Arab J Geosci
DOI 10.1007/s12517-013-1135-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Newly discovered mud volcanoes in the Coastal Belt
of Makran, Pakistan—tectonic implications
Akhtar M. Kassi & Shuhab D. Khan &
Huseyin Bayraktar & Aimal K. Kasi
Received: 11 February 2013 / Accepted: 20 September 2013
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2013
Abstract The Makran accretionary wedge has a much larger
number of mud volcanoes then those reported earlier. Using
high-resolution satellite images, over 70 active mud volcanoes
were identified. These mud volcanoes occur within a well-
defined zone; we call it the Makran zone of active mud
volcanoes (MZAMV), which is parallel to the regional trend
of the accretionary wedge. Mud volcanoes within the zone
occur as clusters, which form linear belts parallel to the
regional thrusts associated with anticlines. The MZAMV zone
also includes the offshore mud volcanoes occurring in the
shallow shelf area, including the recurrently emerging mud
islands. Several occurrences of thick deposits of old mud
volcanoes (Pleistocene or even older) are also present within
this zone, which also display recognizable features that are
characteristic of the fossil mud volcanoes. We propose that the
MZAMV developed and evolved in response to the continued
compression within the Makran accretionary wedge, which in
turn, is a response of the subduction process. Mud diapirism
has been an ongoing phenomena since Pleistocene or even
earlier. The events of enhanced mud extrusion in mud volca-
noes and/or emergence of island(s) have relevance with seis-
mic phenomena and, therefore, may be closely monitored.
A. M. Kassi
Department of Geology, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
S. D. Khan
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of
Houston, Houston, TX, USA
H. Bayraktar
Department of Geomatics Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri,
Turkey
A. K. Kasi (*)
Centre of Excellence in Mineralogy, University of Balochistan,
Quetta, Pakistan
e-mail: aimal_kasi@yahoo.co.uk
Keywords Accretionary wedge . Cluster . Makran . Mud
volcano
Introduction
Mud volcanoes are expressions of the ejection of mud, fluids,
and gases from the rock formations in areas of high-
sedimentation rates and compressional tectonics, commonly
in convergent margin settings. The extruded material forms
characteristic isometric to elongate morphological features
largely varying both in shape (elevated plano-conical to neg-
ative funnel-shaped) and size (from 100 km2 to less than
10 m2) and composed of mud breccias sharply contrasting to
the surrounding host sediments.
Mud volcanoes have been reported both onshore and off-
shore along the Makran accretionary wedge (Snead 1964;
Tabrez et al. 1999; Wiedicke et al. 2001; Delisle et al. 2002,
Delisle 2004), which is a south-convex arcuate belt of de-
formed, mostly mud-rich terrigenous Tertiary succession, al-
though thrust-bound blocks of Cretaceous rocks have also been
reported further northward (Hunting Survey Corporation,
1961; Kassi et al. 2007). Some occurrences of the mud volca-
noes at the coastal belt of Makran, such as the Chandragup,
Jabel-u-Ghurab, and Khandawari (Fig. 1) are already known
(Snead 1964; Wiedicke et al. 2001; Delisle et al. 2002; Delisle
2004); however, we found a large number of mud volcanoes
that have not been reported and/or described before, which
occur in the form of isolated conical volcanoes, fields/
clusters, or elongated ENE–WSW to E–W-oriented ridges.
The gas- and water-charged onshore and offshore mud volca-
noes extrude methane and higher hydrocarbon derivates
(Harms et al. 1982). Release of the pressure for their develop-
ment is commonly provided by fault zones and anticlines of the
Quaternary to Neogene sediments. They show variations in
activity, which in some cases are concurrent with earthquakes

Fig. 1 Landsat-5 TM (bands 3-2-1 displayed as Red-Green-Blue) image of the coastal belt of Makran area showing positions of active mud volcanoes
within the Makran Zone of Active Mud Volcanoes, and deposits of the old mud volcanoes
(Snead 1964; Wiedicke et al. 2001; Delisle et al. 2002; Delisle
2004).
It has been proposed that fault activity may be the key
player governing the rate of mud extrusion (Kopf 2008;
Bonini 2007, 2008). Even the location of mud volcanoes is
sometimes used to infer the presence of active fault systems
(Lynch and Hudnut 2008). Relationship between earth-
quakes and enhanced eruption of mud volcanoes has also
been analyzed at the Pede–Apennine margin of the
Northern Apennines and in Sicily (Jakubov et al. 1971;
Deville et al. 2003; Bonini 2009). Mud volcanoes some-
times erupt within days after nearby large earthquakes
(Mellors et al. 2007; Manga 2007; Manga et al. 2009;
Madonia et al. 2011), but a correlation between these events
is not always straightforward. Liquefaction typically occurs
after earthquakes in shallow soils and is often manifested
by sand volcanoes (Galli 2000). Liquefaction caused by
shaking (dynamic strain) has been proposed to be a poten-
tial mechanism for triggering the eruption of mud volca-
noes expelling mud from depths exceeding a few kilome-
ters (Manga and Brodsky 2006).
The active subduction and compression within the Makran
accretionary wedge has been causing frequent seismic activity
and mud volcanism. Three severe earthquakes occurred dur-
ing the last 66 years, which also caused tsunamis as well as
emergence of mud islands in the coastal belt (Sondhi 1947;
Tabrez et al. 1999; Delisle et al. 2002; Delisle 2004).
The objective of this paper is to discuss several newly
discovered occurrences of the onshore mud volcanoes and
old mud volcano deposits in the coastal belt of Makran, using
remote sensing techniques and field observations. Also, we
Arab J Geosci
aim to highlight their tectonic control and relevance with
earthquake occurrences.
Geological setting
The Makran convergent margin comprises a wide accretion-
ary wedge (Fig. 1), built up by the sediments scraped off the
Arabian Plate during Late Cretaceous to Early Paleocene
(Leggett and Platt 1984; Platt et al. 1985, 1988), which is
extremely thick with a gently (2–3 °) sloping subduction zone
(Harms et al. 1982, 1984; Kopf et al. 2001). Accretion and
underplating of the sediments caused uplift of the coastal belt
and seaward migration of the coastline (White 1983; Platt
et al. 1988). Based on morphology, the Makran accretionary
prism has been divided into three domains (Kukowski et al.
2001; Schluter et al. 2002; Ellouz-Zimmermann et al. 2007):
the accretionary wedge, the trench, and the Murray Ridge
system.
The onshore accretionary wedge, comprising thousands of
meters of sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous to Recent age, is
arranged in east–west-aligned subparallel ridges and valleys
(Table 1; Fig. 2). The succession consists mainly of the Late
Eocene–Early Miocene turbidite succession. Further inland
thrust-bound inliers of the Upper Cretaceous–Eocene lime-
stone, conglomerate, mafic rocks, purple and varicolored
shale, chert and pelagic limestone are also present (Hunting
Survey Corporation, 1961; Cheema et al. 1977; Kassi et al.
2007, 2011) within the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene turbi-
dites. The younger sedimentary succession is exposed in the
coastal belt of the accretionary wedge, which is composed of
mudstone, cyclically interbedded sandstone and mudstone
Arab J Geosci

Table 1 Stratigraphic succession

of the Makran Belt [modified Age
after Hunting Survey Corporation
(1961; Cheema et al., 1977; Pleistocene to Holocene
Kassi et al. 2007)]
Upper Pliocene
Lower Pliocene
Upper Miocene
Lower Miocene
Oligocene–Miocene
Upper Eocene-Lower Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Cretaceous–Paleocene
Group Formation Lithology
Makran group Haro formation Shelly and reefoid limestone,
sandstone, and conglomerate
Unconformity
Ormara Formation Soft and poorly consolidated
mudstone with minor
sandstone
Unconformity
Chatti Formation Calcareous shale and marl
Hinglaj Formation Cyclic succession of sandstone
and shale
Parkini Mudstone Mudstone with occasional
thin sandstone
Turbat Group Panjgur Formation Sandstone interbedded
with shale
Hoshab Shale Shale with occasional thin
bedded sandstone
Thrust
Wakai Limestone Highly fossiliferous to reefoid
limestone
Thrust
Ispikan Formation Conglomerate, sandstone, and
minor shale
Thrust
Wakai mélange Agglomerate, purple shale, marl,
chert, pelagic limestone, marble
and mafic and ultramafic rocks

and limestone succession (Table 1; Fig. 2; Hunting Survey
Corporation, 1961; Kassi et al. 2007; Kassi et al. 2011).
Due to active subduction and compressive tectonism, the
Makran accretionary belt has frequent seismic activity mud
volcanism. Severe earthquakes have occurred, which caused
tsunami; enhanced extrusion of mud volcanoes and recurring
emergences of mud volcano islands in the Arabian Sea near
the coastal belt of Makran (Sondhi 1947; Delisle et al. 2002;
Delisle 2004; Bilham et al. 2007). The accretionary belt
contains numerous onshore and offshore mud volcanoes,
which provide a wonderful opportunity to further study the
phenomenon of mud diapirism.
Materials and methods
The paper is based on the use of remote sensing techniques
and field observations. Landsat-5 TM (bands 3-2-1 displayed
as Red-Green-Blue) satellite images of the coastal belt of
Makran, specifically of the territory of the coastal belt of
Pakistan, have been used for navigation purposes in order to
identify mud volcano occurrences. Field photographs of the
mud volcanoes and their deposits in some parts of the Makran
accretionary wedge have been used to further elaborate their
morphological characteristics.
Results
The Makran zone of active mud volcanoes
Mud volcanoes occur at several localities in the coastal belt of
Makran near the towns/villages of Gawadar, Ormara, Kund
Malir, Bela, and Awaran. Using Google satellite images, we
identified and plotted over 70 active mud volcanoes on the
Landsat-5 TM images of the coastal belt (Fig. 1; Table 2),
which indicates distribution within a well-defined zone—we
call it the Makran zone of active mud volcanoes (MZAMV).
Most of the mud volcanoes are currently active and their
deposits show various (2–5) clear phases of flows. Deposits
of the nearby mud volcanoes of the clusters coalesce to form
thick mud volcano deposits. Also, mud volcanoes are distrib-
uted in 14 clusters/subclusters. The MZAMV is aligned parallel
to the main trend of the south-convex arcuate accretionary belt
and aligned along the major thrusts and anticlinal axes, specif-
ically eastwards near the Ornach–Nal Fault System, where the
E–W-oriented Makran accretionary wedge bends toward
 Arab J Geosci

Fig. 2 Geological map of part of the coastal belt of Makran (modified after Hunting Survey Corporation, 1961), showing major structural features and
their relationship with mud volcanoes and their deposits

northeast (Fig. 1; Table 2). Here, quantity of mud extrusions is
higher and distances of mud volcano clusters from each other
are smaller as compared to those further westward. Dense
occurrences of the mud volcanoes towards the east is in line
with the eastward increasing rate of plate convergence, frequent
occurrences of thrust-related anticlines, and faults having left-
lateral strike-slip components near the Ornach–Nal fault system
(Figs. 2 and 3). Recognition of the MZAMV is in line with the
notion of Schluter et al. (2002), that development and distribu-
tion of the mud diapirs and volcanoes are largely controlled by
thrusts associated with asymmetrical anticlines (Figs. 2 and 3).
The size and characters of the larger mud volcanoes, i.e.,
those recognizable on high-resolution satellite images, were
studied. Coordinates, estimated covered areas, and diameters

Table 2 Characters of various

clusters/subclusters of the active S. No. Name of the cluster No. of mud Range of covered Range of crater
mud volcanoes based on satellite volcanoes areas (ha) diameters (m)
images
1 South Chandragup 4 11.90–138.0 22.5–145
2 North Chandragup 5 01.70–1921.0 9.0–118
3 West Chandragup 2 43.70–64.5 108.0–112
4 Jabel-u-Ghurab 4 0.60–02.6 1.5–11
5 North Khandewari 3 0.09–308.2 13.5–110
6 South Khandewari 3 41.00–163.4 Up to 138
7 Kund Malir 16 0.04–118.6 1.0–4.5
8 South Awaran Hills 8 0.03–265.7 1.0–10.5
9 North Awaran Hills 9 0.13–336.2 1.0–7.5
10 Sipai Sing 3 0.19–10.21 5.0–85
11 East Ormara 6 0.63–20.92 1.0–67
12 Central Ormara 1 10.5 1.0–30
13 West Ormara 4 0.06–00.47 1.0–6
14 Gwadar 2 0.11–00.46 1.0–7
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 3 Sections across the area showing major structural features and their relationship with mud volcanoes and their deposits
of craters of the recognized mud volcanoes were measured
and their visible characters briefly described (Fig. 1; Table 2).
The mud volcanoes pierce the Early Miocene to Pleistocene
mudstone-dominant successions. Most of the clusters/
subclusters have major vents having large covered areas of
mud flows and a number of smaller satellite vents in the
surroundings. In addition to the previously described
Chandragup, Jebel-u-Ghurab and Khandewari clusters
(Snead 1964; Tabrez et al. 1999; Wiedicke et al. 2001;
Delisle et al. 2002; Delisle 2004), we also discovered a num-
ber of mud volcanoes within these clusters. We further dis-
covered and named the Awaran Hills, Sipai Sing, Kund Malir,
Ormara, and Gwadar clusters after the nearby towns/villages
of the coastal belt (Fig. 1; Table 2). They are described as
under:
Chandragup cluster
In the Chandragup cluster, mud volcanoes are spread 2–8 km
north of the coast east and southeast of the Hingol River and is
considered as the largest active mud volcanoes of the region
(Table 2; Figs. 1, 4a and b). It comprises 11 mud volcanoes,
along with some dried-up vents, distributed in three subclus-
ters named as South, North, and West Chandragup. The West
Chandragup subcluster is 18 km northwest of the already
known Chandragup (i.e., our South Chandragup subcluster)
(Snead 1964; Wiedicke et al. 2001; Delisle et al. 2002; Delisle
2004). A number of small mound-like features are also pres-
ent, which were satellite vents that are presently not active.
Covered areas of the mud volcano deposits range between 1.7
and 1,921 ha (Table 2). Diameters of the craters range from 9
to 145 m. Diameter of the craters have no relationship with the
size and covered area of the mud deposits. Most of the mud
volcanoes (8 out of 11) of the North and South Chandragup
clusters are presently active, i.e., extruding fluidized mud and
hydrocarbon gases; however, they show fluctuations in extru-
sion activity. Mud deposits, by virtue of their episodic activity
of mud extrusion, indicate 2–5 apparent phases of mud flows
that are clearly visible on high-resolution satellite images.
The Chandragup-I has a crater of 20-m diameter filled with
viscous fluidized mud. The mud bubbles up and sometimes
burst violently in order to emanate hydrocarbon gases
(Fig. 4b). Crater of the South Chandragup-II is a circular
water-filled lake, which is 2.5 m below the circular edge of
its crater, showing very minor activity of gas bubbling and
weak extrusion of muddy water in its central part (Fig. 4b).
Circular walls of the crater are partly eroded and collapsed. It
seems that mud extrusion has decreased currently, which
caused the water level to drop within the crater and erode its
older deposits. The Chandragup-III is 30-m high from the
surrounding ground level and appears to have dried-up cur-
rently. Our data (Fig. 1; Table 2) indicates that, instead of just
3–4 mud volcanoes, that were reported earlier (Stiffe 1874;
Snead 1964; Reimann 1989; Delisle et al. 2002), 11 more mud
volcanoes exist in the Chandragup area, which make up three
subclusters of the South, North, and West Chandragup.
Jebel-u-Ghurab cluster
The Jebel-u-Ghurab cluster of mud volcanoes (Fig. 1) lies
within the flat-lying Dhak Desert formed by playa-like sedi-
ments, 1 km west of the Dhak Anticline (Reimann 1989).
Because of their small sizes, only four mud volcanoes are
recognizable on the satellite image (Fig. 1; Table 2), although
several small mound-like feature have been reported
(Reimann 1989; Delisle et al. 2002). Mud volcanoes of the
Jebel-u-Ghurab range in covered area from 0.6 to 2.6 ha.
Diameters of the observed craters range from 1.5 to 11 m.
Delisle et al. (2002) suggested that presence of these mud
volcanoes within the core of the anticline might be because of
their relevance with this tectonic feature for concentration of
gas near the crest of anticline. Also, fractures along the axis of
the anticline may have provided passages for extrusion of
mud-water and gas. Delisle et al. (2002) further explained that

several small-size active mud volcanoes and mounds are
present, which have elevations from 1 to 8 m and range in
circumference from <5 to 50 m; some are dried-up others are
water-filled. One of the mud volcanoes represent a hummocky
hill with a flat top surface having several small mini-craters
with bubbling of gas discharge and minor outflows of mud.
The larger mud volcano shows two subcircular water and
mud-filled craters having lateral slumps (over-steepened
mudflows) and fans of mudflows onto the adjacent playa-
like plain.
Fig. 4 Satellite images and field photographs showing mud volcanoes of
the Chandragup, Khandewari and Kund Malir clusters; a Satellite view of
the South Chandragup subcluster; note contrasting colors of various
fluxes of mud flows of the same vent; blue colored mud shows the most
recent flow, b field photographs of a mud volcano of the South
Arab J Geosci
Khandewari cluster
The Khandewari cluster of mud volcanoes comprises six mud
volcanoes located at the NNE–SSW-oriented Haro Range,
30–35 km northeast of the South Chandragup subcluster
(Fig. 1; Table 2). Mud volcanoes within the cluster are orient-
ed parallel to the strike of the range, however, they comprise
the South and North Khandewari subclusters (Figs. 1 and 4c).
One of the mud volcanoes in the North Khandewari subcluster
is represented by a very large, circular cone-shaped mud
Chandragup subcluster, showing mud and gas extrusion and formation
of huge mud bubbles, c close-up view of the mud volcanoes of the South
Khandewari subcluster; contrasting colors of various fluxes of mud flows
are very clear, d close-up view of the main mud volcano of the Kund
Malir cluster with several satellite crates in the surrounding area
Arab J Geosci
volcano deposit, which resulted from the outpouring of mud
from one or more central vents. Presently, the cone seems to
have been built from a series of dried-up and eroded mud flows.
Covered areas of mud volcano deposits of the Khandewari
cluster vary between 0.09 and 308.2 ha (Table 2). Diameters
of the craters of the Khandewari cluster range from 9 to138 m;
however, they have no relationship with the size or covered area
of mud deposits. All six mud volcanoes of the cluster are active
and extrude fluidized mud, however, they show recurrently
active periods followed by periods of quiescence. Mud volca-
noes, by virtue of their episodic activity, clearly show 2–5
phases of mud flows on the high-resolution satellite image.
Kund Malir cluster
The Kund Malir cluster is named after the village of Kund Malir,
situated near the Makran Coastal Highway (Fig. 1), but not
mentioned or described before. The cluster is situated 4.5 km
northeast of the Kund Malir village (Figs. 1 and 5c; Table 2). The
cluster comprises 16 mud volcanoes, spread over a 5-km NE–
SW-oriented strip along the southwestern side of the Malan
Range and arranged subparallel to the orientation of the range.
Covered area of the Kund Malir mud volcano deposits a range
between 0.04 and 118.6 ha. Mud flows of most of the mud
volcanoes coalesce with each other to form thick mud volcano
deposits. Diameter, the largest crater within the Kund Malir
cluster is 25 m. Generally the old mud volcano deposits cover
larger areas as compared to their fresh mud extrusions (Figs. 1
and 4d; Table 2). All mud volcanoes of the cluster are active.
Awaran Hills and Sipai Sing clusters
The Awaran Hills and Sipai Sing clusters of mud volcanoes
have not been mentioned or described before. Over 20 mud
volcanoes are present in the Awaran Hills west and southwest
of the town of Bela (Fig. 1; Table 2). Mud volcanoes are
spread over a 58-km long N–S-oriented strip generally parallel
to the strike of the Awaran Hills and grouped into the South
and North Awaran Hills and Sipai Sing subclusters. Their
covered areas range from 0.03 to 336.2 ha. Most of the mud
volcanoes in the Awaran Hills clusters are active and their
crater diameters range between <1 to over 85 m. The Sipai
Sing subcluster comprises three mud volcanoes present within
a vast area (18 km2) of old mud volcano deposits near the
Sipai Sing area, 45 km east of the Awaran (Fig. 1; Table 2).
Two mud volcanoes of the Sipai Sing subcluster have the
largest crater diameters among the Awaran Hills and Sipai
Sing clusters, having crater diameters of 85 and 13.5 m,
respectively. Mud volcanoes of these clusters are mostly ac-
tive showing 2–5 clear phases of mud flows. Mud flows of the
adjacent mud volcanoes coalesce to form thick deposits.
Ormara clusters
Although mud volcanoes have been mentioned to be present
in the Ormara area (Delisle et al. 2002), they have not been
described before. The Ormara mud volcanoes are present in a
flat area 9–10 km north–northeast of the coastal town of
Ormara, south of the Gurad Hills (Figs. 1 and 5a). They are
distributed in three subclusters, spread over a 9-km long and
2.5-km wide area, having east–west orientation generally
parallel to the regional trend (Fig. 1; Table 2). Eleven mud
volcanoes have been recorded in the cluster, which range in a
covered area between 0.63 and 20.92 ha. Covered areas of the
large mud volcanoes also include several (in some cases up to
25) small mounds/satellite craters. Crater diameters range
between <1 and 67 m. Almost all mud volcanoes listed in
the Ormara cluster are active.
Gwadar cluster
Mud volcanoes have been reported near the coastal city of
Gwadar (Delisle et al. 2002); however, they have not been
described before. A cluster of mud volcanoes is present 9 km
north–northeast of the Gwadar town near the western edge of
an east–west trending hill, 3 km south of the Gwadar Airport
(Figs. 1, 5a and b; Table 2). On the high-resolution satellite
image, two mud volcanoes may be seen along with some mud
mounds in the nearby surroundings (Fig. 5a). The main mud
volcano has a covered area of 0.47 ha and a small crater lake
of 7-m diameter. A nearby mound covers an even smaller
covered area of 0.11 ha and does not seem to be active. Some
very small mud volcanoes have also been reported by the local
community; however, they are not large enough to be ob-
served on satellite image.
Discussion
In addition to the four mud volcanoes reported by the previous
workers (Snead 1964; Wiedicke et al. 2001; Delisle et al.
2002; Delisle 2004), we have identified and described the
South Chandragup subcluster and the South Khandewari
subcluster. Our data (Fig. 1; Table 2) indicates that 11 mud
volcanoes are present in the Chandragup area, making three
prominent subclusters. Furthermore, we have reported six
mud volcanoes within the Kundewari cluster.
The Kund Malir cluster, comprising 16 mud volcanoes, and
Awaran Hills and Sipai Sing cluster/subclusters, comprising 20
mud volcanoes, are hereby reported and described for the first
time. (Table 2; Fig. 4d). Also, we have reported 13 mud
volcanoes in the Ormara area, comprising 3 prominent subclus-
ters, and a cluster of 4 mud volcanoes in the Gwadar area
(Figs. 1 and 5; Table 2). The plot shows that mud volcanoes
and their deposits are distributed over a much wider area of the

Makran accretionary wedge (Fig. 1; Table 2) than those report-
ed earlier (Stiffe 1874; Snead 1964; Reimann 1989; Delisle
et al. 2002) and that mud volcanoes are more common within
the eastern part of the accretionary wedge.
Old mud volcano deposits
In addition to the onshore and offshore occurrences of mud
volcanoes, several occurrences of old mud volcano deposits
are present in the coastal belt of Makran (Fig. 1), which may
be as old as Pleistocene (or even older). Old mud volcano
deposits comprises greenish gray to bluish green mudstone
found in the Haro Range, Awaran Hills, Malan Range,
Kappar, and Barambah (north of Gwadar) and several other
localities. Occurrences of the old mud volcano deposits
(Fig. 1) indicate that they are part of the MZAMV and parallel
to the regional trend of the accretionary wedge. However, the
old mud volcano deposits are also spread further north of the
MZAMV.
On a road-side exposure 46 km northeast of the coastal
town of Gwadar, 4 km north of the Kappar village, the
Pliocene mudstone has been dissected by streams and inter-
esting features of the old mud volcanoes are exposed over a
wide area. They include vertically oriented cylindrical
chimney-like features of variable diameters (up to 3 m in
diameter) and a network of smaller branched cylindrical fea-
tures of different orientations (Figs. 5d, e). These features
indicate that mud extrusion has been a widespread phenome-
non during Pliocene. The Hunting Survey Corporation (1961)
termed one unit in a north–south section along the Hingol
River as "extrusive mud formation" (Figs.2 and 3) and sug-
gested that during the past, huge amounts of gas- and water-
charged mud were extruded to the surface, in analogy to
circular mud volcanoes, and emplaced along fault structures
(several tens of kilometers long) unconformably into the Early
Pliocene mudstone succession (Hunting Survey Corporation,
1961; Bannert et al. 1992). Figures 2 and 3 indicate that the
active mud volcanoes and the old mud volcano deposits, the
"extrusive mud formation" of the Hunting Survey Corporation
(1961), are clearly related with the asymmetrical anticlines of
the coastal belt of Makran. The thrusts had been providing
passages for the extrusion of water mixed with mud and gas
and the mud being derived from older mud-rich succession of
Parkini Formation.
The old mud volcano deposits are common within the
Pliocene mudstone succession further inland in the Makran
coastal belt (Figs. 1, 5d, e). We have identified and mapped
several occurrences of old mud volcano deposits within the
coastal belt of Makran (Figs. 1 and 2), which suggests that
mud volcanism had been a widespread phenomena during the
past, and that some mud volcano deposits may be Pliocene or
even older. Earlier publications have not differentiated be-
tween mud volcanoes sensu stricto and mud intrusions termed
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 5 Satellite images and field photographs showing mud volcanoes of„
the Ormara and Gwadar clusters and features present in the old mud
volcano deposits; a satellite view of the Ormara cluster, b satellite view of
the Gwadar cluster, c field photograph of the main mud volcano of the
Gwadar cluster, d photograph of the recurrently emerging Malan Island
in the Arabian Sea near the coastal belt of Makran, e flat-lying mudstone
succession containing profusion of comparatively resistant cylindrical
chimney-shaped features sticking out of the soft mudstone, and f close-
up view of the cylindrical chimney-shaped features cutting across the
mudstone/siltstone horizons, hammer for scale
“extrusive mud formation” (Hunting Survey Corporation,
1961). Our plots of the old mud volcano deposits on satellite
images (Fig. 1), as well as the “extrusive mud formation” of
the Hunting Survey Corporation (1961) indicate that they are
closely related with the MZAMV.
Offshore mud volcanoes
A number of offshore mud volcanoes have been reported on
the shallow shelf and deeper parts of the Makran accretionary
wedge (Sondhi 1947; Tabrez et al. 1999; Delisle et al. 2002;
Delisle 2004; Wiedicke et al. 2001). Some of these mud
volcanoes, occurring on the shallow shelf area, have been
emerging recurrently as mud islands. Sondhi (1947) docu-
mented the emergence of three mud islands in the Arabian
Sea off the coast of Makran, which he linked with the big
earthquake (magnitude 8.2) of November 1945. A typical
example is the Malan Island (Figs. 1 and 5c), which emerged
three times on the same locality since 1945. Its first emergence
during November 1945 was in association with the big earth-
quake of November 1945, whereas its second emergence (on
15th March 1999) was seemingly without any association
with an earthquake. The island, in its initial stage of emer-
gence, was round-shaped and covered an area of up to 5.2 ha,
however, being mainly composed of soft sediments, waves/
tides eroded the island in less than a year. The third emergence
of the Malan Island occurred during November 2010.
The recurring emergence of mud islands indicates episodes
of enhanced mud extrusion, which may be relevant with
higher rates of compression and/or major (or minor) seismic
events. The enhanced mud extrusion events of onshore mud
volcanoes within the Makran coastal belt have been shown to
be associated with the earthquakes (Sondhi 1947; Hunting
Survey Corporation, 1961). Aerial photographs taken on 25
January 1946 of Chandragup-I and the Khandawari mud
volcano show evidence of vigorous mud flow from both
craters. Snead (1964) mentioned enhanced activity of
Chandragup-I and -II in response to a small earthquake on
26 September 1956. He further reported that the clear water
crater of the Chandragup-II was replaced by mud, the level of
the fill rose by 2 ft, and mud extrusion was found to have
"splattered approximately 20 ft upon the side of the crater" and
Arab J Geosci

that the presently dormant, 30-m high, mud volcano of
Chandragup-III had erupted in the summer of 1959 and pro-
duced mudflows on its flank, which had dried-up during his
visit in fall.
The island was composed of irregular mass of light greenish
gray to very light gray mud breccias with very poorly sorted
angular boulder- to cobble-size fragments of sandstone. It
contained various circular vents, which episodically extruded
thick mud slurry, violently in the initial stages, along with
highly inflammable methane gas. We propose that the recur-
rently emerging Malan Island represents response of cyclic
phases of enhanced mud extrusion, which in turn, are related
with the compression and seismic events. The enhanced extru-
sion events are followed by periods of relative quiescence
characterized by moderate activity and subsequent disappear-
ance in response to erosion by waves/tides (Deville and
Guerlais 2009). The plot of the occurrences of mud volcanoes
on satellite image and geological map (Figs. 1 and 2) indicates
that the offshore mud volcanoes, including the Malan Island,
are part of the MZAMV. The Malan Island (previously called
Hingol Island) is the lateral continuation of the Chandragup and
Khandawari clusters, which also line-up along the axis of the
Dhak Anticline with a thrust (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). The active mud
volcanoes lay along the major fault zones (Vredenburg 1909;
Sondhi 1947). The previously reported four mud volcanoes of
the Chandragup-I, -II, -III, and -IV and Jebel-u-Ghurab cluster
are associated with the axis of the Dhak Anticline, however, the
remaining two subclusters of the North and West Chandragup
line-up with another thrust north of the Dhak Anticline (Fig. 1;
Table 2). Plot of the mud volcanoes on the Landsat-5 TM
images indicates that mud volcanoes occur within a prominent
zone, which we call the Makran zone of active mud volcanoes
(Fig. 1). Our plot demonstrates that almost all clusters and
subclusters of mud volcanoes line-up along the tectonic linea-
ments and define the ascend paths of the fluidized mud.
Apart from the offshore mud volcanoes that occur in the
shallow marine part of the Makran coastal belt, Wiedicke et al.
(2001) have mapped conical mounds of 1±1.5-km diameter
and up to 65-m height at the foot of the active Makran
continental margin, which developed seaward of the accre-
tionary front in a relatively planar zone, where the build-up of
tectonic pressure initiates deformation. Wiedicke et al. (2001)
suggest that mud volcanism evolved at two main sites seaward
of accretionary front of the Makran continental margin, where
large conical mounds have been developed and currently
appear to be inactive. These large mounds are accompanied
by several small mounds; judging from the shallow seismic
records, some of these may be very young. A nearby buried
mound, approximately 460 ka old, suggests that the process of
mud extrusion may not be ephemeral at this structural position
of the accretionary margin; a careful survey should discover
more features of this kind, active and fossil ones (Wiedicke
et al. 2001).
Arab J Geosci
Conclusions
(1) The number of active mud volcanoes in the Makran
accretionary wedge is much higher than those reported
earlier. Using high-resolution satellite images, over 70
active mud volcanoes were recognized, plotted on mo-
saic of four Landsat TM images and described. Mud
volcanoes occur in 14 clusters and subclusters.
(2) The active mud volcanoes occur in a well-defined zone;
we call it the MZAMV, which is parallel to the regional
trend of the accretionary belt. The zone, as well as its
component clusters and subclusters, generally line-up
along thrusts related with the axes of the anticlines.
(3) The MZAMV also includes the offshore mud volcanoes
of the shallow shelf area, specifically the “Malan Island,”
that has periodically emerged and vanished three times
since 1945 on the same locality. The phenomena has
been going on during the geological past and anticipated
to continue in the future. The Malan Island (previously
called Hingol Island) is the lateral continuation of the
Chandragup and Khandawari clusters, which also line-
up along the axis of the Dhak Anticline associated with a
thrust. Several occurrences of very thick mud deposits
are present within the MZAMVand further north, having
trends parallel to the Makran accretionary wedge and
display features that are characteristic of the old mud
volcanoes, suggesting that mud volcanism has been an
ongoing phenomena since Pliocene or even earlier.
(4) The enhanced mud extrusion activity, i.e., violent extru-
sion of mud volcanoes and/or emergence of islands have
relevance with seismic phenomena and, therefore, may
be taken seriously.
(5) The clusters/subclusters of mud volcanoes line-up along
the thrusts and anticlinal axes, which defining the ascend
paths of the fluidized mud.
Acknowledgments AMK is thankful to the J. William Fulbright For-
eign Scholarship Board, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs,
United States Department of State, and Council for International Ex-
change of Scholars for his selection for the Post-Doctoral Fellowship
and cooperation throughout his stay during 2010–2011. Vice Chancellor,
University of Balochistan is acknowledged for approval of sabbatical
leave for AMK.
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