermoplastics and thermosetting other compostable materials, without leaving visible toxic
polymers. remainders. In order to designate a plastic as bio-compostable,
2.1.1. Thermoplastics its total biodegradability, its disintegration degree and the
possible ecological toxicity of its degraded materials must
Thermoplastics are polymers cannot change in their be determined by standardized tests.
chemical composition when heated, and can therefore Biodegradable bioplastics are fully degraded by
undergo moulding multiple times. These polymers are microorganisms, without leaving visible toxic remainders.
different types such as Polyethylene (PE), polypropylene The term “biodegradable” refers to materials that can
(PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and disintegrate or break down naturally into biogases and
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). They are also known as biomass (mostly carbon dioxide and water) as a result of
common plastics, range from 20,000 to 500,000 AMU in being exposed to a microbial environment and humidity [16].
molecular weight and have different numbers of repeating Polyhydroxyalkanoic acids (PHAs) are a significant
units derived from a simple monomer unit [11]. type of biodegradable plastics, since they possess
properties similar to conventional plastics. They are
2.1.2. Thermosetting Polymers completely biodegradable but may be melted and
Thermosetting polymers are different types of plastics. modelled, making them ideal for use in consumer products.
Thermosetting polymers remain solid and cannot be melt Figure 2, displays the typical PHA structure, as well
and modified. The chemical change here is irreversible, as the structures of most important PHAs: poly
and hence these plastics are not recyclable because they (3-hydroxybutyrate) and poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-
have a highly cross-linked structure, whereas thermoplastic hydroxyvalerate) [17].
10 Journal of Applied & Environmental Microbiology
Figure 2. Structure of biodegradable plastic polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and its derivatives poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) PHB and
poly(3-hydroxybutryrate – co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Adapted from Shah et al., 2007 [18]
Figure 3. Chemical structures of petrochemical plastics Polyethylene (PE), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS),
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) and Polyurethane (PU). Adapted from Shah et al., 2008 [18]
Journal of Applied & Environmental Microbiology 11
2.4. Chemical Structure Condensation polymers are made from monomers that
have two different groups of atoms that can join together,
Synthetic Plastics are classified according to the such as ester or amide links. They include polymers like
characteristics of the reactions by which they are formed. polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl
If all atoms in the monomers are incorporated into a chloride, polyurethane and polyethylene terephthalate,
polymer, the polymer is called an addition polymer; if shown in Figure 3.
some monomer atoms are released into small molecules,
such as water, the polymer is called a condensation 2.5. Manufacturing and Uses
polymer. Most addition polymers are made from
monomers containing a double bond between carbon Plastics are relatively very low-cost, durable, and very easy
atoms. Such monomers are called olefins, and most to manufacture. The following table (Figure 4) describes
commercial addition polymers are polyolefins. some commonly-used plastics and their applications [19].
Figure 4.
12 Journal of Applied & Environmental Microbiology
Plastics can degrade via different mechanisms: thermal, 3.1.2. Anaerobic Biodegradation
chemical, photo and biological degradation. The Anaerobic biodegradation is the breakdown of organic
degradation of plastics is a physical or chemical change in contaminants by microorganisms when oxygen is not
polymers that occurs as a result of environmental factors, present. It is also an important component of the natural
like light, heat, moisture, chemical conditions or attenuation of contaminants at hazardous waste sites.
biological activity [20]. Biodegradation is a bio-chemical Some anaerobic bacteria use nitrate, sulphate, iron,
process that refers to the degradation and assimilation of manganese and carbon dioxide as their electron acceptors,
polymers by living microorganisms, to produce to break down organic chemicals into smaller compounds.
degradation products [21]. C plastic → CH4 + CO2 + H2O + C residual +Biomass
Microorganisms are unable to transport the polymers
3.1. Biodegradation of Plastics directly through their outer cell membranes, into the cells
where most of the biochemical processes take place, since
Biodegradation is defined as any physical or chemical polymer molecule are long and not water-soluble. In order
change in a material caused by biological activity. to use such materials as a carbon and energy source,
Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes microbes developed a strategy in which they excrete
are involved in the degradation of both natural and extracellular enzymes that depolymerize the polymers
synthetic plastics. Plastics are usually biodegraded outside the cells [24].
aerobically in nature, anaerobically in sediments and Anaerobic and aerobic biodegradation mechanism pathways
landfills and partly aerobically in compost and soil. are given in Figure 5. Extracellular and intracellular
Carbon dioxide and water are produced during aerobic depolymerize enzymes are actively involved in biological
biodegradation, while anaerobic biodegradation produces degradation of polymers. During degradation, microbial
carbon dioxide, water and methane [22]. exoenzymes break down complex polymers, yielding
short chains or smaller molecules like oligomers, dimers
3.1.1. Aerobic Biodegradation
and monomers. These molecules are small enough to be
Also known as aerobic respiration, aerobic biodegradation water-soluble, and can pass through the semi-permeable
is an important part of the natural attenuation of outer bacterial membranes to be used as carbon and
contaminants in many hazardous waste sites. Aerobic energy sources. This initial process of breaking down
microbes use oxygen as an electron acceptor, and break polymers is called depolymerization; and when the end
down organic chemicals into smaller organic compounds. products are inorganic species (e.g., CO2, H2O, or CH4),
CO2 and water are the by-products of this process [23]. the degradation is called mineralization [24].
Figure 5. The General Mechanism of Plastic biodegradation under Aerobic Conditions [24]
Journal of Applied & Environmental Microbiology 13
attack and remove this section, thus the polyethylene with Even though PP is a polyolefin, and thus prone to
the hydrophilic matrix continues to be hydro-biodegraded. oxidative degradation like PE, the substitution of methyl
If a pro-oxidant additive was used, biodegradation occurs for hydrogen in the ß position makes it more resistant to
following photodegradation and chemical degradation. If microbial attacks, as previously discussed in the section
the pro-oxidant is a metal compound, after transition- dealing with factors that affect biodegradability (namely
metal catalyzed thermal peroxidation, biodegradation of structural complexity). The decreasing order of susceptibility
low molecular weight oxidation products occurs of polymers to degradation in soil mixed with municipal
sequentially [31]. The process is depicted in Figure 7. refuse was PE > LDPE > HDPE. This was revealed by
analyzing sample weight loss, CO2 evolution, changes in
3.4.2. Polypropylene (PP) tensile strength, and changes in FTIR and bacterial
Polypropylene is a thermoplastic that is commonly used activity in the soil.
for plastic mouldings, stationary folders, packaging Studies reported on biodegradation of PP, many microbial
materials, plastic tubs, non-absorbable sutures, diapers, etc. communities such as certain fungal species like Aspergillus
It can be degraded by exposure to ultraviolet radiation niger and bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio have
from sunlight, and it can also be oxidized at high been reported to biodegrade PP. A decrease in viscosity and
temperatures. The possibility of degrading PP with the formation of new groups, namely carbonyl and carboxyl,
microorganisms has also been investigated [33]. were observed during the degradation process [34].
Figure 7. The Mechanism of biodegradation of polyethylene. Adapted from Vasile, 1993 [32]
Journal of Applied & Environmental Microbiology 15
Figure 8. Scanning (a,b) and transmission (c,d) electron micrograph of Pseudomonas putida U (a,b) and its fadBA β-oxidation mutant (b,d) cultured in
a chemically defined solid medium containing 7-phenlhepanoic acid (5mM) as a source of aromatic PHAs and 4-phenlhepanoic acid (5mM) as an
energy source. Bar = 1 μm (Luengo et al. 2003)
elongation and change of polymer molar mass This can be tested by using Gas Chromatography,
[57,58]. or manually by titrating with barium hydroxide
3. Changes in the chemical properties of the polymer [60,61].
in synthetic media, including the formation or 6. Radiolabeling is used particularly for investigating
disappearance of functional groups as determined slowly degradable materials in a matrix containing
by FTIR, can be measured. The molecular weight carbon sources other than the plastics [62].
and molecular weight distribution of the degraded 7. Biological tests: A very simple semi-quantitative
products or intermediates are observed by method is the ‘clear-zone’ test. This is an agar plate
techniques such as TLC, GCMS and NMR [34]. test in which the polymer is dispersed as very fine
4. CO2 evolution / O2 consumption: Under aerobic particles within the synthetic medium agar, which
conditions, microbes use oxygen to oxidize carbon, results in the agar having an opaque appearance.
and form carbon dioxide as a major metabolic end After inoculation with microorganisms, the
product. Consequently, the consumption of oxygen formation of a clear halo around the colony
(respirometry test) or the formation of carbon indicates that the organisms are at least able to
dioxide (strum test) is the most often used method depolymerize the polymer, which is the first step of
to measure biodegradation in laboratory tests, as it biodegradation. This method is usually applied to
gives direct information on the bio-conversion of screen organisms that can degrade a certain
the carbon backbone of the polymer to metabolic polymer [63,64]. Measurements of clear-zone
end product [59]. formation in agar plates and the metabolic activity
5. Anaerobic microorganisms predominantly produce of the cells in the culture and in the biofilm can be
a mixture of CO₂ and methane, called biogas, as an done by ATP assays, protein analysis and FAD
extracellular product of their metabolic reactions. analysis [34].
of thermo-oxidation and UV-irradiation on the molecular weight [62] Albertsson A-C. 1978. Biodegradation of synthetic polymers. II. A
changes. Polym Degrad Stab 55:237-245. limited microbial conversion of 14C in polyethylene to 14CO2 by
[59] Hoffmann J, Řezníčèková I, Vaňòková S, Kupec J. 1997. some soil fungi. J Appl Polym Sci 22:3419-3433.
Manometric determination of biological degradability of [63] Nishida H, Tokiwa Y. 1993. Distribution of poly(β-
substances poorly soluble in aqueous environments. Int hydroxybutyrate) and poly(ε-caprolactone)aerobic degrading
Biodeterior Biodegrad 39:327-332. microorganisms in different environments. J Environ Polym
[60] Gartiser S, Wallrabenstein M, Stiene G. 1998. Assessment of Degrad 1: 227-233.
several test methods for the determination of the anaerobic [64] Abou-Zeid D-M, Müller R-J, Deckwer W-D. 2001. Degradation
biodegradability of polymers. J Environ Polym Degrad 6: 159-173. of natural and synthetic polyesters under anaerobic conditions. J
[61] Reischwitz A, Stoppok E, Buchholz K. 1997. Anaerobic Biotechnol 86: 113-126.
degradation of poly-3-hydroxybutyrate and poly-3-
hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate. Biodegradation 8: 313-319.