YOGYAKARTA, JUNE 2008

MM DARISSALAM
1. Angkatan ‘71
Teknik Geologi UGM
(8 years + 3 months)

2. Oil Industry
1. 24+ years in 7 oil coy’s.)
2. 7 years Petroleum Consultant

3. Terakhir
PSC Tropik Energi
References & Sources of Presentation Materials

• Shlumberger : Oil Field Review, Short Courses & Promotions slides,

Manuals, Publications, etc.
• Baker Hudges : Publications & Manuals
• Halliburton : Published slide and books
• Publications & In-house Training materials from: TOTAL, Chevron,
Texaco etc.
• AAPG & SPE journals & slides bank
• Literatures:
– Development Geology Æ P Dikey
– Development Geology Reference Manuals Æ AAPG
– Petroleum Engineering Hand Books: Amyx, Craft, Campbel, etc.
– Log Analysis Books : Batteman, Dewan, Helander etc
– Petroleum Reservoir, Stratigraphy and Tectonic Books : …..

Note : Due to the rush preparation of these presentation slides, the sources and
references are not noted yet.
PRESENTATION OUTLINE
I. INTRODUCTION
II. WELLSITE GEOLOGY
III. LOG INTERPRETATION
IV. WELL TESTING
V. PETROLEUM RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
VI. CORRELATIONS & MAPPING
VII. RESERVES ESTIMATION
VIII. RESERVOIR SIMULATION
IX. PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT
X. RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT &
PROJECT ECONOMIC
 I. INTRODUCTION
1. COURSE OBJECTIVE

2. UPSTREAM PETROLEUM INDUSTRY &

DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST

3. PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
a. SOURCE ROCKS & MATURATION
b. HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
c. CAP ROCKS / SEALS
d. STRUCTURE / TRAP
e. RESERVOIR ROCKS & FLUID

4. DRILLING
 COURSE OBJECTIVE
• To introduce participants the general
petroleum industrial processes and
especially during oil/gas field
development phase
• To provide participants the basic of
petroleum development/production
geology as entry provisions into
upstream petroleum industry
• Sharing knowledge and “silaturachmi”
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY SECTORS

Concession Acquiring UPSTREAM

& •HIGH RISK
EXPLORATION •HIGH REWARD
•HIGH INVEST.
Transporting Petroleum

DEVELOPMENT Offshore

&
Oil Field Platform

PRODUCTION Oil Field

Pipeline Refinery
Tanker

Pipeline

Consumers
Local Railroad Tank Cars
Tank Truck Distributor
Mobil
Mobil

Industrial
Customers
24803

DOWNSTREAM TRANSPORTATION
Refining Petroleum Fuel Gas
•LOW RISK Gasoline

•LOW REWARD Kerosene –

Jet Fuel
•HIGH INVEST. OIL REFINEMENT / Heating
PROCESSING
Oil

Crude Oil Lubricating

Vapor Oil

Residual Products–
Liquid Crude Oil Asphalt,
Heavy Fuel Oil 24803
 G&G STUDY G&GR STUDY
DEV. DRILLING, WORKOVER
SEISMIC SURVEY
PRODUCING, EOR etc.
DRILLINGS AD’L SEISMIC
PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT MARKETING

EXPLORATION PHASE DEVELOPMENT PHASE

 UPSTREAM PETROLEUM
LIFE CYCLE
CONVENTIONAL
PRODUCTION

TIME

SECONDARY
DEVELOPMENT RECOVERY ABANDONMENT
EXPLORATION
 CONVENTIONAL
PRODUCTION

Development
Development &
& Operation
Operation Geoscientists
Geoscientists

Exploration
Exploration
Geoscientists
Geoscientists

Geophysicists
Geophysicists

TIME

EXPLORATION

DEVELOPMENT SECONDARY RECOVERY ABANDONMENT

 SYNERGIC TEAM
IN UPSTREAM OIL INDUSTRY
Surface Prod. Eng.,
Processing Eng.,
Transportation
Eng. & Marketing
Production Engineer

DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST
•Reservoir Characterization
•Reserves Estimation
Geologists & Reservoir Engineer •Reservoir Optimization
 Petroleum Development Geology
¾ Development Geology = Production Geology = Reservoir
Geology
¾ Hybrid discipline: geology on the field and reservoir scale.
¾ Principal Responsibilities of The Development Geologist
(DG):
ƒ Estimation of Volumetric Reserves
ƒ Justifying drilling & workover options to improve recovery
ƒ Plan and acquisition geological data while drilling & production
ƒ Providing a framework for maximum financial return for his
company
¾ DG requires good knowledge of many disciplines :
ƒ Structural Geology.
ƒ Stratigraphy and sedimentology.
ƒ Reservoir engineering.
ƒ Drilling methods and engineering.
ƒ Petrophysics.
ƒ Laboratory for rock and fluid
ƒ Seismology.
ƒ Petroleum Economics and management.
 What is a petroleum exploration &
development geologists?
EXPLORATION GEOLOGIST DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST

DISCOVERS HYDROCARBON DEVELOPES & PRODUCES

RESERVES
Technical and functional expertise
on regional geology (basin /
petroleum system analysis, tectonic
and stratigraphy), geophysical
(acquisistion, processing and
interpretation), computer and other
technical
HYDROCARBON
Technical and functional expertise
on reservoir geology, log
interpretation, detailed correlation
& mapping of flow unit, basic
petroleum engineering, drilling, field
operation, computer and other
technical

Additional: Financial awareness – understanding the business. Project

management, team work, achieving results skills Interpersonal,
communication, serving skills
WHY COMPANY SHOULD HAVE
A DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST
+ Engineers, Geologists and
Geophysicists don’t just specialize in
different fields, they think in different
ways.

+ There is a communication problem:

the development geologist must be
able to bridge the gap.
 Bridging the Disciplines
Enhanced operational efficiencies through new,
multi-disciplinary workflows
E&P Management

Drilling Reservoir
Engineering
Geoscience Engineering

Geophysical Processing
 responsibility of the DG in
PREDEVELOPMENT EVALUATION

After field discovery :

• Evaluate field for
reserves, well
placement and
design criteria.
 responsibility of the DG in
DEVELOPMENT DRILLING

DG is responsible for:
– Initiating development
well recommendations
– Decide what reservoir
geological data should
be collected and prepare
the geological prognosis
– Monitoring these wells
during drilling
– Adjusting development
plans as wells are drilled
 responsibility of the DG in
WELL SURVEILLANCE
• Generally handled by the reservoir engineer (RE)
• However, when performance is not as expected or when
remedial work is required (workover, stimulation &
optimization) the DG inputs geological constraint.

•RE & DG work together to

evaluate unusual reservoir
performance.

•RE & DG then make

remedial recommendations
 responsibility of the DG in

FIELD STUDIES
One of the most important
roles of the DG :
• Re-evaluation of old fields
and recognition of new
opportunities in these
fields.
• This role will become
increasingly important in
the future as reserves
decrease.
• Improved oil recovery as
well as enhance oil
recovery.
 CONCLUSION
• Development geology is not only a
rewarding, but a lucrative field for the
small and independent operator.
• In the future, this field (which
requires skills in many oil/gas fields)
will become more important as
reserves decline.
• The bottom line in all petroleum
exploitation is financial and
economic evaluations require input
from many disciplines: the DG must
have these skills.
• The most important ability is
RESERVES ESTIMATION and
RESERVOIR OPTIMIZATION.
a. SOURCE ROCKS & MATURATION
b. HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
c. CAP ROCKS / SEALS
d. STRUCTURE / TRAP
e. RESERVOIR ROCKS
Petroleum System Processes
• Generation - Burial of source rock to temperature and
pressure regime sufficient to convert organic matter into
hydrocarbon
• Migration - Movement of hydrocarbon out of the source
rock toward and into a trap
• Accumulation - A volume of hydrocarbon migrating into
a trap faster than the trap leaks resulting in an
accumulation
• Preservation - Hydrocarbon remains in reservoir and is
not altered by biodegradation or “water-washing”
• Timing - Trap forms before and during hydrocarbon
migrating
Petroleum System Processes

Gas
Cap
Oil
Entrapment
Accumulation Water Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock

Migration
120° F
Source
Rock 350° F
Generation
2480
 SOURCE ROCKS
• Hydrocarbon originates from
minute organisms in seas and
lakes. When they die, they sink to
the bottom where they form
organic-rich "muds" in fine
sediments (usually become gray–
black shale).
• These "muds" are in a reducing
environment or "kitchen", which
strips oxygen from the sediments
leaving hydrogen and carbon.
• The sediments are compacted to
form organic-rich rocks with very
low permeability.
• The hydrocarbon can migrate
very slowly to nearby porous
rocks, displacing the original
formation water.
The principal zone of oil formation
during the thermal generation of
petroleum hydrocarbons

• If the temperature is too

low, the organic material
cannot transform into
hydrocarbon.
• If the temperature is too
high, the organic material
and hydrocarbons are
destroyed.
 HYDROCARBON MIGRATION

• Hydrocarbon migration takes place in two stages:

– Primary migration - from the source rock to a porous rock. This is a
complex process and not fully understood. It is probably limited to a
few hundred metres.

– Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap. This occurs
by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamics through a
continuous water-filled pore system. It can take place over large
distances.
 CAP ROCK
• A reservoir needs a cap rock.

• Impermeable cap rock keeps the

fluids trapped in the reservoir.
• It must have zero permeability.
• Some examples are:
– Shales.
– Evaporites such as salt or anhyhdrite.
– Zero-porosity carbonates.
 The reservoir form depends on the
TRAPS depositional environment and post depositional
events such as foldings and faulting.
GENERAL The criteria for a structure is that it must have:
•Closure, i.e. the fluids are unable to
escape.
•Be large enough to be economical.
 STRUCTURAL TRAPS
Structural traps are formed where the space for
petroleum is limited by a structural feature
• Tilted fault-block traps are formed where the upward flow of the
petroleum is prevented by impermeability along the fault plane
and by an overlying cap or seal: common in the North Sea.

• Anticlinal traps are

formed by folding
in the rocks.

• Unconformity
traps are
generated where
an erosional break
in the stratigraphic
succession is
followed by
impermeable
strata.
 SALT DOME TRAP
• Salt Dome traps are caused when "plastic" salt is forced upwards.
• The salt dome pierces through layers and compresses rocks
above. This results in the formation of various traps:
• In domes created by formations pushed up by the salt.
• Along the flanks and below the overhang in porous rock abutting
on the impermeable salt itself.
 STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS

„Stratigraphic
traps are traps
created by the
limits of the
reservoir rock
itself, without
any structural
control.
 PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS
DEFINITION

• A body of porous and permeable rock

containing oil and gas through which
fluid may move toward recovery
opening under the pressure existing or
that may be applied. (Amyx, 1960)
 TYPE OF RESERVOIR ROCKS
D Sedimentary:
¾ Clastic ; eg. Sandstone, Conglomerate
¾ Non Clastic ; eg. Limestone, Evavorite.
D Igneous:
¾ Plotunic ; e.g. Granite
¾ Volcanic ; eg. Basalt
¾ Volcanic Clastic : eg Tuff, Breccia.
D Metamorphic:
¾ eg. Marble, gneiss, quartzite, slate etc.
 Reservoir Rocks
Î Reservoir rocks need two properties to be successful:
1. Pore spaces able to retain hydrocarbon.
2. Permeability which allows the fluid to move.
DEFINITION OF POROSITY
Vp Vb − Vma
Porosity = φ = =
Vb Vb
 POROSITY SANDSTONES
• The porosity of a sandstone depends on the packing arrangement
of its grains.
• The system can be examined using spheres.

In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore

space accounts for 26% of the total
volume.

With a Cubic packing

arrangement, the pore space fills
47% of the total volume.
In practice, the theoretical value is rarely
reached because:
a) the grains are not perfectly round, and
b) the grains are not of uniform size.
 POROSITY AND GRAIN SIZE

• A rock can be made up of small grains or

large grains but have the same porosity.

• Porosity depends on grain packing, not the

grain size.
 PORE-SPACE CLASSIFICATION
Total Pore Space
• Total porosity, φt = Bulk Volume
Interconnected Pore Space
• Effective porosity, φe = Bulk Volume

• Very clean sandstones : φt = φe

• Poorly to moderately well -cemented intergranular

materials: φt ≈ φe
• Highly cemented materials and most carbonates:
φe < φt
 DIAGENESIS
• The environment can also involve subsequent alterations of the
rock such as:
• Chemical changes.
• Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. An
example is the replacement of some of the calcium atoms in
limestone by magnesium to form dolomite.

• Mechanical changes - fracturing in a tectonically-active region.

 CARBONATE POROSITY TYPES
• Carbonate porosity is very heterogeneous. It is classified into a
number of types:

Interparticle porosity: Each grain is

separated, giving a similar pore space
arrangement as sandstone.

Intergranular porosity: Pore space is

created inside the individual grains
which are interconnected.
Intercrystalline porosity: Produced by
spaces between carbonate crystals.

Mouldic porosity: Pores created by the

dissolution of shells, etc.
 CARBONATE POROSITY TYPES
Fracture porosity:
• Pore spacing created by the
cracking of the rock fabric.

Channel porosity:
• Similar to fracture porosity
but larger.

Vuggy porosity:
• Created by the dissolution
of fragments, but
unconnected.
 CARBONATE POROSITY

• Intergranular porosity is called "primary

porosity".

• Porosity created after deposition is called

"secondary porosity".

• The latter is in two forms:

– Fractures
– Vugs.
 FRACTURES
• Fractures are caused when a rigid rock is strained beyond its
elastic limit - it cracks.

• The forces causing it to break are in a constant direction,

hence all the fractures are also aligned.

• Fractures are an important source of permeability in low

porosity carbonate reservoirs.
 VUGS

• Vugs are defined as non-connected pore space.

• They do not contribute to the producible fluid total.
• Vugs are caused by the dissolution of soluble
material such as shell fragments after the rock has
been formed.
• They usually have irregular shapes.
 PERMEABILITY
• The rate of flow of a liquid through a
formation depends on:
– The pressure drop.
– The viscosity of the fluid.
– The permeability.

• The permeability is a measure of the ease at

which a fluid can flow through a formation.
• The unit of measurement is the Darcy.
• Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in
millidarcies, (md).
 DARCY LAW

• K = permeability, in Darcies.
• L = length of the section of rock, in centimetres.
• Q = flow rate in centimetres / sec.
• P1, P2 = pressures in bars.
• A = surface area, in cm2.
• µ = viscocity in centipoise.
PERMEABILITY AND ROCKS
In formations with large grains, the permeability is
high and the flow rate larger.
 PERMEABILITY AND ROCKS
• In a rock with small grains the permeability is less
and the flow lower.

• Grain size has no bearing on porosity, but has a

large effect on permeability.
 ANISOTROPY

Horizontal Permeability
K
K V
≤ 1
V
≤ 1
Vertical Permeability
K H

K h

The permeability in the horizontal direction is controlled by the

large grains.
The permeability in the vertical direction is controlled by the
small grains
 CLASTIC
RESERVOIRS
• Sandstone usually has
regular grains; and is
referred to as a
grainstone.
• Porosity : Determined
mainly by the packing and
mixing of grains.
• Permeability : Determined
mainly by grain size and
packing, connectivity and
shale content.
• Fractures may be
present.
 CARBONATE
RESERVOIRS
• Carbonates normally have
a very irregular structure.
• Porosity: Determined by
the type of shells, etc. and LIMESTONES
by depositional and post-
depositional events
(fracturing, leaching, etc.).
• Permeability: Determined
by deposition and post-
deposition events,
fractures.
• Fractures can be very
important in carbonate
reservoirs. DOLOMITES
© Schlumberger 1999
 DRILLING
Pipeline to
Christmas Flow
Tree Process
and
Storage

☯ Making a hole or well to Surface

Casing
make access into
reservoir and to Cement

produce hydrocarbon Intermediate

(oil & gas) from Casing

subsurface.
Cement
☯ To collect the Production
Casing
subsurface geological
and reservoir Tubing

data/information for Completion

Fluid
further hydrocarbon
exploration as well as Packer Cement
development.
Oil or Gas Zone
Well
Fluids Perforations
 OIL EXTRACTING HISTORY

In the earliest day of oil

production, oil was
collected from surface
seepages.
Mine shafts were dug to
make a well (like water
well in Java) to produce
shallow oil.
In the early 19th century
peoples developed cable
tool drilling
 DRILLING
TYPE OF DRILLING :
• Cable Tool Drilling
• Rotary Rig Drilling

TYPE OF RIG :
• Onshore drilling rigs
• Semi-submersible rigs
• Jack-up units

TYPE OF WELL DRILLING :

• Conventional Drilling
• Directional Drilling
• Slant Drilling
CABLE TOOL
DERRICK
JACK UP UNIT
A jack-up unit is a barge with legs that can be
lowered or raised. The barge is towed to the
drilling location with its legs in the raised
position. Once in position, the legs are lowered.
When they reach the sea-bed, the barge's body
is hoisted above the water, creating a stable
drilling platform. The length of the legs
determines the depth of water in which a jack-
up barge can be used. They can generally be
used in up to 100 meters of water. Jack-up
barges are widely employed in the relatively
shallow waters of the North Sea's Southern
basin.
SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE RIG

A semi-submersible drilling rig is normally a self-

propelled working platform supported by vertical
columns on submerged pontoons. By varying the
amount of ballast water in the pontoons, the unit
can be raised or lowered in the water.
A semi-submersible vessel is normally held in
position by up to eight very large anchors, or by
dynamic positioning: computer controlled
directional propellers to keep the vessel stationary
relative to the sea-bed, compensating for wind,
wave or current.
Semi-submersibles can drill in water depths to 300
meters or more all year round.
 SETTING UP THE RIG
• Depending upon the remoteness of the
drill site and its access, equipment may be
transported to the site by truck,
helicopter or barge.
• Some rigs are built on ships or barges for
work on inland water where there is no
foundation to support a rig (as in marshes
or lakes).
• Once the equipment is at the site, the rig
is set up. Here are the major systems of
a land oil rig:
– Power System
– Mechanical System
– Rotating Equipment
– Casing
– Circulation System
– Derrick
– Blowout Preventer
 RIG EQUIPMENT
POWER AND MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
• Mechanical system - driven
by electric motors
– hoisting system - used for
lifting heavy loads; consists of
a mechanical winch
(drawworks) with a large
steel cable spool, a block-and-
tackle pulley and a receiving
storage reel for the cable
– turntable - part of the drilling
apparatus
• Power System
– large diesel engines - burn
diesel-fuel oil to provide the
main source of power
– electrical generators -
powered by the diesel engines
to provide electrical power
 RIG EQUIPMENT
THE DERRICK
• Derrick - support structure: holds
the drilling apparatus
– tall enough to allow new
sections of drill pipe to be
added to the drilling apparatus
as drilling progresses
• Blowout preventers and Rams -
high-pressure valves (located
below the rotary table or on the
sea floor)
– seal the high-pressure drill
lines and relieve pressure
when necessary to prevent a
blowout (uncontrolled gush of
gas or oil to the surface, often
associated with fire)
– Can shut off either the annular
space (between pipe and well)
or the complete hole.
 RIG EQUIPMENT
ROTATING EQUIPMENT
• Rotating equipment - used for rotary
drilling
– swivel - large handle that holds the weight of
the drill string; allows the string to rotate and
makes a pressure-tight seal on the hole
– kelly - four- or six-sided pipe that transfers
rotary motion to the turntable and drill string
– turntable or rotary table - drives the rotating
motion using power from electric motors
– drill string - consists of drill pipe
(connected sections of about 30 ft / 10 m)
and drill collars (larger diameter, heavier
pipe that fits around the drill pipe and places
weight on the drill bit)
• Drill bit(s) - end of the drill that actually cuts
up the rock; comes in many shapes and
materials (tungsten carbide steel, diamond)
that are specialized for various drilling tasks
and rock formations
• Casing - large-diameter concrete pipe that
lines the drill hole, prevents the hole from
collapsing, and allows drilling mud to
circulate
 RIG EQUIPMENT
THE MUD CIRCULATION PROCESS
• There's more to drilling than simply
rotating the bit.
• Fluid is circulated while the drilling
proceeds.
• Powerful pumps move the fluid down
the pipe, through the bit and back to
the surface, carrying the cuttings and
other debris with it.
• Thus, on a rotary rig (unlike the cable
tool), drilling can be continuous as
stopping to bail the cuttings is no
longer required.
• The drilling mud also stabilizes the
walls of the hole.
 RIG EQUIPMENT
CIRCULATION SYSTEM
• Circulation system - pumps drilling
mud under pressure through the kelly,
rotary table, drill pipes and drill collars
– pump - sucks mud from the mud pits
and pumps it to the drilling apparatus
– pipes and hoses - connects pump to
drilling apparatus
– mud-return line - returns mud from hole
– shale shaker - shaker/sieve that
separates rock cuttings from the mud
– shale slide - conveys cuttings to the
reserve pit
– reserve pit - collects rock cuttings
separated from the mud
– mud pits - where drilling mud is mixed
and recycled
– mud-mixing hopper - where new mud is
mixed and then sent to the mud pits
RIG EQUIPMENT
THE
DRILLSTRING
 CONTROLLING
THE WEIGHT ON THE BIT

The weight is held partly by

the hook etc. If not, the drill
bit wouldn’t turn! Collars are
added to the drill string to
add more weight

Hence the driller can control

the weight on the bit by
adding/ removing collars or
by raising/lowering the
swivel tackle.
 TYPE OF BIT - Which bit?

•Largest bit is used first, decreasing with depth

•For each formation & depth have a particular set of
jet sizes, gallons per minte, pump strokes per minte,
minimum annular velocity (speed mud returns at to
keep the hole clean), bit hydraulic horsepower.
•Hence the hydraulic and bit programs work in
tandem to most efficiently drill the well giving best
cost per foot, drilling time, minimum down time.
CONTINUING THE DRILLING PROCESS

• Drilling continues in stages:

– Drill
– run and cement new casings, then drill again.
• When the rock cuttings from the mud reveal the oil sand
from the reservoir rock, the final depth may have been
reached.
• At this point, the drilling apparatus is removed from the
hole and perform several tests to confirm this finding:
– Well logging - lowering electrical and gas sensors into the hole
to take measurements of the rock formations
– Drill-stem testing - lowering a device into the hole to measure
the pressures, which will reveal whether reservoir rock has been
reached
– Core samples - taking samples of rock to look for characteristics
of reservoir rock
DRILLING PROBLEMS
Other Drilling Problems
 WELL COMPLETION TYPE

PRODUCING
SAND
1. Openhole Completion
PRODUCTION
STRING

Openhole completion
CASING
merupakan penyelesaian
sumur dimana casing
dipasang hanya sampai di CEMENT
atas zona produktif
(interest zone). Jadi sumur
diproduksi dengan kondisi PACKER

terbuka di sepanjang zona

CASING SHOE
produksi.
PRODUCING
LAYER
2. Liner Completion

Ada dua model penyelesaian sumur

menggunakan Liner Completion : PRODUCTI
ON STRING
1. Screen Liner Completion
CASING
Casing diset sampai di atas zona
produksi yang kemudian CEMENT
digabungkan dengan kombinasi liner
dan screen yang tidak disemen di
PACKER
seluruh permukaan zona produksi

PRODUCING LAYER
LINER HANGER
2. Perforated Liner Completion
CASING SHOE
Metode penyelesaian sumur dengan
melakukan pemasangan liner dan OIL SAND
disemen pada zona produktif yang
kemudian dilaksanakan pelobangan
(perforated) pada zona-zona yang SLOTTED LINER
paling produktif
LINER SHOE
3. Perforated Casing Completion PRODUCTION
STRING

Perforated casing CASING

completion adalah CEMENT
penyelesaian sumur
dengan menutup semua
zona produktif dengan PACKER
menggunakan casing

PRODUCING LAYER
dan disemen kemudian
dilakukan perforasi OIL SAND
(pelubangan) pada
PERFORATION
daerah-daerah produksi
di lubang sumur
CASING SHOE
 PRODUCING WELL
COMPLETION

THE MAST (CHRITMAST-TREE)

Setelah pemboran dinyatakan
berhasil dan mendapatkan minyak
atau gas, maka di kepala sumur
dipasang chritmas tree yang
didefinisikan sebagai rangkaian
dari valve dan fitting yang
digunakan untuk control produksi
dan disambungkan dengan bagian
atas tubing head. Pertama kali
christmas tree digunakan untuk
tekanan aliran rendah dan
menengah dari suatu sumur,
dimana rangkaian dari tees,
elbows, nipples, valve yang dibeli
secara terpisah dan dirangkaikan
jadi satu di lokasi.
• Wellsite geology is hybrid of
appllied geology on oil and gas well
drilling, its study rock cuttings and
wireline logs from oil and gas wells
to determine what rock formations
are being drilled into and how the JOB PORPOSES
drilling should proceed.

• Wellsite Geologist is geologist in

charge on data acquisition from oil
and gas well drilling operation.
They are required to monitor vital
operations during the course of the
well, make sure that the well
program are carried out perform
formation evaluation activities to
ensure the well is drilled and
evaluated in the most safe, efficient
manner, and cost-effective. They
also liaise with drilling engineers,
petroleum engineers and mud
logging geologist during the course
JOB SPIRIT
of projects.
TEAM WORK IN RIG SITE
1. COMPANY MAN
2. WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
3. DRILLING ENGINEER
4. TOOLPUSHER & RIG CREW
5. MUDLOGGING CREW
6. MUD & CHEMICAL ENGINEER & CREW
7. CEMENTING ENGINEER & CREW
8. WIRELOGGING ENGINEER & CREW
9. TESTING ENGINEER & CREW
10. OTHER SERVICES ENGINEERS & CREW
11. SUPPORTING CREW
THE RULERS
IN RIG SITE
COMPANY MAN IN SMALL COMPANY
LEADER &DECISION MAKER CO. MAN ALSO AS
DRLG. ENG.

GEOLOGIST
•MUD LOGGING DRLG ENG.
•MWD & LOGGING •CHEMICAL & CEMENTING
•WIRELINE LOGGING •DIRECTIONAL
•CORING •WELL COMPLETION
•WELL TESTING

TOOL PUSHER
•DRILLING
•RIG MAINTENANCE
 WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
GENERAL DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES
1. Supervision of “Formation Evaluation”
contractors (Mud Logging Geologists,
MWD Logging Engineers, Wireline
Logging Engineers, Coring and Well
Testing Personnel)
2. Logistics concerning the formation
evaluation contractors and their
equipment
3. All safety aspects for the well and
personnel during these evaluation
operations
4. Quality control of all evaluation results
and logs prior to accepting the data or
logs from those contractors
5. Providing relevant correlation and well
data to those contractors during their
operations
6. Checking all reports and logs from the
evaluation contractors prior to sending
them to oil company offices
 WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
GENERAL DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES
7. Monitoring and supervising the
collecting, processing and dispatching
of formation evaluation samples
8. Safe-guarding the collection, storage
and transmission of information and
reports at the wellsite
9. Wellsite interpretation of the formation
evaluation data
10. Checking and occasionally approving
and signing of service reports and
invoices of the formation evaluation
contractors
11. Keeping the drilling superintendent
and operations geologist fully
informed of all formation evaluation
operations
 WELL PROGNOSIS AND
PROSPECT DESCRIPTION

Wellsite Geologist should be

completely familiar with all
aspects of the drilling
prognosis. Particular attention
should be paid to any sections
which may require geological
decisions.
1. Determination of Primary and
Secondary Objectives
2. Determination of Casing Points
3. Detection of Overpressured
Intervals
4. Detection of Lost Circulation
Zones
 WELL PROGNOSIS AND
PROSPECT DESCRIPTION
5. Correlation and Detection of Marker Horizons
6. Determination of Geologic Basement or Economic Basement
7. Selection of Logging Run Intervals
8. A complete set of correlation logs and reports should be compiled
9. Near by well’s mudlogs, lithlogs and wireline logs should be used
as sources of information
 REGIONAL GEOLOGY PREPARATION
FOR WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
to anticipate if it should deviate from the prognosis

• Nature and depth of basement within the

basin
• Geologic age of the section
• Depositional environments and expected
lithologies
• Tectonic setting within the basin
• Formation pressure anomalies
• Hydrocarbon occurrences within the basin
• Basin correlations
 RIGSITE INFORMATION SOURCES USES
Wireline Logging Unit
• VSP Æ Used to “look ahead”, formation top confirmation
• RFT Æ Fluid sampling, Pressure determination, Oil/Water/Gas
gradients
• Resistivity Æ Water Saturation, Porosity, Hydrocarbon evaluation
• Density & Neutron Æ Lithology confirmation, Correlation, Porosity,
Overpressure detection, Gas/Oil contacts
• Sonic Æ Porosity, Mechanical properties, Overpressure
• Dipmeters Æ Structure, Well trajectory, Facies analysis,
Sedimentology
• Sidewall Cores Æ Biostratigraphy, Geochemistry, Lithology
confirmation, Hydrocarbon evaluation

Mud-Logging Unit
• Cuttings Æ Geochemistry, Lithology, Correlation, Density, Calcimetry,
Hydrocarbons, Shale Factor (C.E.C.), Hole Stability, Bit Condition
• Hydrocarbons Æ Total gas, Chromatograph, Gas Ratios, Connection
gases, Trip gases, Oil shows
• Gases Æ CO2, H2S
• Engineering Æ Dxc, Torque, Drill Rate, Formation Pressures
RIGSITE INFORMATION SOURCES USES

MWD/FEMWD unit data

• Directional Æ Borehole Trajectory (MWD), Dogleg
Severity
• Gamma Ray Æ Lithology Determination, Shale
Content,
• Resistivity Æ Correlation, Hydrocarbon Evaluation,
Pressure Indication, Sw Estimations
• Density Æ Lithology, Correlation, Pressure Indication,
Gas/Oil Contact

Others
• Coring Æ Biostratigraphy, Reservoir analysis,
Porosity, Permeability
WELLSITE GEOLOGIST RESPONSIBILITIES
IN WIRELINE LOGGING OPERATION

To ensure satisfactory results, the Wellsite

Geologist will be responsible for:
¾ Safety aspects during logging operations
¾ Organizing personnel and equipment
logistics
¾ Logging Quality Control and Data
accuracy
¾ Carry out quick look log interpretation and
reporting to operation geologist.
 QUICK LOOK LOG ANALYSIS
ÎExistence and depth of known markers.
ÎTop and bottom of each reservoir interval
ÎGross & net thickness for each reservoir
interval
ÎType of hydrocarbon and hydrocarbon/water
contacts
ÎAverage and range of calculated porosity
and water saturation values for each interval
ÎRw in the clean, water-bearing formations
ÎPropose well test intervals
 WELLSITE GEOLOGIST TEAM
IN MUDLOGGING UNIT
• THE TEAM Æ MUDLOGGING CREW:
• MUDLOGGING GEOLOGIST (MUDLOGGER)
• PRESSURE ENGINEER / DATA ENGINEER
• SAMPLE CATCHER

• MUDLOGGING GEOLOGIST Æ
– CUTTING & CORE DESCRIPTION, HYDROCARBON SHOW,
POROSITY ETC.

• PRESSURE ENGINEER & DATA Æ

– RECORD, MONITOR & ANALYSE THE DRILLING PARAMETERS
SUCH AS ROP, RPM, WOB, TORQUE,
– MUD DATA: MUD TANK LEVEL (MUD LOOS & GAIN), MUD
WEIGHT IN/OUT, TEMPERATURE IN/OUT
– MUD PUMP DATA : CAPACITY, EFICIENCY, VOLUME IN ETC.

• SAMPLE CATCHER Æ
– COLLECT AND PREPARE SAMPLE FOR MUDLOGGING
GEOLOGIST
MUDLOGGING UNIT
 TYPE OF SAMPLE
• DRY SAMPLE
– obtained from the washed samples collected from the 80-mesh
sieve. A heat source is used for drying purposes.
– Several precautions when drying samples are:
• DO NOT oven dry oil-based mud samples
• Do not over-dry samples, because they will burn (the burning can be
mistaken for oil staining)
• Clay samples should not be oven dried - only air dried

• WET SAMPLE
– collected at the shale shaker. Normally the drilling fluid is not
rinsed off.

• GEOCHEMICAL SAMPLE
– These samples require special treatment.
– A bacteriocide (i.e. Zepharin Chloride) is necessary to prevent the
growth of bacteria which can form additional gas. The samples are
normally sealed at the wellsite, and shipped separately.
 CUTTINGS DESCRIPTION
Each lithology should be accurately described, and
that observations recorded in the following order:
a. Rock Type g. Sorting

b. Classification h. Luster

c. Color i. Cementation/Matrix

d. Hardness/Induration j. Visual Porosity

e. Grain Size k. Accessories/Inclusions

f. Grain Shape l. Oil Show Indications

Usually major oil company has own cutting description manual and its
standar legend.
COMPARISON CHARTS FOR VISUAL ESTIMATION OF
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
 PARTICLE SHAPE
ROUNDNESS VS SPHERICITY
EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBON SHOWS
 GAS SHOW
• EQUIPMENTS
– chromatograph
– CO2 detection
– H2S detection (in exploration & rich sulfur basin)
– total gas detectors that monitor for N, various sulfides and
H may also be used

• The amount of gas recorded is dependent upon many

variables, including;
– Volume of gas per unit volume of formation
– Degree of formation flushing
– Rate of penetration
– Mud Density and Mud Viscosity
– Formation pressure
– Gas trap efficiency
– Gas detector efficiency
– Variability of mud flow rate
 GAS SHOW EVALUATION
• True Zero Gas:
– The value recorded by the gas detectors when pure air is passed over the detection block
(generally done during calibration). To ensure a stable zero mark, the detectors should be zeroed
prior to drilling, at casing points, logging points, etc.
• Background Zero Gas:
– The value recorded by the gas detectors when circulating, off-bottom, in a clean, balanced bore
hole. Any gases monitored will be from contaminants in the mud or from gas recycling. This value
is the baseline from which all gas readings are referenced for the striplog and mud log, but not
plotted on the logs. This value will change with respect to changes in the mud system (adding
diesel) and hole size, and should be re-established periodically.
• Background Gas:
– This is the gas recorded while drilling through a consistent lithology. Often it will remain constant,
however, in overpressured formations this value may show considerable variation. This is the gas
baseline which is plotted on the striplog and mud log.
• Gas Show:
– This is a gas reading that varies in magnitude or composition from the established background. It
is an observed response on the gas detector and requires interpretation as to the cause. Not all
gas peaks are from drilled formation, some may occur as post-drilling peaks.
• Connection Gases:
– Gas peaks produced by a combination of near-balance/ under-balanced drilling and the removal of
the ECD by stopping the pumps to make a connection. They are often an early indicator of drilling
overpressured formations. These should be noted, but not included as part of a total gas curve.
• Trip Gases:
– Gas peaks recorded after circulation has been stopped for a considerable time for either a bit trip
or a wiper trip. As with connection gases, substantial trip gases can indicate a near balance
between the mud hydrostatic pressure and the formation pressure, they should be recorded but not
included as part of a total gas curve.
WELL 123

SAMPLE:
MUD LOGGING
 SAMPLE:
MUD LOGGING
Mud-logging Geologist Corner
 WIRELINE LOG
1. WHAT IS WELL LOGGING:
1. WELL LOG IS A CONTINUOUS RECORD OF MEASUREMENT MADE IN
BORE HOLE RESPOND TO VARIATION IN SOME PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF ROCKS THROUGH WHICH THE BORE HOLE IS
DRILLED.
2. TRADITIONALLY LOGS ARE DISPLAY ON GIRDED PAPERS SHOWN IN
FIGURE.
3. NOW A DAYS THE LOG MAY BE TAKEN AS FILMS, IMAGES, AND IN
DIGITAL FORMAT.
2. WIRELINE LOGGING IS PERFORMED WITH A SONDE LOWERED INTO THE
BOREHOLE OR WELL
3. 2 TYPES OF WIRELINE LOGGING :
1. OPEN HOLE LOGGING
2. CASED HOLE LOGGING
4. INTERPRETATION METHODS
1. QUALITATIVE
2. QUANTITATIVE
1. MANUAL
2. COMPUTERIZED
 LOG INTERPRETATION
IS A PROCESS OF USING WELL LOGS TO
LITHOLOGY EVALUATE THE CHARACTERISTIC OF
FORMATION :
TOP SAND

• STORAGE CAPACITY Æ porosity,

fluid saturations and net pay
SAND THICKNESS
thickness
• FLUID PROPERTIES Æ density, fluid
SAND PROSITY type, fluid contacts, API gravity,
PERMEABILITY water resistivity & salinity,
FLUID SATURATIONS
temperature, GOR
• GEOLOGICAL SETTING Æ
structural/dip/fracture, geologic
environtment, facies characteristic,
top/bottom reservoir,
heterogeneities, distribution
• PRODUCTIVITY : permeability, water
cut, GOR and rate (estimated)
 LOG INTERPRETATION
Log interpretation should provide answers to questions on:
 LOG INTERPRETATION
IS PART OF RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION PROCESS WHICH
SHOULD BE INTEGRATED WITH THE FOLLOWING SURVEY
AND ANALYSIS:

– DRILLING OPERATION LOGS:

• CUTTING ANALYSIS, MUD ANALYSIS, DRILLING DATA COLLECTION
(PRESSURE, GAS READING, PENETRATION RATE ETC.) AND
ANALYSIS.

– CORRING & CORE ANALYSIS :

• SIDE WALL CORE & FULL HOLE CORE
• VISUAL LITHOLOGY DESCRIPTION, HYDROCARBON SHOWS,
POROSITY, PERMEABILITY, FORMATION FACTOR, SATURATION
ETC.

– PRODUCTIVITY TEST :
• RFT, MDT, DST, PRODUCTION TESTS

– GEOLOGY & GEOPHYSICAL :

• SURFACE GEOLOGY, SEISMIC SURVEY & INTERPRETATION ETC.
RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION
 LOGGING UNITS
LOGGING UNIT CONTAINS:
• logging cable
• winch to raise and lower
the cable in the well
• self-contained 120-volt
AC generator
• set of surface control
panels
• set of downhole tools
(sondes and cartridges)
• digital recording system

Open Hole Logging :

1. The traditional wireline
logging
2. Logging While Drilling
3. Logging on drill pipe
 WELL
LOGGING
Logging Job Sequences :

Î Rig-up logging unit

Î Check Tool and system
Î Wellsite Geologist (WG) will
perform system & tool quality
control
LOGGING UNIT Î Safety meeting

Î Tool run in hole

Î The system is on but never be
used for log interpretation
WIRELINE
Î Pull-out and logging
Î WG is the witness, checks the
logging speed and quality.
Î WG has authority to stop, refuse
SONDE / TOOL and re-logging when necessary

Î Rig-down the logging unit.

Î Print the result
Î WG signs the services ticket
containing type of services and
charges
 SAMPLE :
OPEN HOLE LOG
SP, GR, AIT, SONIC,
DENSITY & NEUTRON

1. SP Æ SPONTANEOUS
POTENTIAL LOG
RHOZ 2. GR Æ GAMMA RAY LOG
3. ELECTRICAL LOG Æ
INDUCTION, LATERAL,
SPHERICAL FOCCUSS, MICRO
LATERAL ETC
AIT 4. NEUTRON LOG Æ CNL, SNP
5. DENSITY LOG Æ LDT
6. SONIC LOG Æ BHC
NPHI 7. OTHERS : FMI (DIPMETER &
SP IMAGING), NMRI (Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance Immaging,
GR DT TEMPERATURE LOG, CALLIPER
LOG, ETC.
 SP
™ SP results from electric
currents flowing in the
drilling mud.
™ There are three sources of
the currents, two
electrochemical and one
electrokinetic.
¾ Membrane potential -
largest.
¾ Liquid - junction potential.
¾ Streaming potential -
smallest.
 SP LOG READING
• The SSP is the
quantity to be
determined.

• It is the deflection
seen on the SP from
the Shale Base Line
(zero point) to the
Sand Line (max.
deflection)
 SP USES
• Differentiate potentially porous and
permeable reservoir rocks from
impermeable clays.
• Define bed boundaries, top &
bottom of the layer.
• For geological correlation
• Give an indication of shaliness
(maximum deflection is clean;
minimum is shale).
• Indicate vertical grain size
distribution
• Determine Rw (formation water
resistivity) in both salt and fresh
muds. R mfe
SSP = − k log
R we
 SP DEFLECTIONS
SP scale
- +

CORRESPOND TO
Rmf & Rw VALUES
SHALE BASE LINE
 SP Borehole
Effects

• Baseline shifts: These can occur when there are beds

of different salinities separated by a shale which does
not act as a perfect membrane.
 SP Surface Effects
• The SP can be affected by a number of surface effects as it relies on
the fish as its reference electrode.
• Power lines, electric trains, electric welding, close radio
transmitters:
• All these create ground currents which disrupt he "fish“ reference
causing a poor, sometimes useless, log.
 GR - Principles
• The Gamma Ray log is a
measurement of the formation's
natural radioactivity.
• Gamma ray emission is produced by
three radioactive series found in the
Earth's crust.
– Potassium (K40) series.
– Uranium series.
– Thorium series.
• Gamma rays passing through rocks
are slowed and absorbed at a rate
which depends on the formation
density.
• Less dense formations exhibit more
radioactivity than dense formations
even though there may be the same
quantities of radioactive material per
unit volume.
 GR USES
• Bed definition Æ top,
bottom, thickness
• Shalliness Æ content
and net thickness, The
minimum value gives
the clean (100%) shale
free zone, the maximum
100% shale zone.
 NEUTRON TOOLS
• The first neutron tools used a chemical neutron source and
employed a single detector which measured the Gamma Rays
of capture. They were non-directional. The units of
measurement were API units where 1000 API units were
calibrated to read 19% in a water-filled limestone. The tool was
badly affected by the borehole environment.

• The second generation tool was the Sidewall Neutron Porosity

(SNP). This was an epithermal device mounted on a pad.

• The current tool is the Compensated Neutron Tool (CNT). The

latest tool is the Accelerator Porosity Sonde (APS), using an
electronic source for the neutrons and measuring in the
epithermal region.
 NEUTRON
USES

• POROSITY &
LITHOLOGY Æ
with density log

• HYROCARBON
INDICATION Æ
The tool measures
hydrogen index
 DENSITY
• The Density Tools use a chemical gamma ray source
and two or three gamma ray detectors.
• The number of gamma rays returning to the detector
depends on the number of electrons present, the
electron density, ρe.
• The electron density can be related
to the bulk density of the minerals
by a simple equation.
• ρe = ρ( 2Z/A )
Where Z is the number of
electrons per atom and A is
the atomic weight.
 DENSITY
Uses
• The density tool is extremely
useful as it has high accuracy
and exhibits small borehole
effects.
• Major uses include:
– Porosity.
– Lithology (in combination
with the neutron tool).
• Mechanical properties (in
combination with the sonic
tool).
• Acoustic properties (in
combination with the sonic
tool).
• Gas identification (in
combination with the neutron
tool).
 Density Porosity

ρ b = ρ f φ + ρ ma (1 − φ )

ρ − ρ
φ = ma b
ρ ma − ρ f

• There are two inputs into the porosity equation: the matrix
density and the fluid density.
• The fluid density is that of the mud filtrate.
¾ The sonic tools create an
acoustic signal and measure SONIC TOOL
how long it takes to pass
through a rock.
¾ By simply measuring this time
we get an indication of the
formation properties.
¾ The amplitude of the signal
will also give information
about the formation.
 SONIC -BHC
• A simple tool that uses a pair of transmitters and four receivers
to compensate for caves and sonde tilt.
• The normal spacing between the transmitters and receivers is
3' - 5'.
• It produces a compressional slowness by measuring the first
arrival transit times.
• Used for:
– Correlation.
– Porosity.
– Lithology.
– Seismic tie in /
time-to-depth
conversion.
 ARRAY SONIC
• Multi-spacing digital tool.

• First to use STC processing.

• Able to measure shear waves

and Stoneley waves in hard
formations.

• Used for:
– Porosity.
– Lithology.
– Seismic tie in /
time-to-depth conversion.
– Mechanical properties (from shear and compressional).
– Fracture identification (from shear and Stoneley).
– Permeability (from Stoneley).
 Porosity 1

• It reacts to primary porosity only, i.e. it does not "see“ the

fractures or vugs.
• The basic equation for sonic porosity is the Wyllie Time
Average:

Δ t log = φ Δ t f + (1 − φ )Δ t ma

Δ t − Δ t
φ =
log ma

Δ t f − Δ t ma
 Porosity 2

• Raymer Gardner Hunt.

• This formula tries to take into account some irregularities
seen in the field.
• The basic equation is:

1
=
(1 − φ 2
)+ φ
Δ t c Δ t ma Δ t f

• A simplified version used on the Maxis is:

Δ t − Δ t
φ = C
log ma

Δ t log

C is a constant, usually taken as 0.67.

 DETECTING
OVERPRESSURED
ZONE WITH THE
SONIC LOG

OVERPRESSURED ZONE
 Lithology & Porosity
Determination

© Schlumberger 1999
 Lithology Tools
• Most tools react to lithology - usually in conjunction
with the porosity.
• Major lithology tools are:
– Neutron - reacts to fluid and matrix.
– Density - reacts to matrix and fluid.
– Sonic - reacts to a mixture of matrix and fluid, complicated
by seeing only primary porosity.
– NGT - identifies shale types and special minerals.
– Geochemical logging, identifies 10 elements; K, U, Th, Al, Si,
Ca, S, Fe, Gd, Ti
– From these the exact mineralogy can be computed.
 Crossplot Solution

Porosity and
Lithology
Determination
from
Litho-Density* Log
and CNL*
(Compensated Neutron
Log)

Schlumberger Chart
• The plot is a straight line from the matrix point to the 100% porosity,
water point. It is scaled in porosity.
2.48

Porosity 13 %
75% sand & 25% limestone

12
 ELECTRICAL
RESISTIVITY LOGS
 Resistivity Theory
• The resistivity of a substance is a measure of its ability
to impede the flow of electrical current.
• Resistivity is the key to hydrocarbon saturation
determination.
• Porosity gives the volume of fluids but does not
indicate which fluid is occupying that pore space.

Current can only pass

through the water in the
formation, hence the
resistivity depends on:
– Resistivity of the
formation water.
– Amount of water present.
– Pore structure.
Resistivity Model

Smov = Sxo - Sw
 NORMAL Tools
• The voltage measured at M is proportional to the
formation resistivity.
• This electrode configuration is the Normal tool.
• The distance between the A and M electrodes.
• The spacing determines the depth of investigation
and hence the resistivity being read.
 NORMAL and LATERAL Tools
• The Lateral device used
the same principle.
• The difference is in
electrode configuration
and spacing.

• Problems came from "thin

beds" when the signature
of the curve was used to
try and find the true
resistivity.
• This figure shows some of the "signature curves" for the
interpretation of lateral and normal devices in thin beds.
• A library exists plus the rules to extrapolate the measured value to
the true resistivity of the bed.
 Laterolog Applications
• Measures Rt.
• Standard resistivity in high resistivity
environments.
• Usable in medium-to-high salinity muds.
• Good results in high contrast Rt/Rm.
• Fair vertical resolution (same as porosity tools).

LATEROLOG LIMITS :
•Cannot be used in oil-based muds.
•Cannot be used in air-filled holes.
•Poor when Rxo > Rt.
 MSFL Principle
• Uses:
– Rxo measurement in
water-based muds.
– Correction for deep
resistivity tools.
– Sxo determination.

• Limits:
– Rugose hole.
– Oil-based mud.
• This tool uses a set of 5 electrodes – Heavy or thick mud
which focus the signal into the
invaded zone just beyond the mud cake.
cake.
 INDUCTION LOGS

© Schlumberger 1999
Induction Logs

Induction Principle
Uses
IL Uses and Limits
• Measures Rt Æ saturation
• Hydrocarbon content
indications & fluid contacts
• Bed definition, lithology,
shalliness
• Correlation
• Abnormal pressure
• Ideal in fresh or oil-based
environments.
• Ideal for low resistivity
measurements and when Rxo >
Rt.
 examples 3

Cable tension (TENS)

10000.0 (LBF) 0.0 90 Inch investigation
SFL unaveraged (SFLU)
.2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0 10 Inch investigation
Medium resistivity (ILM) .2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0
Deep resistivity (ILD) 20 Inch investigation
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0 .2 (ohmm) 2000
30 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000
60 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000

• The AIT logs (2' vertical resolution) read correctly in this zone giving a hydrocarbon profile.
• The DIL logs are ambiguous as the SFL (electrical log) longer reading shallow because Rxo
is less than Rt
 Saturation
• The saturation of a formation represents the amount of a given
fluid present in the pore space.
• The porosity logs react to the pore space.
• The resistivity logs react to the fluids in the pore space.
• The combination of the two measurements gives the saturation

Sw = S w irr + Sw "free"

water So = S oresidual + So"free"

oil

Matrix
 Resistivity Theory
• Current can only pass through the water in the
formation, hence the resistivity depends on:
– Resistivity of the formation water.
– Amount of water present.
– Pore structure.
 Basics 1
R
F = 0
R w

• F: Formation Resistivity Factor.

• At constant porosity F is constant.
• As porosity increases, Ro decreases and F decreases.

• Experiments have shown that F is inversely proportional to φm.

a
F =
φ m

• m: is called the "cementation exponent".

• a: is called the "lithology" constant.
 Basics 2
R
S n
w = 0
R t

• Saturation can be expressed as a ratio of the

resistivities:
where n is the "saturation exponent", an empirical constant.
Substituting for Ro:
FR
S n
w = w
R t

Substituting for F:
a Rw
=
n
S w
φ m
Rt
 Saturation Equation
a Rw
=
n
S w
φ m
Rt

• The Archie equation is hence very simple. It links porosity and

resistivity with the amount of water present, Sw.

• Increasing porosity, φ, will reduce the saturation for the same

Rt.

• Increasing Rt for the same porosity will have the same effect.
 Invaded Zone

• The same method can be applied to the invaded zone.

The porosity is identical, the lithology is assumed to be
the same, hence the constants a, n, m are the same.
• The changes are the resistivities which are now Rxo and
Rmf.
• Rmf is measured usually on surface and Rxo is
measured by the MSFL tool.
aR
• The equation is then: S n
= mf
φ
xo m
R xo
 Ratio Method
• Dividing for Sxo and Sw, with n set to 2
1
S ⎛ R R ⎞ 2
w
= ⎜
xo t
⎟
S xo ⎝ R mf R w ⎠

• Observations suggest:
≈ S
1
S xo
5
w

• Hence: 5
⎛ R R ⎞ 8
S = ⎜ xo t
⎟
⎝ R ⎠
w
mf R w
 Archie parameters
• Rw = resistivity of connate water.
• m = "cementation factor", set to 2 in the simple case.
• n = "saturation exponent", set to 2 in the simple case.
• a = constant, set to 1 in the simple case.

All the constants have to be set.

In clastics the values are usually measured for each reservoir.
Values could be
m = 1.8 n = 2, a=1
An often quoted old formula, the Humble Equation uses:
m = 2.15, n = 2, a = 0.62
 Rw determination
• Rw is an important parameter.
• Sources include:
– Formation water analysis
– Local tables / knowledge.
– SP.
– Resistivity plus porosity in water zone.
– RFT sample.
– From Rxo and Rt tools.
 Rw from Rwa
• If Sw = 1, the saturation equation can become:

R w = φ 2
R t

• Assuming simple values for a, m, n.

• Procedure is to:
• Compute an Rwa (Rw apparent) using this
relationship.
• Read the lowest value over a porous zone which
• This is the method employed by all computer based
interpretation systems.
 Rw from resistivity
• In a water zone Sw = 1, thus the alternative
saturation equation becomes:

• The value of Rmf is measured;

• Rxo and Rt are measured, the value of Rw can be

calculated.
 Effects of parameters
Example of variations in the Archie parameters
a Rw
=
n
S w
φ m
Rt

The following are measurements

POR = 25%, Rt = 5 ohm-m, Rw = .02 ohm-m
Assuming a simple formation with
a = 1, m = 2, n = 2
Sw = 25%
Changing n to 2.5, changes the Sw to 33%
Changing m to 3 changes Sw to 50%
Hence the choice of these constants is important
 Shaly Sand Evaluation

© Schlumberger 1999
 Shales
Matrix Shale Porosity

Clean formation Structural shale

Porosity Porosity

Shale
Matrix Matrix

Laminar shale Dispersed shale

Porosity Porosity Shale

Shale

Matrix Matrix
 Shale and Logs
• Shales have properties that have
important influences on log
readings:
• They have porosity.
• The porosity is filled with salted
water.
• They are often radioactive.
• Resistivity logs exhibit shales as
low resistivity zones.

• Neutron porosity logs exhibit

shales as high porosity.
• Density and sonic logs react to
the porosity and matrix changes.
• Gamma ray logs react to shale
radioactivity.
 Shale Volume
• The volume of shale must be computed to
correct the tool readings.
• This is achieved using simple equations
such as:

GR − GR
=
log min
V
− GR
cl
GR max min

SP − SP
=
log min
V
− SP
cl
SP max min
Shale Volume
 Shale and Saturation
• The Archie equation has to be changed to
take account of the shale effect.
• The shale looks like low resistivity so
another term is added to the equations.
• The result is an equation which will can be
used to compute water saturation in shaly
sands.
• All these equations return to Archies
equation if there is no shale present.
 Saturation Equations
•Indonesia Equation 1 1
S w = ⎛ V cl ⎞ *
⎜⎜ 1 −
⎝ 2
⎟⎟
⎠ φ R
V cl
R
+ R
e t
cl w

•Nigeria Equation
⎛
2
φ ⎞
1 .4 m
1 V 2

= ⎜ cl
+ e
⎟ S n

⎝ ⎠
w
R t R cl aR w

•Waxman-Smits Equation 1 S 2
BQ S
= *
w
+ v
*
w
R t F R w F

•Dual Water Equation

C =
φ t
m
S n
wt ⎡
C +
S wb
(C − C
⎤
)⎥
t
a ⎢⎣ w
S wt
wb w
⎦
EXAMPLE : PROCESSED LOG
POROSITY & SATURATION
CALCULATION RESULTS
OPEN HOLE LOG

PROCESSED LOG

VOLUME
FLUID
ANALYSIS
SATURATION
 DUAL WATER MODEL DEFINITIONS

hydrocarbon φ hy
effective
porosity
far
total water φ wf φe = φ wf+ φ hy
porosity
φt bound
φ wb
fluids water

Vcl
unit dry Vdcl wet clay
volume clay
solids

clean
matrix
 Clean to Shale

φt
SAND Matrix Far Water

φt
Matrix

φt
Matrix Dry Colloid

φt
SHALE Dry Colloid Bound water
 Well Test Objectives
1. Identify and Obtain reservoir fluids; oil, gas
& water
2. Determine basic reservoir parametes;
productivity (PI), permeability(k), skin (S),
initial Resv. Pressure (P*) & Resv. Temp.
3. Well potential & deliverability (gas well) : It
may be mandatory to proof field
commerciality
4. Boundary & irregular conditions Reservoir
(GOC, OWC & Reservoir Limit)
 WELL TESTING METHODS

• HOLE CONDITION:
– OPEN HOLE
– CASED HOLE

• TOOLS RUN IN HOLE :

– WIRELINE TESTING : RFT, MDT & DST (IT WAS)
– PRODUCTION TEST WITH COMPLETION STRING
IN PLACE : DST
WELL TESTING SCHEMATIC
at
Cased Hole

Surface Test Equipment

Subsea Safety
Equipment

Downhole Test
Equipment & Tool
DST & TCP
 DOWNHOLE TESTING EQUIPMENT
Open-Hole Sampling Equipment
RDT & RCI are equivalent with RFT/MDT
Formation Test Tool (FTT) sample
chambers hold 420cc to 3 gallons of
reservoir fluid depending on make and
model.
Open hole samples aid production and
facility designs and are sometimes used
for PVT studies.

Baker RCI®

Halliburton RDT®
 1ST GENERATION

RFT
REPEATED FORMATION TESTER
- unlimited pressure survey
- 1 to 2 fluid sampling

2ND GENERATION

MDT
MODULAR FORMATION DINAMIC
TESTER
- unlimited pressure survey
- many fluid sampling (unlimited?)
- able to identify fluid type
- able to replace(pump out)
unrequired fluid sample
SCHLUMBERGER
DOWNHOLE TESTING
EQUIPMENT
RFT / MDT
 Mud pressure

Reservoir pressure

Build-up pressure

Example RFT Record

 Wireline Open Hole Testing
RFT/MDT/RDT/RCI/etc.

• To identify the reservoir

pressure
• To identify the fluid content
• To estimate the permeability
• To estimate the productifity
• To define the fluid contact (OWC,
OGC and GWC if any)
 Fluid Contact Determination
with fluid gradient from RFT

Oil
Gra
W

die
at
er

nt 0
G
ra

.36
di
en

7
t0

psi
.4
depth

33

/ft
ps
i/f
t
oil OWC
water

RFT depth

pressure
Performing Well Test
with DST

• Clean up (flow)
• Shut-in
• Main flow (one period or
flow-after-flow, flowing
test with 4 to 5 different
choke size)
• Main Build –up (shut-in)
 Selective Layer Testing

26” 20 ft @ 500’
17 1/2”

9 5/8” @ 15500’

12 1/4”

Layer A

Layer B
8 1/2” 7” @ 17690’
 Example :
TEST STRING
DST & TCP
[ [psia]
psia]
Example : Pressure Testing Result

K = 375 mD
4050
4050
Pressure, psia S = 21 P = 4200 psia

Build up data analysis

Production Period Sanding Control

Test
45000
45000
M scf /D]
[[Mscf/D]

Build up period

rates

40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120

Testing time, hrs

 Well Productivity

3500
IPR plot

AOFP = 344 MMscf/d

CGR = 24.5 STB/MMscf/d
Pressure, psi

1500

Tested gas and condensate rates can be

increased to 125 MMscf/D and 3100 BPD

Gas Rate, Mscf/d

2.5E+5
50000 1.5E+5 2.5E+5 3.5E+5
 Testing Risk
Factors
ƒ Layers communication due to
poor cement bond
ƒ High pressure and temperatures
(over 350°F)
ƒ Pressure and fluid loss through
packers
ƒ Annulus-tubing fluid
communication
ƒ Water coning or sanding
ƒ Layers crossflow
 THE ROLE of
WELLSITE/DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST (DG)
in WELL TESTING
OPEN HOLE TESTING CASED HOLE TESTING
with RFT/MDT with DST

DG Propose/selects the testing/perforation sand, interval and depth

Estimate the reservoir fluid contents and it’s static pressure

Provide the reservoir rock parameter for testing analysis such as lithology, porosity
and permeability if any (from log, or qualitative)
Stop the testing when unsafe operation Testing Engineer (TE) decision

Decide testing duration TE decide flow & shut-in periods. TE also

Select taken fluid sample
As Operation Witness will validate &
analyse the result
selects choke size for flow testing.
TE decide fluid sampling methods. And
responsible for fluid sample handling
TE is prime Operation Witness and will
validate & analyse the testing result.
DG & TE will be along selecting the
perforation method
 PERFORATION
1. THROUGH CASING GUN Æ
Hyperjet/HSD(high shot density)
2. THROUGH TUBING GUN Æ Enerjet
3. TCP (Tubing Conveyed Perforation)
GUN TYPES
 DG and/or Wellsite
Geologist Responsibilities
PERF. At Net pay

in Perforation Job
1. Define the perforation intervals at
porous zone & hydrocarbon zone
(pay zone.
2. Evaluate and prepare the perforation
design such as gun type, size, SPF
(shot per ft), Spacing (angle between
two shots), charge/explosive type;
penetration deep and entrance hole.
3. Perforation environment (fluid type
in the hole); using mud or brine
water or special completion fluid,
under/over balance.
4. Witness the gun loading, correlation,
shooting result (whether all charges
exploded or not) Æ “SAFETY FIRST”
THE RESERVOIR
PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
• ROCK PROPERTIES

• FLUID PROPERTIES

• PRESSURE

• RESERVOIR DRIVE
 ROCK PROPERTIES
Rocks are described by three properties:
– Porosity - quantity of pore space
– Permeability - ability of a formation to flow
– Matrix - major constituent of the rock

note: porosity & permeability has been discussed partially in

“Chapter I. Introduction”
 PERMEABILITY
• Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids
• Absolute Perm: When the medium is completely
saturated with one fluid, then the permeability
measurement is often referred to as specific or absolute
permeability
• Effective Perm: When the rock pore spaces contain
more than one fluid, then the permeability to a particular
fluid is called the effective permeability. Effective
permeability is a measure of the fluid conductance
capacity of a porous medium to a particular fluid when
the medium is saturated with more than one fluid
• Relative Perm: Defined as the ratio of the effective
permeability to a fluid at a given saturation to the
effective permeability to that fluid at 100% saturation.
 DARCY’S LAW
p2 L p1

q
A
Direction of flow

qμ L L = length
k= •
A ( p1 − p 2 ) q = flow rate
p1, p2 = pressures
k = permeability A = area perpendicular to flow
(measured in darcies)
μ = viscosity
k/μ =
kh/μ =
DARCY’S LAW:
RADIAL FLOW
rw. r

2πkh( P − Pw )
q=
μ ln r / rw
h = height of the cylinder (zone)
P = pressure at r
Pw = pressure at the wellbore
PERMEABILITY – POROSITY
CROSSPLOT
Limestone A1 Sandstone A1
100 1000
Permeability (md)

100
10

10
1
1

0.1
0.1

0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
CALCULATING RELATIVE
PERMEABILITIES
k
• Oil k ro = eo
k

k
• Water k rw = ew
k

k eg
• Gas k rg =
k
Relative Permeability Curve
 IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION
• In a formation the minimum saturation induced by
displacement is where the wetting phase becomes
discontinuous.
• In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible water
saturation, Swirr.
• Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water
saturation compared to small-grained formations
because the
capillary
pressure is
smaller.
 TRANSITION ZONE
• The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise to the
transition zone in a reservoir between the water zone and the
oil zone.
• The rock can be thought of as a bundle of capillary tubes.
• The length of the zone depends on the pore size and the
density difference between the two fluids.
 Relative
• Take a core 100% water-
saturated. (A)
• Force oil into the core Permeability
until irreducible water
saturation is attained
(Swirr). (A-> C -> D)
• Reverse the process:
force water into the core
until the residual
saturation is attained. (B)
• During the process,
measure the relative
permeabilities to water
and oil.
 FLUID SATURATIONS
• Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation
– Initially, pore space filled 100% with water
– Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
– Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces and gravity
– Connate water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone

• Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore volume

occupied by a given fluid

• Definitions
Sw = water saturation
So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg
• Saturations are expressed as percentages or fractions, e.g.
– Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with porosity of 20%
contains water equivalent to 15% of its volume.
 SATURATION

• Amount of water per unit volume = φ Sw

• Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume = φ (1 - Sw) =
φ Sh

φ (1-Sw)
φ Hydrocarbon
φ Sw Water

1−φ Matrix
 RESERVOIR PRESSURE

• Lithostatic pressure is caused by the

pressure of rock, transmitted by grain-to-
grain contact.
• Fluid pressure is caused by weight of
column of fluids in the pore spaces.
Average = 0.465 psi/ft (saline water).
• Overburden pressure is the sum of the
lithostatic and fluid pressures.
 RESERVOIR PRESSURE
• Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled by the
gradient in the aquifer.
• High pressures exist in some reservoirs.
Reservoir Pressure Calculation
RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE GRADIENT

The chart shows three possible temperature gradients. The

temperature can be determined if the depth is known.
High temperatures exist in some places. Local knowledge is important.
 FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR
• A reservoir normally contains either water or
hydrocarbon or a mixture.
• The hydrocarbon may be in the form of oil or
gas.
• The specific hydrocarbon produced depends
on the reservoir pressure and temperature.
• The formation water may be fresh or salty.
• The amount and type of fluid produced
depends on the initial reservoir pressure,
rock properties and the drive mechanism.
 HYDROCARBON COMPOSITION
• Typical hydrocarbons have the following composition in Mol Fraction

• Hydrocarbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+

• Dry gas .88 .045 .045 .01 .01 .01

• Condensate .72 .08 .04 .04 .04 .08

• Volatile oil .6-.65 .08 .05 .04 .03 .15-.2

• Black oil .41 .03 .05 .05 .04 .42

• Heavy oil .11 .03 .01 .01 .04 .8

• Tar/bitumen 1.0

• The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon atoms in the molecular chain.
 HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE

• The major
constituent of
hydrocarbons is
paraffin.
 HYDROCARBON CLASSIFICATION
• Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight and the Gas/Oil ratio. The
table gives some typical values:

GOR API Gravity

• Wet gas 100mcf/b 50-70

• Condensate 5-100mcf/b 50-70

• Volatile oil 3000cf/b 40-50

• Black oil 100-2500cf/b 30-40

• Heavy oil 0 10-30

• Tar/bitumen 0 <10
 HYDROCARBON GAS
• Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane,
CH4. Some heavier gases make up the rest.
• Gas can contain impurities such as
Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S and Carbon
Dioxide, CO2.
• Gases are classified by their specific
gravity which is defined as:
• "The ratio of the density of the gas to that
of air at the same temperature and
pressure".
 FLUID PHASES
• A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.: gas or
oil.

• In a reservoir oil and gas exist together at equilibrium,

depending on the pressure and temperature.

• The behaviour of a reservoir fluid is analyzed using the

properties; Pressure, Temperature and Volume (PVT).

• There are two simple ways of showing this:

– Pressure against temperature keeping the volume constant.
– Pressure against volume keeping the temperature constant.
PVT Experiment
 PHASE DIAGRAM SINGLE COMPONENT
• The experiment is conducted at different temperatures.
• The final plot of Pressure against Temperature is made.
• The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the Bubble Point
and Dew Point.
• (For a single component they coincide.)
 Black Oil Volatile Oil
Dewpoint line

THE FIVE
Pressure path Critical
1 point
in reservoir

Pressure path 2
in reservoir

RESERVOIR
Dewpoint line

0
Critical Volatile oil

80 9
60 0
point

7
Pressure, psia

Pressure

50
Black Oil
% Liquid

40
lin
nt
90

30
oi
% Liquid

FLUIDS
ep
e 80
lin

bl
int

ub
790

20
po

B
le 60
bb
Bu
50

10
40

33
30

5
20
10

Separator Separator
t li ne
poin
Dew
Temperature, °F Temperature

Pressure path
in reservoir Pressure path
Pressure path
in reservoir in reservoir
1
Retrograde gas 1 1
2
e
in
tl
in
po

e
lin
w

line
De

Pressure

int
Pressure

Wet gas

Pressure
po

nt
poi
Dry gas
w

Critical
De
e

Dew
lin

point
t
in

% Liquid
300
po

% Liquid
le

20

Critical % Liquid
bb

15 point
30 e int
Bu

2
lin epo

30 2
1
l
bb

25

1
Bu

50
25
5 Separator Separator

1
Separator 0

Temperature Temperature Temperature

Retrograde Gas Wet Gas Dry Gas

 THREE GASES - WHAT ARE THE
DIFFERENCES?

• Dry gas - gas at surface is same as gas in

reservoir
• Wet gas - recombined surface gas and
condensate represents gas in reservoir
• Retrograde gas - recombined surface gas
and condensate represents the gas in the
reservoir but not the total reservoir fluid
(retrograde condensate stays in reservoir)
 FIELD IDENTIFICATION

Black Volatile Retrograde Wet Dry

Oil Oil Gas Gas Gas
Initial <1750 1750 to > 3200 > 15,000* 100,000*
Producing 3200
Gas/Liquid
Ratio, scf/STB
Initial Stock- < 45 > 40 > 40 Up to 70 No
Tank Liquid Liquid
Gravity, °API
Color of Stock- Dark Colored Lightly Water No
Tank Liquid Colored White Liquid

*For Engineering Purposes

 LABORATORY ANALYSIS

Black Volatile Retrograde Wet Dry

Oil Oil Gas Gas Gas
Phase Bubblepoint Bubblepoint Dewpoint No No
Change in Phase Phase
Reservoir Change Change
Heptanes > 20% 20 to 12.5 < 12.5 < 4* < 0.8*
Plus, Mole
Percent
Oil < 2.0 > 2.0 - - -
Formation
Volume
Factor at
Bubblepoint

*For Engineering Purposes

 PRIMARY PRODUCTION TRENDS

Black Volatile Retrograde Wet Dry

Oil Oil Gas Gas Gas

GOR

GOR
GOR

GOR
GOR

No
liquid

Time Time Time Time Time

° API

° API
° API

° API

° API
No
liquid

Time Time Time Time Time

BLACK OIL FLUID PROPERTIES
Sample : DRY GAS FLUID PROPERTIS
 FVF
Formation
Volume Factor
• Fluids at bottom hole
conditions produce
different fluids at
surface:
• Oil becomes oil plus
gas.
• Gas usually stays as
gas unless it is a
Condensate.
• Water stays as water
with occasionally
some dissolved gas.
FLUID VISCOSITY
FLUID & FORMATION
COMPRESSIBILITY
 DRIVE MECHANISMS
• A virgin reservoir has a pressure controlled by the local
gradient.
• Hydrocarbons will flow if the reservoir pressure is sufficient to
drive the fluids to the surface (otherwise they have to be
pumped).
• As the fluid is produced reservoir pressure drops.
• The rate of pressure drop is controlled by the Reservoir Drive
Mechanism.
• Drive Mechanism depends on the rate at which fluid expands
to fill the space vacated by the produced fluid.
• Main Reservoir Drive Mechanism types are:

1. Water drive.
2. Gas cap drive.
3. Gas solution drive
 Water Invasion
• Water invading an oil zone, moves
close to the grain surface, pushing
the oil out of its way in a piston-
like fashion.

• The capillary pressure gradient

forces water to move ahead faster
in the smaller pore channels.

• The remaining thread of

oil becomes smaller.
• It finally breaks into smaller
pieces.

• As a result, some drops

of oil are left behind in
the channel.
 Water Drive
Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water Water

Cross Section
• Water moves up to fill the "space"
vacated by the oil as it is produced.
 Bottom Water Drive
Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water

Cross Section
• Water moves up to fill the "space"
vacated by the oil as it is produced.
 Water Drive 2

• This type of drive usually keeps the reservoir pressure fairly

constant.
• After the initial “dry” oil production, water may be produced. The
amount of produced water increases as the volume of oil in the
reservoir decreases.
• Dissolved gas in the oil is released to form produced gas.
Gas Invasion

• Gas is more mobile than

oil and takes the path of
least resistance along
the centre of the larger
channels.

• As a result, oil is left

behind in the smaller,
less permeable,
channels.
 Gas Cap Drive

Gas from the gas cap expands to fill the space

vacated by the produced oil.
 Gas Cap Drive 2
• As oil production declines, gas production increases.

• Rapid pressure drop at the start of production.

 Solution Gas Drive

After some time the oil in the reservoir is below

the bubble point.
 Solution Gas Drive 2
• An initial high oil production is followed by a rapid decline.
• The Gas/Oil ratio has a peak corresponding to the higher
permeability to gas.
• The reservoir pressure exhibits a fast decline.
 GRAVITY DRAINAGE

Gas

Gas
Oil

Gas
Oil Point C

Point B
Oil
Point A

Recovery = to 60% of OOIP

 Drives General
• A water drive can recover up to 60% of the oil in place.
• A gas cap drive can recover only 40% with a greater
reduction in pressure.
• A solution gas drive has a low recovery.
 Gas/oil Ratio Trends
5

Solution-
gas drive
4
Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

Gas-cap drive
3

1
Water drive

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place

 Average Recovery Factors
Average Oil Recovery
Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OOIP
Range Average
Solution-gas drive 5 - 30 15
Gas-cap drive 15 - 50 30
Water drive 30 - 60 40
Gravity-drainage 16 - 85 50
drive
Average Gas Recovery
Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OGIP
Range Average
Volumetric reservoir 70 - 90 80
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive 35 - 65 50
 Drive Problems
Water Drive:
• Water can cone upwards and be
produced through the lower
perforations.

Gas Cap Drive:

• Gas can cone downwards and be
produced through the upper
perforations.
• Pressure is rapidly lost as the gas
expands.

Gas Solution Drive:

• Gas production can occur in the
reservoir, skin damage.
• Very short-lived.
 Secondary Recovery
• Secondary recovery covers a range of techniques used to
augment the natural drive of a reservoir or boost production at
a later stage in the life of a reservoir.
• A field often needs enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques to
maximise its production.
• Common recovery methods are:
– Water injection.
– Gas injection.

• In difficult reservoirs, such as those containing heavy oil, more

advanced recovery methods are used:
– Steam flood.
– Polymer injection. .
– CO2 injection.
– In-situ combustion.
Secondary
Recovery 2
water injection

gas injection
• To demonstrate reservoir
properties in a plan view
projection with objectives to
promote optimal field
development.
• The maps will be used for
well placement, reserves
calculation, reservoir
performance monitoring.
• Mapping is part of reservoir
characterization, therefore
the results of which very
depend on the expert’s
working knowledge in
applied geologic models
WELL PLACEMENT
• TOP/SURFACE MAPS :
– Structure Map
– Fault Map
– Unconformity Map Carried out by DG

• THICKNESS MAPS :
– Isopachous Map Æ Gross & Net
• OTHERS & COMBINED MAPS :
– Isoporosity Map - Isopermeability Map
– Pressure Map - Saturation Map
– Productivity Map - Shale Map
– Net to Gross Sand Map - Etc.
 MAPPING
CONCEPTUAL WORKFLOW
DATA PROCESSING
PROCESING PRODUCTS

REGIONAL 1. GEOLOGIC MODEL

GEOLOGY 1. FACIES
2. STRATIFICATION
SEISMIC 3. CONTINUITY
INTERPRETATION, 4. TRENDS
WELL LOGS ZONATION, 5. TECTONIC
INTEGRATION, 2. GEOLOGICAL MAP
CORE & CUTTING CORRELATION, 1. STRUCTURE
ANALYSIS 2. ISOPACH
ANALYSIS
3. FAULTS/BARIER
& 4. UNCONFORMITY
WELL TESTS & DEFINE VALUES 3. RESERVOIR MAP
PRESSURE
1. NET PAY
2. POROSITY
FLUID ANALYSIS
3. PERMEABILITY
4. PRESSURE
PRODUCTION
5. PRODUCTIVITY
DATA
 BASIC KNOWLEDGE
FOR RESERVOIR CORRELATION & MAPPING
• LOG ANALYSIS (electro-facies, reservoir parameters,
stratigraphy, structure, etc.)
• SEISMIC INTERPRETATION (structure, reservoir
continuity, hydrocarbon indications)
• SEDIMENTARY FACIES, DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS & SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
• MODELS OF BASINS & RESERVOIRS, AND ALSO
REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF THE MAPPED FIELD Æ
trends of sedimentation & major tectonic and it’s
ramifications
• BASIC RESERVOIR ENGINEERING Æ pressure regime,
models, fluid propertie and production performance.
• BASIC COORDINATE SYSTEMS/GEOMETRY &
STEREOMETRY Æ base map, well trajectory, lease
boundary etc.
 LOG ANALYSIS
FOR RESERVOIR CORRELATION & MAPPING

• LITHOLOGY / FACIES IDENTIFICATIONS &

MARKERS DETERMINATION Æ continuity, consistency,
missing sections & repetition sections (faults or overturn)

• DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
• VERTICAL ZONATIONS
– TOP & BOTTOM
– FLOW UNIT

• FLUID CONTACTS Æ OWC, GOC & GWC

• RESERVOIR PARAMETERS Æ Por, Perm, Sw etc
• NET PAY THICKNESS DETERMINATIONS
 BASIC CURVE SHAPE OF SP & GR
for facies & sedimentary environment determinations
 DIP METER
dip patterns and it’s
geologic association

DIPMETER USES :
•Structural dip & fault determinations.
•Facies, type of sands & it’s trends
interpretations (micro resistivity
•Fracture identification
•Sedimentary structure can be
identified with processed Dipmeter or
FMI (formation imaging)
FMI Æ fulbore formation micro imager
RAB Æ resistivity at the bit
 SEISMIC FOR RESERVOIR GEOLOGY

• Aid in :
– Reservoir facies mapping Æ reservoir distribution : lithology,
isopach etc Æ 3D
– Reservoir properties mapping Æ porosity
– Locating / define fluid contacts
– Monitoring fluid fronts Æ 4D
– Sructure & stratigraphic interpretations

• Seismic methods :
– 2D Seismic
– 3D seismic
– VSP
– Well to well seismic
– Time-lapse seismic monitoring etc.
 EXPLOSIVE

LAPISAN BATUAN
EXAMPLE
 VSP
VSP
(Vertical Seismic Profiling)

SLB, OFR, 2007 Autumn

 Example :
Comparison of VSP & Seismic Results

SURFACE SEISMIC IMAGE

SURFACE SEISMIC IMAGE TIES WITH VSP

SLB, OFR, 2007 Autumn

3D Seismic
Basic of 4D Seismic
Example : 4D Seismic uses
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
AND SEDIMENTARY FACIES
 Distinctive and Common Sedimentary
Facies Associations
Vertical successions
principally identified
by lithology,
associations and
vertical arrangement
of sedimentary
structures Æ
indicative of
particular
sedimentary
depositional
environments
CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
(DIAGRAM BY R.G. LOUCKS AND C.R. HANDFORD, UNPUBLISHED)
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY CONCEPTS
• Sequence stratigraphy highlights the role of allogenic controls on
patterns of deposition, as opposed to autogenic controls that
operate within depositional environments
– Eustasy (sea level)
– Subsidence (basin tectonics)
– Sediment supply (climate and hinterland tectonics)
COMPONENTS OF SEQUENCES

SLB, OFR, JAN93

GROSS NET NET PAY
• A MAPABLE PORTION OF THE TOTAL RESERVOIR
WITHIN WHICH GEOLOGICAL AND PETROPHYSICAL
PROPERTIES THAT AFFECT THE FLOW OF FLUIDS
ARE CONSISTENT AND PREDICTABLY DIFFERENT
FROM THE PROPERTIES OF OTHER RESERVOIR
ROCK VOLUME ( mod. EBANK, 1987)
– A specific volume of reservoir, may be composed of
one or more lithologies and any nonreservoir rock
types
– Correlative and mappable at the interwell scale
– Zonation is recognizable on wireline logs
– May be in communication with other flow unit
 LEVELS OF
RESERVOIR
HETEROGENETY
(fluviatil rock)
GEOLOGICAL AND PETROPHYSICAL DATA
USED TO DEFINE FLOW UNITS
Core Pore Petrophysical Gamma Ray Flow
Core Lithofacies
Plugs Types Data Log Units
Capillary
φ vs k Pressure

1
 Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile
in a Carbonate Reservoir
Flow unit
Baffles/barriers

SA -97A SA -356 SA -71 SA -344 SA -348 SA -37

SA -251 SA -371 SA -346

3150 3150 3100 3100 3250

3200 3150
3100
3200
3150
3200 3200 3150 3300
3250 3200
3150

3250
3250 3250 3200 3250
3300 3250

3200

3300 3300 3250

3350 3300

3250

3350 3350

From Bastian and others

 E

• BASED ON :
– PRODUCTION TESTINGS Æ the most
reliable methods
– LOGS (electrical logs combined with FDC &
CNL)
– PRESSURE SURVEY Æ pressure gradient
from RFT
– SEISMIC Æ hydrocarbon indications
 Fluid Contact Determination
with fluid gradient from RFT

Oil
Gra
W

die
at
er

nt 0
G
ra

.36
di
en

7
t0

psi
.4
depth

33

/ft
ps
i/f
t
oil OWC
water

RFT depth

pressure
 CORRELATIONS
• “Reservoir Correlation” is part of pre-mapping works
of reservoir to locate and trace the lateral
distribution, continuity, geometry of reservoirs and
it’s flow unit.
• Correlation should be carried out based all the
available data, a sedimentological and stratigraphic
model of the reservoirs.
• Some pre-correlation works notes:
– Wireline log will be the basic data and will be calibrated and
integrated with other data analysis results such as core
analysis especially.
– Vertical profile analysis of well data should be carried out
previously to establish the facies, sequences and
sedimentary environment.
– Zonation of lithology and flow unit, and also marker
inentifications should be geologically sound.
– Define the zone top & bottom, zone thickness (gross & net)
etc.
 Tips for Correlation

• Stratigraphic Cross Section is the best demonstration of a

correlation results.
• The section should show reservoir lateral and vertical facies
changes, markers continuity, missing & repetition sections,
completion & prod. testing notes, etc.
• Good markers can be organic shale, coal/lignite, limestone beds,
glauconite, siderite etc. which has good continuity and
correspond to the geologic events such as maximum flooding,
emmergence etc.
• Start the correlation with the whole log section of individual well,
make zonation based on electro facies then define all markers
and zones of interest. Indicates any missing and repetition
section. Then carry out a detail correlation of objective reservoirs.
• For reservoir connectivity indication use also fluid contents and
contacts, pressure data and production performance data
• Prepare a good tabulation (database) of geologic data such as
depth of top & bottom of reservoir, net & gross thickness, fault’s
depth etc.
 CORRELATION
PROBABILISTIC to DETERMINISTIC
After EA Arief S, IPA, 2001
LATIHAN

A
 WELL #123 LATIHAN

WELL #456
B

OIL OWC
A

D OIL

C
 WELL #123 LATIHAN

WELL #456
B

OIL OWC
A

D OIL

C
 WELL #123 LATIHAN

WELL #456
B

OIL OWC
A

D OIL

C
 Tip for Reservoir Mapping
• Prepare a good base-map based on coordinates of
wells and seismic shot points (line & BM).
• Plot the data accurately then start contouring from
the highest positions for structure and refer to
seismic maps.
• Stucture contour should be stop whenever
cross/meet the fault plane. Consider the fault
throws and missing/repetition sections for the next
blocks contouring.
• For isopach maps initiate with facies map
construction then followed with isopach contouring.
• Understand the contouring principles such as no
crossing contour etc.
 ’
00
-1 2
’
0 00
-1 00 ’
-11
’

0’
00

- 1 0’
00
-12

0
-11
’
’

00
00

00 ’
1

-1 2
0’ -1

’
0

00
’

-13
0
0’
00 -1 00’

0
00

0’
1

-1
20
-1 1
-1

-1 0 0 ’
-1

2
-1
’
1 00
-1

0’
00
-1

0’
- 1 20
’
20
’
30
0’ ’
30
0’ ’
10 ’ 20’
20 10’

’ ’
20
’
10 20
’
10
0’ 0’
 PLAN VIEW

-1700’
-1600’
-1500’
’
-1400
0’
-130

-1000’

-1100’

-1200’

-1300’

-1400’

-1500’

-1600’ SECTION VIEW

-1700’
- 16 00’
-15 000’
- 14 0’
- 1 00’
- 123 00’
- 1 00’
- 101 00’
00’
- 17
 NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION

STRUCTURE MAP

1000
1010
1020
1030

1040

1050 Contour unit in meter sub-sea

Contour interval 10 m
OWC @ 1050
mss
 NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION

0m
ISOPACHOUS MAP
5m

10 m

15 m

15 m
Contour unit in meter
10 m
Contour interval 5 m
5m
0m
 NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION

0m
NET PAY MAP
5m
1050
1040 10 m
1030
1020
1010

15 m
15
10
5 Contour unit in meter
10 m 0
Contour interval 5 m
5m

0m
 FAULT MAP

w n
d o

SURFACES OF FAULTS X AND Y

 WEST-EAST CROSS SECTION

Y
FORMIT
UNCON

B
AS
an
a nd B d
S Sa
A
nd
a nd
S
B
STRUCTURE MAP OF A SAND
ISOPACHOUS MAP OF A SAND
NET PAY MAP OF A SAND
STRUCTURE MAP OF B SAND
ISOPACHOUS MAP of B SAND
NET PAY MAP OF B SAND

NET OIL

NET GAS
 FAULT ANALYSIS
SEALING OR NON SEALING
• Can be based on :
– Log analysis
– Well test data
– Pressure build-up analysis
– Interference test
– Production data
– Using radioactive tracer
– Core & Rock Cutting
– Correlation & Sratigraphic analysis
ALLAN DIAGRAM

Disagregated Phillosillicate- clay-smear

& cemented smear fault rocks
framework
 A
B

C
A
D
B
E
C
F
D
E
 Allan Diagram for non-sealing fault

UP BLOCK
UP BLOCK
OIL

OIL OIL

DOWN BLOCK
DOWN BLOCK
OIL
Common Oil Water Contacts

WATER

WATER
 NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION

0m
NET PAY MAP
5m
1050
1040 10 m
1030
1020
1010

15 m
15
10
5 Contour unit in meter
10 m 0
Contour interval 5 m
5m

0m
• The most important role of a DG is to:

– estimate the oil and gas reserves that may

be discovered in a particular venture.

– keep track of the reserves in all past

ventures.
THE 4 BASIC RESERVES ESTIMATION
METHODS
1. Educated Guess and/or Comparison
with nearby production.
2. Static Reserves Estimates
¾ Volumetric Calculations
3. Dynamic Reserves Estimates
¾ Decline Curve Analysis
¾ Material balance calculations
¾ Reservoir Simulation
 THE EDUCATED GUESS and/or
COMPARISON OF NEARBY PRODUCTION
• Consider a region where production is from a
highly fractured tight formation or where
poroperm heterogeneity is unpredictable.
• Volumetric calculations are largely
meaningless.
• A way to estimate potential production from
a well is to consider those nearby.
• Generally, such a wildcat well will not
perform better than the nearest wells: best to
estimate cautiously
 VOLUMETRICS
• Most accurate and widely used methods of reserves
estimation.
• Carried out by geologists as they are based on
geological structure and isopach maps.
• Rock volumes are established that are assumed to
contain hydrocarbons (e.g. seismic bright spot).
• Can be a simple volume calculation or a complex net
gas or net oil isopach approach, determined by
structure contours modified by fluid contacts and net
isopachs (net reservoir thickness map).
• Accuracy of volumetrics depends on data for porosity,
saturation, net thickness, areal extent, formation
volume factor, integrity of those data within a reservoir.
 Volumetric Method
• RR = 7758 x A.t x φ(1 – Sw) x FVF x RF

• Amount of oil in reservoir • Amount of recoverable oil

ƒ RR = Recoverable Reserves
ƒ 7758 = conversion from acreft to barrels (if vol. in
m3. this conversion number is eliminated)
ƒ A = area of porous rock, acre
ƒ t = thickness in feet
ƒ φ = porosity,%
ƒ (1-Sw) = water saturation of reservoir
ƒ FVF = Formation Volume Factor (1/Bo & 1/Bg)
ƒ Bo/Bg Æ reservoir volume / surface volume (vr / vs )
ƒ RF = Recovery Factor
 HOW TO DETERMINE
ROCK VOLUME
• Most rock volumes established through use of
net gas and net oil isopachs (net pay map).

• Constructed from superimposing of net isopach

map and structure contour maps then cut
(reduced) it with well defined OWC and/or GOC.

• Calculate the volume of net pay map by

planimeter (or digitizer table) and/or grid square
counting
 HORIZON MAP
(Superimposed Structure and Net Isopach Maps)
0m

5m

10 m

15 m

10 m

5m

0m
NET PAY MAP
 Rock Volume Calculations
2 methods :
1. PYRAMID

2. TRAPEZOIDS

A : area, m2 or acre
h : isopach/contour interval, m or ft
n : contour number (0 Æ n)
t : avg. thickness above the top of max. thickness
 FVF
Formation Volume Factor
 RF
Recovery Factor

• Usually RF determination is carried out by

Reservoir Engineer.
• Mainly based on the reservoir drive, rock
properties and fluid properties.
• For oil with effective water drive the
primary recoveries are in 25 – 40 % range
(max. 75%).
• For gas with gravity drainage, water drive
and depletion drive can provide RF > 80%.
 Average Recovery Factors
Average Oil Recovery
Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OOIP
Range Average
Solution-gas drive 5 - 30 15
Gas-cap drive 15 - 50 30
Water drive 30 - 60 40
Gravity-drainage 16 - 85 50
drive
Average Gas Recovery
Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OGIP
Range Average
Volumetric reservoir 70 - 90 80
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive 35 - 65 50
SOURCES
OF
DATA
 Decline Curve Analysis
(Reservoir Engineer’s jobs)

• After wells have been producing for a while:

– The rate of production is graphed
– Generally 6 months – 1 year after start of
production
• Good reserves estimates can be derived.
Often compared with volumetric technique
results.
• Can be done by well, by a group of well, by
block, by reservoir, by field
 Decline Analysis Results
• Determine remaining recoverable reserves
under natural depletion rate.

• To forecast production under existing

conditions

• Limitation:
– The degree of the accuracy is depend on the
reliability of the production data.
 DECLINE
CURVE
EQUATIONS
 Production Plots
1. A plot of log(q) vs t is
Q Linear if decline is exponential
Q Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic (n>0) or harmonic

2. A plot of q vs Np is
Q Linear if decline is exponential
Q Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic(n>0) or harmonic

3. A plot of log(q) vs Np is
Q Linear if decline is harmonic
Q Concave downward if decline is hyperbolic (n<1) or exponential
Q Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic with n>1.

4. A plot of 1/q vs t is
Q Linear if decline is harmonic
Q Concave downward if decline is hyperbolic (n<1) or exponential
Q Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic with n>1.
 Example. Exponential decline
Example. Exponential decline
10000
.
Rate, stb/d

-0.0524 t
q = 6049.1e

1000

Slope=-D 1/quarter year

100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

time (quarter year)

 Example. Exponential decline
Example. Rate decline with production
7000

6000
q = -0.4301Np + 5768.7
5000
q stb/d

4000
Reserves
3000

2000
q abondonment
1000

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000

Cum. prod, MSTB

 Example. Harmonic decline
12000 40

35
10000

Cum. Production (MMstb)

30
8000
Rate (stb/d)

25

6000 20

15
4000
10
2000
5

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Time (years)
 Example. Hyperbolic decline
Hyperbolic Decline curve

10000
9000
8000
7000
q STB/D

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
days
 MATERIAL BALANCE
of a Petroleum Reservoir
(Mostly carried out by Reservoir Engineer)
z General Concept of Material Balance.

a. Initial reservoir conditions. b. Conditions after producing Np STB of oil,

and Gp SCF of gas, and Wp STB of water.
z From: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering
— Amyx, Bass, and Whiting (1960).

z Material Balance: Key Issues

„ Must have accurate production measurements (oil, water, gas).
„ Estimates of average reservoir pressure (from pressure tests).
„ Suites of PVT data (oil, gas, water).
„ Reservoir properties: saturations, formation compressibility, etc.
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION (RS)
• Reservoir Modelling: primarily the reservoir
engineer’s job.
• RS applies the concepts and techniques of math-
ematical modeling to the analysis of the behavior of
petroleum reservoir systems.
• In a narrower sense Æ refers only to the hydro-
dinamics of flow within reservoir.
• In a larger sense Æ refer to the total petroleum
system which includes the reservoir, the surface
facilities, and any interrelated significant activity, and
economic
• The basic flow model Æ the partial differential
equations using finite difference methods which
govern the unsteady state flow of all fluid phases in
the reservoir medium.
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION
INPUT PROCESSED OUTPUT
in the BLACK BOX

Rock data
Fluid data Reserves

Production data Reservoir model

Pressure data Plan of reservoir

RESERVOIR depletion
Flow rate data SIMULATOR Production
Mechanical & forecast
operational data
Optimum
Miscellaneous production
data
Reservoir link with surface facility
 The Role of DG
in Reservoir Simulation
• Prepare the array input data (maps) of individual flow
unit : structure (top & bottom), isopach (net & gross),
porosity, permeability, rock compressibility etc.
• Advising to simulation engineer in the designing of
the grid model and layer divisions.
• Trace and established in the model grid the
existence of faults, horizontal and vertical barriers
permeability.
• During the history matching of production, pressure
etc., DG advises to simulation engineer in allowable
geological modification such as thickness, structure,
rock properties and volumetric reserves.
 RESERVES CLASIFICATIONS
• PROVED :
– Estimated to reasonable certainty. Often based on
well logs but normally requires actual production or
formation tests.
– Proved developed reserves
– Reserves that are expected to be recovered from existing wells
– Proved undeveloped reserves
– To be recovered by new drilling, deepening wells to a new
reservoir or where additional finance is required to produce
• PROBABLE RESERVES
– Less certain than proved but can be assessed to
some degree of certainty. May include logging
estimates, improved recovery technique estimates
• POSSIBLE RESERVES
– Not as certain as probable reserves and can only be
estimated to a low degree of confidence.
• UNPROVED RESERVES Æ Resources
RESERVES CLASSIFICATIONS
 Decision Making: protocol
• Despite these defined terms, there is still some latitude in their
application. In general, we use this:

• Proved Reserves = minimum case economics. Financial

investment is based on proved reserves.

• Proved + Probable Reserves = most likely case

economics. Internal company decisions usually based on this.

• Proved +Probable + Possible Reserves = maximum

case economics. This is the best that could reasonably happen
for a venture. Companies try to sell ventures based on this.
MM DARISSALAM, YOGYAKARTA JUN. ‘08