Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DOI 10.1007/s005310100203
ORIGINAL PAPER
Received: 28 June 2000 / Accepted: 24 January 2001 / Published online: 20 April 2001
Springer-Verlag 2001
Abstract To study the activity, source and driving Keywords Mud volcano ´ Makran ´ Pakistan ´
force of the venting of fluidized mud in the coastal Geothermics ´ Gas analysis ´ Gas seeps
Makran, we carried out reconnaissance surveys of two
active onshore mud volcano fields (Chandragup and
Jebel-u-Ghurab) and of a newly born (March 1999) Introduction
offshore mud volcano (Malan Island). All studied on-
and offshore mud volcanoes line up along one south- The processes of tectonic dewatering and degassing of
west/northeast-trending structural lineament, the axis sediments undergoing compression at convergent mar-
of the Dhak Anticline. Isotopic data point to a bacte- gins have been studied in many of the world's subduc-
rial origin of the gas (mainly methane). Mixed benthic tion zones, especially around the eastern Pacific
foraminiferal faunas and calcareous nannofloras sug- Ocean (e.g. see Kahn et al. 1996; Suess et al. 1998;
gest that the source level of the extruded mud is at a Bohrmann et al. 1998). The thickly sedimented Mak-
sub-surface depth of 2±3 km. Observed mud discharge ran accretionary wedge formed at the active boundary
varied between 0 and 1.4 m3 h±1 and gas discharge of the oceanic Arabian Plate which is being subducted
rates between negligible amounts to 1 m3 s±1. Mud below the continental Eurasian plate. It is character-
temperatures in the crater lake of Chandragup I are ized by a very shallow (<2) angle of subduction, a
near-ambient temperatures. They rise slightly thickness of >7 km of mainly terrigenous sediments
(^1.5 C) during episodes of modest mud outflow. An due to high sedimentation rates (ca. 0.2±>1 m/
area of 160,000 m3 of soft mud was vigorously 1000 years), moderate convergence rates (5 cm/years)
extruded from the sea floor at a water depth of 10 m and the extreme width (>500 km) of the accretionary
within days after 15 March 1999, forming Malan complex (White 1982, 1983). The submarine part of
Island. The island was destroyed within a few months this accretionary complex forms the convergent Mak-
after its birth by deep-reaching wave action during the ran continental margin off Pakistan. It is characterized
SW monsoon. This was possibly aided by local sub- by a narrow shelf (commonly <25 km wide) and a
sidence of the mud volcano structure due to the vol- steep, approximately 90-km-wide continental slope
ume loss following rapid degassing and mud extrusion. leading into the Oman Abyssal Plain (>3000 m water
depth). The continental slope consists of a sequence
of frontally accreted thrust slices that are cut by ero-
sive submarine canyons and are morphologically
expressed as long, narrow and steep accretionary
G. Delisle ()) ´ U. von Rad ´ H. Andruleit ridges separated by ponded slope basins (von Rad et
Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), al. 2000; Kukowski et al. 2001). The up to 1000-m-
Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germany
E-mail: g.delisle@bgr.de high, tightly folded and faulted anticlinal structures of
Fax: +49-511-6432304 the coastal ranges of the Makran are made up by the
Hinglaj Formation or Group (Plio- to Pleistocene age)
C.H. von Daniels
Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Bodenforschung, Stilleweg 2, and the Parkini Formation (Miocene age), followed by
30655 Hannover, Germany the less intensely folded and faulted Ormara For-
A.R. Tabrez ´ A. Inam
mation of Quaternary age.
National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), St. 47, Clifton, Mud diapirism (see e.g. worldwide compilation by
Block 1, Karachi, Pakistan Snead 1980; Hovland and Judd 1988) occurs predomi-
94
nantly in areas of active continental margins (e.g. see 60 years. One earthquake on 27 November 1945 of
Henry et al. 1990), but also in continental interiors magnitude 8.25 (Gutenberg and Richter 1954) gener-
(Hovland et al. 1997). The cause of the diapirism ated a tsunami and caused extrusions from several off-
might be buoyancy forces due to bulk density con- shore mud volcanoes. The second earthquake with a
trasts at depth (Ramberg 1968a, 1968b; Bishop 1978) magnitude of 7.3 occurred in 1953.
or fluidization by advected pore fluids or gases by Our area of investigation is characterized by the
which sedimentary masses become entrained (Hovland Dhak Anticline (Fig. 1b) and (further seaward) by the
and Judd 1988; Brown 1990). Jalpari anticlinal structure (Raza et al. 1990). Mud
Mud volcanism in the onshore Makran area vents (e.g. the Chandragup and Jebel-u-Ghurab fields)
received relatively little scientific attention (Hart 1840; are concentrated along anticlinal crestlines. Appar-
Stiffe 1874; Sondhi 1947; Snead 1964; Reimann 1989), ently the top of the Dhak anticlinal structure forms
although these spectacular diapiric features provide a the outlet for overpressurized mud accumulated in the
valuable and perhaps unique opportunity to study this core of the structure (Reimann 1989).
phenomenon both onshore and offshore in an uplifted, Mud volcanoes are abundant in the coastal areas of
well-exposed, currently active accretionary margin. Pakistan (Fig. 1a) within the Makran accretionary wedge,
The main objectives of our field trips (May 1997, especially in the Haro Range, Chandragup area, near
May 1998, November 1999) were: Ormara and near Gwadar (Hunting Survey 1960).
1.1To collect gas, water and sediment samples of They were formed by mud extrusion which emerges
active mud volcanoes from overflows of mud-filled crater lakes. Mud diapir-
2.1To measure the thermal field of the Chandragup ism is a common phenomenon in the rapidly deposited,
mud volcano poorly consolidated, overpressured shales under the
3.1To survey the mud volcano island Malan Island influence of subduction-related thrusting, faulting, fold-
(formed on 15 March 1999) ing and uplift processes. Release of the pressure is com-
4.1To reassess the origin of the ªExtrusive Mud For- monly provided by fault zones and anticlinal trends of the
mationº exposed within the Parkini Formation folded and faulted Quaternary to Neogene sediments.
Our studies attempt to improve our understanding Before entering the Arabian Sea, the Hingol River
of the structural setting, the onshore distribution of crosses the tightly folded (and faulted) coastal ranges
gas seeps/vents and mud volcanoes in comparison with of the Makran (Fig. 1b). One unit in this N±S section
the offshore occurrences discovered during the was termed ªExtrusive Mud Formationº (Hunting
SONNE cruise SO 130. A key element in our efforts Survey Report 1960) suggesting that in the past huge
is to establish the relative contributions of the dissoci- amounts of gas- and water-charged mud were
ation of gas hydrates (Delisle and Berner, unpublished extruded to the surface, in analogy to circular mud
data; von Rad et al. 2000) and of the in situ produc- volcanoes, and emplaced along fault structures (sev-
tion by bacterial action in shallow- and deep-water eral tens of kilometers long) unconformably into the
sediments to the provenance of gas-charged fluids Parkini Formation of Late Miocene age (Hunting Sur-
emerging from the sea floor and through the off- and vey 1960; Bannert et al. 1992).
onshore mud volcano structures. The huge circular mud volcanoes, such as the
Khandewari Mud Volcano in the Haro Range (Fig. 1b),
resulted from the outpouring of mud from one or
Geological and tectonic setting more central vents. The mud erupting from the vent is
extremely fluid near its source but becomes more vis-
The Pakistan part of the Makran coast is 600 km long cous as it flows, due to loss of water. Presently, the
and extends from the Dasht River (west of Gwadar) cone is built from a series of dried-up flows.
to the Hab River west of Karachi. Perennial streams Large quantities of mud were ejected from mud
in the coastal Makran include the Dasht, Basul and volcanoes during a short period after the Makran
Hingol Rivers. Most other streams are ephemeral and earthquake of 1945. The results of these eruptions
fail to reach the sea. The Makran coast (Fig. 1a) is (Sondhi 1947) included the temporary appearance of
affected by spectacular tectonic uplift (resulting in islands off the coast. Offshore gas expulsions and tur-
uplifted marine terraces up to 450 m above present bid waters were reported, indicating that the venting
sea level), coastal sedimentation and erosion (Snead activity extended over the Makran continental shelf.
1993). Neo-tectonic uplift of 1±2 mm a±1 (Page et al. A cursory comparison of the position of the onshore
1979) results in a seaward migration of the coastline expulsions and a structural map suggests that the
causing ªupward shallowing sediment sequencesº (re- activity may be confined to strike-slip faults which run
gression), as well as in rapid erosion and destruction obliquely to the overall E±W tectonic grain. On the
of the soft semiconsolidated coastal sediments of the upper continental slope (300- to 800-m water depth)
east/west-trending ridges. south of Chandragup and west of Karachi, as well as
Due to active subduction, the Makran is also char- southwest of Ormara, multiple gas seeps were identi-
acterized by moderate shallow-depth seismic activity. fied by white bacterial mats during the SO 90 and SO
Two severe earthquakes have occurred during the past 130 expeditions (von Rad et al. 2000).
95
Fig. 2 Location map of the Chandragup mud volcanoes the outpouring of gas-rich ªblack mudº. The islands
(adapted from Hunting Survey Corporation 1960) emerged at approximately the same locations, where
the Hunting Report (1960) mentioned ªthree emerged
islandsº that had appeared in 1935 offshore Makran.
mud, frequently agitated by rising gas. Chandragup I Since no other record appears to be available, one can
and III (for location see Fig. 2) were both reported to only speculate at this point, if this alleged event was
have been active. Stiffe's paper on mud volcanoes associated with the Quetta earthquake in 1935, or if a
(1874) contains for the first time a drawing of the con- typographical error (1945 vs 1935) had occurred. The
figuration of the Chandragup I mud volcano. Esti- Sondhi report, which does not mention the previous
mates on the height and diameter of the top of Chan- occurrence of ªnew islandsº, established methane as
dragup were given as 300±400 and 100 ft., respectively, the main gas component associated with the emerged
in agreement with estimates from Hart (1840). These islands. The three islands disappeared within months
measures are close to the current values (elevation: due to wave action. A spectacular detail of the new
100 m; crater diameter: 16.5 m). Because we did not islands were the so-called frozen waves (Figs. 1 and 2
notice any evidence of erosion on the flanks of Chan- in Sondhi 1947), which were then explained as a con-
dragup I, we conclude that the Chandragup mud vol- sequence of earth tremors. In our view, the observed
cano field has existed in its present form for more ridge topography might have resulted from different
than 160 years. The depth of the mud lake on Chan- pulses of mud expulsion from a fracture. Sondhi
dragup I is given by Stiffe as at least 50±60 ft., which (1947) confirms the observation by Vredenburg (1909)
is in reasonable agreement with our measurement in that the active mud volcanoes lie along major fault
1998 (29 m). Vredenburg (1909) mentioned mud vol- zones and noted that the position of the easternmost
canoes in ªsouthern Mekranº and noted the lack of island (then called Hingol Island) at 2518'N, 6541'E,
elevated temperatures associated with the fluids rising the axis of the Dhak Anticline, the Chandragup volca-
in the mud volcano and assumed a shallow origin of noes and the Khandawari mud volcano (2535'N,
the fluids. 6613'E) line up along a straight line. Aerial photo-
A first observation of the association of mud vol- graphs taken on 25 January 1946 of Chandragup I and
cano activity and major earthquakes was given by the Khandawari mud volcano show evidence of recent
Skrine (1936), who mentioned that the large Quetta vigorous mud outflow from both craters.
earthquake on 31 May 1935 (magnitude 7.5) was Several descriptions of the mud volcano appeared
immediately followed by massive outpouring of hot in the 1950s which do not show any change in the
mud from the hitherto dormant Thok mud volcano. shape of Chandragup I and II. Snead (1964) mentions
Three aerial photographs of Chandragup I and II an increase in activity of Chandragup I and II follow-
were taken in June 1940 and published by Harrison ing a small earthquake on 26 September 1956. The
(1944). The photographs show both volcanoes similar clear water in the crater of Chandragup II was
to the present shape with evidence of a then active replaced by mud. The level of the fill had risen by
small mud flow from Chandragup I to the south. The ª2 ft.º Thrown-out mud was found to have been
two craters in Chandragup II must therefore have ªsplattered approximately 20 ft. upon the side of the
coalesced to one crater prior to 1940. craterº. According to Snead, the now dormant, 30-m-
The large earthquake on 28 November 1945 with high mud volcano Chandragup III had erupted in
magnitude 8.2 offshore Gwadar was associated with summer of 1959 and produced mudflows on its flank
several unusual phenomena (Sondhi 1947). An erup- which had dried up during his visit in fall. We doubt
tion of a ªlarge volume of gasº producing a fire ball this version, as it is difficult to comprehend how mud
was observed near Hinglaj during the earthquake. Off- could have escaped from a dry crater, which was then
shore, three new islands emerged, which were built by (as at present) approximately 10±15 m deep.
97
Fig. 3 a Circular mud lake with 16.5 m diameter in crater of descending from the top. d Centre Mud volcano ruin with the
Chandragup I. b Dried up mud flow, approximately 40 m long, approximately 100-m-high Chandragup I in background. e View
on flank of Chandragup I. c Centre View across the crater lake across the Jebel-u-Ghurab-volcano field. Distance between mud
of Chandragup II. Crater rim is approximately 10 m high. Chan- flow in foreground to mud volcano in background is approx-
dragup I is seen in background with one active mud flow imately 200 m
98
Table 1 Geochemical composition of mud and rock samples taken at the visited mud volcano locations
Makran On- and Calcium CaCO3 Size Size Dominant Frequent Present Traces
offshore carbonate
free ca. % % >32 m % <32 m component component
MA 33 Hingol 66.86 0.99 15.74 4.65 0.03 2.17 1.24 2.95 0.07 327 190 161 116 125 270 0.6 8.3 0.3 2.4 7.2 3.2 1.4
River(30cm+)
MA 33 Hingol River 66.86 0.99 15.74 4.65 0.03 2.17 1.24 2.95 0.07 327 190 161 116 125 270 0.6 8.3 0.3 2.4 7.2 3.2 1.4
(30 cm +)
MA 34 Hingol River 64.14 0.91 16.01 6.59 0.03 2.84 1.27 2.62 0.08 304 180 100 194 134 175 0.5 8.5 0.3 2.2 6.4 2.1 1.1
(100 cm +)
MA 99±1C Malan Island 57.74 0.88 16.76 7.31 0.08 3.91 1.41 2.98 0.21 287 185 113 195 168 163 0.5 8.9 0.3 2.5 6.0 1.8 1.1
MA 99±1B Malan Island 65.72 0.94 16.46 4.51 0.02 2.62 1.27 3.16 0.05 302 186 169 128 146 191 0.6 8.7 0.3 2.6 6.4 2.2 1.5
MA 99±1D Malan Island 69.81 1.00 15.34 2.34 0.01 1.57 1.26 3.19 0.04 326 163 124 124 129 186 0.6 8.1 0.3 2.7 7.4 2.3 1.5
MA 99±4C Chandragup I 63.21 0.95 17.33 5.51 0.03 2.84 1.07 2.83 0.07 307 192 187 152 150 176 0.6 9.2 0.3 2.4 6.2 1.9 0.6
MA 99±8 Jebel-u-Ghurab 58.00 0.96 18.53 7.35 0.04 3.69 0.85 3.39 0.11 737 202 115 135 174 164 0.6 9.8 0.3 2.8 5.9 1.7 1.4
(MV I)
MA 99±11B Parkini Mudst. 57.34 0.83 17.08 7.04 0.08 4.17 2.37 2.86 0.19 297 186 160 190 142 153 0.5 9.0 0.3 2.4 5.5 1.7 1.0
MA 99±12 Malan Island 64.10 0.89 15.07 4.32 0.03 2.31 1.17 2.83 0.04 280 162 121 198 137 177 0.5 8.0 0.3 2.4 6.7 2.2 1.2
(NIO 2)
MA 99±13 Malan Island 69.41 0.84 12.40 5.11 0.02 1.54 1.33 2.36 0.04 250 169 138 179 109 218 0.5 6.6 0.3 2.0 7.7 3.3 1.2
(NIO 5)
MA 99±14 Malan Island 62.98 0.85 14.6 4.15 0.03 2.38 1.33 2.8 0.05 270 170 161 105 143 174 0.5 7.7 0.3 2.3 6.6 2.3 1.4
(NIO 6)
Table 3 Smear slide optical investigation of mud and rock samples taken at the visited mud volcano locations. No pteropod fragments, radiolarian diatoms or diatoms were
found at any of these stations
Sample Location Sorting Grain size Quartz Feld- Undifferen- Mica Heavies Opaques Car- Planktic Cocco- Mollusc Remarks
no spar tiated clay chlo- pyrite bonate forami- liths frag-
minerals rite ªflourº nifera ments
top of the pipe (here, 5 m below the surface of mud ments (Tables 1, 2 and 3). The foraminifera and coc-
lake) in a rapid temperature increase of 1.6 C within coliths were derived from the source sediments feed-
40 min after discharge initiation (Fig. 9). The temper- ing the extrusive mud diapirism deep below the mud
ature will further increase at a rate of 0.02 K per volcano. It is questionable as to whether they were
10 min. The quasi-stationary temperature increase of deposited in situ in the source sediments or reworked
1.6 C is in close agreement with the measured values from older (Cretaceous to Paleogene) sedimentary
in 1998. The short-term temperature increase in the source rocks exposed nearby and re-deposited into
mud lake is practically independent of the considered younger (Neogene) mudstones which formed the
pipe length (here taken as 500 or 2000 m). However, source material for the over-pressured mud extrusions
with a given discharge rate, the temperature increase (see below).
is largely dependent on the assumed size of the pipe. According to Eickhoff (pers. commun.), the C iso-
The larger the pipe size is, the smaller is the temper- topes of the gases from Chandragup (analysed in
ature increase, and vice versa. The numerical analysis 1989) suggest an origin from bacterial (biogenic) gas.
assumed that pipe cross section of 900 cm2 is approx- Gas samples taken in May 1997 indicated high meth-
imately equivalent in surface area to a fissure with a ane contents, apparently of biogenic (bacterial) origin
cross section of 2 cm4.5 m. This appears reasonable with a d13C content of ±63½. The samples taken in
considering the termination of the mud lake at 29 m 1999 (MA99±4A,B) had similar d13C values of approx-
depth into a fissure approximately 5 m long (see imately ±57½ (Table 5).
Fig. 7). The samples taken from the Jebel-u-Ghurab mud
volcano field had almost identical contents of d 13C
(±58 to ±61½) suggesting a similar origin and source
Composition of investigated sediment and gas samples as the Chandragup gases (Table 5).
A detailed analysis is available for the gas sample
The mud slurry samples taken from the Chandragup I taken from the water column of the offshore Malan
crater lake contain moderately sorted clayey silt (with Island gas seep (MA 99±1; Table 5): the sample con-
a median of 10 m) with 22% calcium carbonate (de- tained 97.6% methane, 3296 ppm ethane, 1023 ppm
trital ªcarbonate flourº), 20% quartz, 3% feldspar, propane and 385 ppm butane with d 13C values of
37% chlorite/mica-illite, and trace amounts of benthic methane being ±59.4½ and d 13C values of ethane
and planktic foraminifera, coccoliths and mollusk frag- being ±30½. All data point to microbiologically gener-
Table 5 Gas analyses from Malan Island and all known mud volcanoes in the Chandragup- and Jebel-u-Ghurab area
LIMS Sample Locality Sub-locality/ CH4 C2H6 ppm C3H8 ppm i-Butan ppm n-Butan ppm
no. sample type vol.% (vol.%) (vol.%) (vol.%) (vol.%)
9936654 MA 99±1 Malan Island Gas bubbles in seawater 97.6 3296.5 1023.4 385.0 53.4
9936655 MA 99±4A Chandragup I Gas from mud volcano 95.3 1509.8 1173.3 126.5 10.0
9936656 MA 99±4B Chandragup I Gas from mud volcano 97.5 1703.3 1118.4 110.0 10.0
9936657 MA 99±5 Jebel-u-Gurab Mud Volcano IV 90.2 1529.9 1148.9 167.9 54.5
9936658 MA 99±6A Jebel-u-Gurab Mud Volcano I 96.8 1167.9 1110.0 110.0 19.6
9936660 MA 99±7A Jebel-u-Gurab Mud Volcano II 96.4 1133.1 1110.0 110.0 14.0
9936661 MA 99±7B Jebel-u-Gurab Mud Volcano II 97.5 1158.7 1114.7 110.0 11.4
104
ated bacterial methane, excluding a thermogenic environment, whereas (b) the shallow-water associa-
origin. tion comes probably from overlying younger strata.
H. Andruleit (unpublished data) studied samples
from four mud volcanoes (Chandragup, Jebel-u-Ghu-
Source level of gas-charged mud inferred rab, Ormara and Gwadar) for their content of calcare-
from micropaleontological studies ous nannoplankton (Table 7). All samples contained
calcareous nannoplankton in moderate to good preser-
Although all accumulations of extrusive mud in the vation. Similar to the foraminiferal results, the results
Makran appear to be relatively young (Quaternary) prove that the extruded mud contains mixed nannoflo-
and closely connected with active orogenic structures, ras with ages ranging from Early Cretaceous to
the mud from Chandragup I contains erupted pieces Recent, i.e. originating from stratigraphic levels deep
of consolidated rock and an excellently preserved below the surface mud volcano structures. The cocco-
foraminiferal assemblage, mixed from different hori- liths belong to five stratigraphic horizons (Table 7):
zons and source areas. According to von Daniels (un- Assemblage A is of Pleistocene to Recent age; Assem-
published NLfB Report; see also Reimann 1989) the blage B of Neogene (Miocene to Pliocene) age;
mud contains a four-component fauna (Table 6) con- Assemblage C of Paleocene±Oligocene age; Assem-
sisting of: (a) Late Paleocene/Early Eocene planktonic blage D of Late Cretaceous; and Assemblage E of
foraminifera, probably reworked and eroded from the Early Cretaceous age. Several samples straddle two
hinterland (Fauna C); (b) ?Miocene planktonic fora- stratigraphic age assignments (e.g. A/B, B/C and
minifera (Fauna B), apparently from deeper horizons D/E).
of shales (deep shelf/slope environment); (c) a deep
shelf/slope benthic foraminiferal assemblage from
overpressurized shale from the deep subsurface; and Chandragup II
(d) a shallow-shelf benthic foraminiferal association
from higher overlying strata (?Ormara Formation; see The top of the structure is made up of two inter-
Table 6). The two benthic foraminiferal associations twined circular craters, probably the result of a flank
could indicate (a) the deeper, overpressurized mud rupture and formation of a new mud volcano, where
source level of former deep shelf to slope depositional the breach had occurred. The crater encloses a lake
Table 6 Foraminiferal fauna of rock fragments erupted from Chandragup I (modified from von Daniels in Reimann 1989). A abun-
dant; C common; F frequent; R rare; VR very rare
Species Foraminifera Age Stratigraphy Faunaa Environment
type (assemblage)
Table 7 Coccoliths from mud volcanoes (modified from H. Andruleit, unpublished data)
Coccoliths species From mud volcanoes Assem- Chandragup I Jebel-u-Ghurab Jebel-u-Ghurab
stratigraphy blagea (MA-2) (MA 30A) (MA 31)
with a salt-water concentration of 50 g l±1 within its in the absolutely flat Dhak Desert (formed by playa-
approximately 10-m-high, nearly vertical walls (Fig. 3c). like former lake sediments), approximately 1 km west
The surface water is of greenish colour (caused by of the end of the Dhak Anticline. We suggest that the
algal blooms). Near the centre of the lake, we location in the extension of the centre of this anticline
observed a continuous discharge of methane gas. The might be the tectonic reason for concentrating the gas
main constituents of the gas bubbles are methane near the crestline. This spectacular field of small mud
(91.5%), nitrogen (6.4%), oxygen (1.8%) and CO2 volcanoes shows in small-scale detail most of the proc-
(0.21%). esses of active and inactive mud volcanism, observed
One interesting aspect of the Chandragup II vol- in much larger scale in the Chandragup area.
cano is the occurrence of a mud spring on the flank of The field of active mud volcanoes consists of one
the volcano, for the first time observed in 1959 and comparatively large mound (I; 8-m elevation, 50-m cir-
reported by Snead (1964). It is situated at or slightly cumference; Fig. 10), one smaller structure (II;
below the crater lake level and is of the same muddy approximately 5 m high, 30-m circumference), one
bluish-grey colour as agitated water near large gas small volcano (III; 1.5-m elevation), one small volcano
bubbles rising through the water surface. (IV; 2-m elevation, 5-m circumference) and several
very small ªmud moundsº (~1-m elevation), some of
them extinct, some of them water filled (as II). We
Mud volcano field north of Jebel-u-Ghurab measured water/mud samples from mud volcanoes I,
II and IV (Fig. 10; Table 5).
The Jebel-u-Ghurab mud volcano field (Fig. 3e,) is Mud volcano I is a hummocky hill (with a compar-
located 11 km west±southwest of the Sapat Bandar atively flat top). The surface is covered by approx-
Coast Guard Station and 1.5 km north of Jebel-u- imately 30 small mini-craters, including three larger
Ghurab (Reimann 1989). The mud volcano field lies ones, all with vents bubbling of gas discharge and
106
Fig. 11 Suggested evolutionary stages of on- and offshore mud are the separation of the rising gas-charged mud into
volcanoes separate fractions with widely different viscosities
which rise through different conduits at varying dis-
charge rates to the surface resulting in surface features
to ªmoderate geopressuresº at depth levels of ranging from highly viscous mud pools, as compared
>2.3 km. This observation defines the minimum depth with springs of muddy and gas-rich waters.
of the source regions for the gas-charged fluids. This However, unlike the onshore volcanoes in the Mak-
is also supported by the study of the ages and ran, the mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan have a history
stratigraphic level of the mixed nannofloras and of periodic (every 6±32 years) major eruptions. In the
benthic foraminiferal faunas contained in the extruded case of Chandragup I, the mud discharge during the
mud. past 160 years was characterized by an uninterrupted
low-level activity. Other onshore mud volcanoes of
the region show no evidence of recent major activity.
Comparison of Chandragup with Azerbaijan mud We do not know if the offshore mud volcano of
volcanoes Malan Island erupts periodically. Its first recorded
eruption in 1945 was associated with strong earth-
A comparison of the properties of the mud volcanoes quake activity, whereas the second eruption in 1999
of the Makran with mud volcanoes of the Gobustan was not connected to any seismic event.
region of Azerbaijan (Hovland et al. 1997) suggests The apparently periodic strong gas emission from
striking similarities: both areas were rapidly uplifted Chandragup II (up to 1 m3 s±1) into the atmosphere
(61 km uplift) and folded during the Quaternary. contrasts strongly with the reported estimate of an
Mud diapirs are frequently formed in the cores or annual discharge rate of only >800 m3 by the Dashgil
flanks of anticlines. For both areas the source area of mud volcano/Azerbaijan (Hovland et al. 1997). Pos-
the discharge mechanism, the buoyancy of the gas- sibly, the gas loss of the Makran mud volcanoes is too
charged mud is suspected to rest at a depth of approx- effective to allow for a periodic build-up of overpres-
imately 2±3 km. Also common for both occurrences sures at depth to cause periodic major eruptions.
108
Conclusion
Fig. 12 a Idealized stratigraphic and structural N±S cross section
perpendicular to main axis of Dhak Anticline. Modified from Apparently, the mud volcanoes in the Makran desert
Raza et al. (1990, their Fig. 4). b Idealized stratigraphy at Chan-
dragup mud volcano location
have existed for several centuries without major
changes in their shape and activity. Their origin
appears to be closely connected either to major earth-
quakes, which result in violent outpouring of mud
along fracture zones, or with some other process in
The ªExtrusive Mud Formationº the subsurface which leads to gas-driven outflow of
mud. A likely candidate for the latter case is the vio-
Previous authors (Hunting Survey 1960; Bannert et al. lent gas discharge from a supersaturated fluid, trig-
1992) suggested that huge amounts of gas- and water gered by a minor disruption (for comparison, see the
charged mud, in analogy to circular mud volcanoes, gas eruption of Lake Nyos/Cameroon in 1986; Tietze
had been extruded unconformably into the Parkini 1992).
Formation of Late Miocene age over distances of tens After the rapid initial build-up of the Chandragup
of kilometers along fault structures. This would mud volcanoes no or only minimal up- or outbuilding
increase the total amount of mud extruded from took place. The present mud and gas discharge rate is
109
closely related to fluid generation by sediment com- 2.1The total amount of gas that has escaped through
paction and gas generation or advection in the source time from all onshore mud volcanoes is very diffi-
regions at depth from which at an earlier stage mud cult to estimate but obviously substantial.
and gas had broken through to the surface in one or 3.1It is unknown whether or not the bacterial gas ris-
several violent episodes with much greater force and ing from depth is produced in situ or advected by
with greater discharge rates than at present. fluid flow.
The reported observation of increased gas dis- Ultimately, the investigation of the structural set-
charge during monsoon periods points to a now effec- ting and genetic development of mud volcanoes,
tive connection between the pressure level of shallow including the distribution and activity of gas vents and
groundwater and deeper aquifers. Local heavy rains mud volcanoes, the thermal field, the composition and
may produce pressure fluctuations in aquifers which in derivation of the gases, the composition of the ker-
turn might trigger dissolution of gas, followed by rapid ogens and the maturity of the potential source rocks
discharge. require monitoring of gas and mud expulsion over
Our evidence points to continuous and episodically extensive time periods. Such an undertaking must be
enhanced eruptions of gas-charged fluidized mud left to a future collaborative science program in the
through mud volcanoes on land. The escaping gases area.
are predominantly composed of methane of bacterial
origin. Acknowledgements The field trips to the Makran and Malan
The gas discharge rates from depth are high in Island were well organized by NIO, especially by A.R. Tabrez
and A. Inam. We thank S. Amjad, Director General of NIO,
comparison with other mud volcano regions of the A.R. Tabrez and his colleagues from NIO (A. Ali Khan, M.
world and possibly too high to allow the build-up of Danish and G.M. Memon), and our BGR colleagues (H. Doose-
significant overpressures at depth which would result Rolinski, B. Harazim, A. Lückge, C. Reichert, M. Wiedicke and
in periodic major eruptions, as described from other M. Zeibig) participating in the field trips, as well as the Officers
of the Pakistan Coast Guard at Aghor for their kind help, guid-
large mud volcano fields (e.g. Azerbaijan). ance and hospitality during the field trips. Our offshore studies
The temperature distribution in the mud lake of during SONNE cruise SO-130 were funded by the Federal Min-
Chandragup I indicates that it is weakly stratified. The istry of Education, Science, Research and Technology (BMBF,
mud temperatures in the lake react rapidly to new Bonn, Berlin; project 03G 0130 A).
eruption phases and fall back to ambient temperatures
during phases of decreased activity.
Apparently, there are different source levels of the References
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