Classify common substances as acidic basic or neutral:

 Acids:
Sour taste
Litmus changes from blue to red
React with active metals to produce hydrogen gas and a salt
React with carbonates to release carbon dioxide gas
Neutralisation reactions with bases:
 Dissociates in water to produce hydronium
(hydrogen) ions
 Donates protons to the base
 Can accept an electron pair from a base
 Bases:
Bitter taste
Slippery or Greasy
Litmus changes from red to blue
Neutralisation reactions with acids:
 Dissociates in water to produce hydroxide
ions
 Accepts protons from the acid
 Can donate an electron pair to an acid
 Neutral:
Neither acidic nor basic
Same concentration of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions

Acidic Substances Basic Substances Neutral Substances

Lemon Juice Caustic soda solution Distilled water
Vinegar Milk of Magnesia Sugar
Carbonated Soft drinks Ammonia cleanser Pure alcohol
Citrus juices Washing soda Sodium Chloride
 Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange and
bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic or basic nature of a material
over a range identified by a change in indicator colour:

Colour Changes and Ranges of Important Indicators

Indicator Very Acidic Neutral Very Basic
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Bromothymol Blue Yellow → 6.0 7.6 ← Blue
Litmus Red → 5.0 8.0 ← Blue
Methyl Orange Red → 3.1 4.4 ← Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless → 8.3 10.0 ← Red

Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the testing of soil
acidity/basicity:
 Chemical Analysis:
Chemists routinely use indicators in analytical work
Used in titrations to signal point when the acid neutralises the base
Visible signal as most of these solutions are colourless
 Soil Testing:
Acidity is usually difficult to measure with indicator due to the darkness
Soil is moistened with water and universal indicator added
White barium sulfate powder places on surface of soil
White powder absorbs soil water so that colour can be seen against white
background
 Monitoring Pool Acidity:
Acidity levels need to be carefully controlled to reduce skin and eye
irritation
Regularly tested with indicator with a colour range similar to that of
universal indicator
Identify Factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction:
 Equilibrium:
For reversible reactions:
 As reaction proceeds rate of forward reaction decreases as
reactants consumed
 Rate of reaction in which reactants reformed increases as products
increase
 Eventually an equilibrium state will be reached
 At this point the rate of forward reaction equals the rate of the
reverse
Dynamic Equilibrium – Chemical state in which reaction proceeds in
both
directions at equal rates in a closed system
 Factors effecting Equilibrium:
Concentration – increasing the concentration of a substance favours the
direction
that will use up more of that substance
Pressure/Volume – increasing the pressure or decreasing the volume
favours the
direction that will decrease the pressure on the system
Temperature – increasing the temperature favours the endothermic
reaction, using
up the heat
– decreasing the temperature favours the exothermic reaction,
releasing more heat
Define Le-Chatelier’s Principle & describe the solubility of Carbon Dioxide in water
under various conditions as equilibrium in terms of Le-Chatelier’s Principle:
 Le-Chatelier’s Principle:
If a change is made to an equilibrium system, then the system alters in a way that
counteracts the change
 Carbon Dioxide Solubility:
Dissolves in water, reacts with water:
 CO2 (g) ↔ CO2 (aq)
 H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ↔ H2CO3 (aq)
 H2CO3 (aq) ↔ H+(aq) + HCO3 -(aq)
Equilibrium shift to the left increases release of CO2 (g)
Equilibrium shift to the right dissolves more CO2 (aq)
Changing Temperatures:
 Increasing temperature favours endothermic reaction, releasing
CO2 (g)
 Decreasing temperature favours exothermic reaction dissolving
CO2 (g)
Changing Concentrations:
 Adding acid (increasing H+) shifts equilibrium to left
 Adding base (reacting with & reducing H+) shifts equilibrium to
right
Changing Pressures & Volumes:
  Increasing Pressure, decreasing volume, shift towards right
 Decreasing Pressure, increasing volume, shift towards left

Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide & describe, using equations,
examples of chemical reactions which release sulfur dioxide:
 Natural Sources:
Decomposition and combustion of organic matter in bushfires
Emissions from erupting volcanoes, hot springs and geysers
 Industrial Sources:
Combustion of fossil fuels in power plants and in motor vehicles:
 During combustion of fuel sulfur compounds oxidise releasing SO2
 Example: Combustion of Black Coal
 Equation: 4FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2 (g)
Smelting of sulfide ores:
 Sulfide minerals produce sulfur dioxide when smelted
 Example: Smelting Chalcopyrite
 Equation: 2CuFeS2 (s) + 5O2 (g) + 2SiO2 → 2Cu (l) + 2FeSiO3 (l) +
4SO2 (g)
Identify natural and industrial sources of oxides of nitrogen & describe, using
equations, examples of chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen:
 Natural Sources:
Lightning:
 Provides high temperatures for reaction between nitrogen and
oxygen
 Equation: N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO (g)
Neutral nitrogen monoxide reacts in air:
 Produces acidic nitrogen dioxide
 Equation: 2NO(g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
Bushfires burning protein rich in oxygen and nitrogen
 Industrial Sources:
Combustion reactions in furnaces and internal combustion engines:
 High temperatures produced by spark plug react nitrogen and
oxygen, releasing nitrous oxides from exhaust
 Home heaters and gas stoves
Assess evidence indicating increase in atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur
and nitrogen:
 Atmospheric Acidic Oxides in USA and Europe:
Emissions of acidic oxides went largely unchecked in 19th and 20th
centuries
 Significant NOx (NO & NO2) pollution developed due to motor usage and
electricity generation increase
Emission controls improved, population increase resulted in no change
 Sydney’s Air:
Pollution not as extreme, low sulfur content in our coal
Sulfur dioxide levels monitored, well below World Health Organisation
goals
 The Evidence:
Only over recent years due to need for technology
SO2 and NO2 form ions, mostly water-soluble, circulating in biosphere &
hydrosphere
As a result it is difficult to measure atmospheric concentration of these
oxides over previous centuries

Identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the conditions under
which they act as acids
Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and outline the
relationship between position of elements in the Periodic Table and Acidity/Basicity of
oxides:
 Metallic Oxides:
Generally basic
Examples: Na2O, MgO, CaO, FeO and CuO
Soluble metallic oxides react with water forming alkaline solutions
Red litmus turns blue in these solutions
 Non-Metallic Oxides:
Generally acidic
Exceptions: CO, NO and N2O which are neutral
Examples: CO2, SO2 and NO2
Blue Litmus turns blue when moist and exposed to these gases
 Amphoteric Oxides:
Neutralised by either Acids or Bases
Examples are shown below

 Trends in the Periodic Table:

Group 1 oxides: strongly basic, basicity increases down the group
Group 2 oxides: basic, basicity increases down the group
 Most transition metal oxides are basic
In groups 3 to 6: trend down the groups from acidic to amphoteric to
basic
Group 7 oxides: strongly acidic, acidity decreases down the group

Explain the Formation and Effects of Acid Rain:

 Formation:
Distilled water normally has a pH of 5.5-6 due to CO2 being absorbed
When acidic oxides dissolve in water in the atmosphere the pH of the
water can drop well below 5
These water droplets can fall to the Earth as Acid Rain
Acid Rain can contain a mixture of different acids:
 Sulfurous acid formed from dissolving SO2 – SO2(g) + H2O(l) →
H2SO3(aq)
 Sulfuric Acid formed from oxidising H2SO3 – 2H2SO3(aq) + O2 →
2H2SO4(aq)
 Nitric & Nitrous Acids formed from NO2 – 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) →
HNO2 + HNO3
 Effects:
Increased weathering and Erosion:
 Rocks attacked by acid rain, causes them to weather and crumble
 Carbonate rocks such as limestone, dolomite and marble readily
attacked
 Marble statues and buildings also attacked
 Gypsum surface formed when Calcium and Sulfate ions crystallise
Increased attack on metals and alloys:
 Structural metals such as steel in buildings and bridges attacked
Destruction of Forests:
 Plant leaves and roots damaged by acid rain
 Leaves removed and death of trees
Acidification of lakes and waterways:
 Washed into lakes and streams
 High acidity prevents fish and aquatic invertebrates from
reproducing
 Continued acidification leads to death of aquatic organisms
 Change in Soil pH:
 Difficult for plants to absorb nutrients
 Death of micro-organisms
 Release of normally insoluble aluminium and mercury
 Reducing Emissions:
Use of low sulfur coals
Use of scrubbers, containing basic solution to remove acidic oxides
from industries
Ca(OH)2 + SO2 → CaSO3 + H2O
Catalytic converters in vehicle exhaust systems
Alternative energy technology

Calculate Volumes of Gases given masses of some substances in reactions, and

calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving gases at
0oC or 25oC and 100kPa:
 From Equation: H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Mole Ratio: 1 : 2 : 1 : 2
For every 1 mole of H2SO4, 2 moles of NaOH react to produce 1 mole of
Na2SO4 and 2 moles of H2O
 Moles of Solids:
Formula:
Moles = Mass _
Molar Mass
Use mole ratio to determine how many moles of other substance
 Moles of Gases:
Formula:
Moles = Volume _
Molar Volume
Molar Volume is the same for all gases, changes with temperature and
pressure
At 101.3 kPa (1.00 atm) and 273 oK (0 oC) Molar Volume – 22.41 L
At 101.3 kPa (1.00 atm) and 298 oK (25 oC) Molar Volume – 24.47 L
 Concentration:
Formula:
Moles = Concentration
Volume
Dilution Formula: C1V1 = C2V2
Define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of Acids in water
 Acids as Proton Donors:
Acids are proton Donors
Acid molecule in contact with water ionises, donating a proton to water
molecule
Hydrogen atom consists of one proton and one electron
Hydrogen ion formed when hydrogen atom loses an electron, leaving a
proton
Thus a proton and a hydrogen ion are the same thing
 Ionisation in Water:
Acid molecule placed in water, ionises, releasing a proton forming a
negative ion
Proton can attach to a water molecule forming a hydrated hydrogen ion or
hydronium ion (H3O+)
HX + H2O → X- + H3O+
Describe Acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms strong, weak,
concentrated and dilute
Describe the Difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of an equilibrium
between intact molecule and ions:
 Concentrated Solution:
Large amount of solute in given amount of solution
10 mol L-1 solution would be considered concentrated
 Dilute Solution:
Small amount of solute in given amount of solution
0.1 mol L-1 solution would be considered dilute
  Strong Acid:
Acid that completely ionises in water
Example: Hydrochloric Acid
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+ + Cl-
No equilibrium arrow used because the reaction does not happen in the
reverse
All the molecules ionise and the ions do not reform the molecules
 Weak Acid:
Acid that is incompletely ionised in water
Example: Hydrofluoric Acid
HF(g) + H2O(l) ↔ H3O+ + F-
Equilibrium arrow used because reaction does occur in reverse
Small proportion of the molecules ionise and the ions can reform the
molecules
Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and
hydrochloric acids in terms of degree of ionisation of the molecules:
 Hydrochloric Acid:
Strong acid, almost completely ionises in solution
HCl → H+ + Cl-
 Citric acid (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid):
Weak acid, around 1% ionisation
HOC(CH2COOH)2COOH ↔ HOC(CH2COOH)2COO- + H+
 Acetic acid (ethanoic acid):
Weak acids, around 1% ionisation
CH3COOH ↔ CH3COO- + H+

Identify Acids including Acetic, Citric, Hydrochloric and Sulfuric & Identify examples
of naturally occurring Acids and their chemical composition:
 Natural Acids:
Hydrochloric Acid: HCl
 Stomachs produce large amounts of hydrochloric acid to assist
digestion
 High acidity activates enzymes catalysing the breakdown of
proteins
 HCl vapours also emitted from some volcanoes
Acetic Acid: CH3COOH
 Vinegar is a 4% solution of acetic acid
 Forms when wine naturally ferments due to microbial oxidation
Citric Acid: C6H8O7
 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid
 Found in all citrus fruits
 Formed during cellular respiration in body cells
Ascorbic Acid: C6H8O6
 Commonly known as vitamin C
 Prevents onset of scurvy
  Present n fresh fruits and vegetables
Sulfuric:
 Cooking copper and iron sulfate minerals
 SO2 emissions from volcanoes
Nitric:
 Distilling nitrate salts with sulfuric acid
 NO & consequent NO2 from lightning strikes in the air
Explain the use of acids as food additives:
 Citric and Tartaric Acid:
Added top jams to give sharp taste
Prevents growth of microbes
Citric acid also a useful antioxidant, prevents microbe growth in canned
foods
 Leavening Agents: (fumaric acid, citric acid, phosphoric acid)
React with sodium bicarbonate to release carbon dioxide
Used in many packaged biscuit and cake mixes
 Acetic Acid:
Helps to preserve foods such as pickles and chutneys
 Sulfur Dioxide:
Prevent dried fruits and white wine from attack by moulds and other
microbes
 Ascorbic Acid:
Antioxidant added to food to prevent spoilage by oxidation
Alters pH so that enzymatic reactions do not occur or are slowed down
 Phosphoric Acid:
Added to many soft drinks to increase sharp taste of drink

Describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases:

 The pH scale is used to compare the concentration of hydrogen ions in solutions
of acids and bases
pH [H+] [OH-] [H+] × [OH-]
0 -14
0 10 = 1 10 10-14
1 10-1 10-13 10-14
-2 -12
2 10 10 10-14
3 10-3 10-11 10-14
-4 -10
4 10 10 10-14
5 10-5 10-9 10-14
6 10-6 10-8 10-14
-7 -7
7 10 10 10-14
8 10-8 10-6 10-14
-9 -5
9 10 10 10-14
 10 10-10 10-4 10-14
-11 -3
11 10 10 10-14
12 10-12 10-2 10-14
-13 -1
13 10 10 10-14
14 10-14 100 = 1 10-14
 In an acidic solution, [H+] > 10-7 mol L-1 and pH < 7
 In a basic solution, [H+] < 10-7 mol L-1 and pH > 7
Identify pH as –log10[H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a ten-fold
change in [H+]:
 From the data above, change in pH of 1 means ten-fold change in [H+]
 Multiplied or divided by 10
 The pH Formula:
pH = -log10 [H+]

Outline the Historical Development of ideas about acids:

 Antoine Lavoisier – Oxygen as Acidifying Principle
Non-metal oxides formed acidic solutions
Acids must contain Oxygen, element responsible for acidic properties
 Humphry Davy – Hydrogen as Acidifying Principle
Hydrochloric acid contained no oxygen
All known acids contained hydrogen, could be replaced by reaction with a metal
Metal Oxides were bases
The way a substance was structured determined acidity not what it contained
 Svante Arrhenius
Definitions based on concepts about particles too small to be directly observed
Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
Bases produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water
Acid or Base solutions are good conductors
 Behavior of acids is due to H+ ion
Behavior of bases is due to OH- ion
Outline the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases:
 Independently outlined by Danish chemist Johannes Bronsted and British chemist
Thomas Lowry
 An acid is a proton (hydrogen) donor
 A base is a proton acceptor
 Acid-Base reaction, neutralization reaction, proton transferred from acid to base
 Describes how an acid behaves
 Importance of water as an ionizing solvent
 Non-Aqueous Solutions: Hydrogen Chloride
Hydrogen chloride gas dissolving in organic solvent
Remains as discrete molecules
Ammonia bubbled through, Ammonium Chloride salt forms
Exchange of protons between Hydrogen Chloride and Ammonia
Can also occur if the two are mixed in dry air
HCl(g) + NH3 (g) → NH4Cl(s)

Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base and its
conjugate acid:
 Relationship between them:
When an acid donates a proton, it forms its conjugate base:
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H3O+
When a base accepts a proton, it forms its conjugate acid:
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H3O+
 Strength:
Strong acids have very weak conjugate bases
Strong bases have very weak conjugate acids
Identify Conjugate Acid/Base Pairs:
 Whenever an acid and a base react they form their conjugates:
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H3O+
 Hydrochloric acid and the chloride ion are a conjugate acid/base pair
  Water and the hydronium ion are a conjugate acid/base pair
Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific example in a
natural system:
 Overview:
Buffers control the level of acidity or basicity in a solution
If an acid or base is added to the buffer, little or no change in pH
Usually a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base
 Blood - HCO3-/CO32:
Acid added to buffer, hydrogen ions removed:
H+ + HCO3- → H2CO3
Base added to buffer, hydroxide ions removed:
OH- + HCO3- → H2O + CO32-
Net effect is that pH of solution containing buffer changes only slightly
Hydrogen carbonate ions important in maintaining human blood at around
pH 7.4

Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and explain their
acidic, basic or neutral nature:
 Neutral Salts:
Salt solutions formed from strong acid, strong base or weak acid, weak
base
NaCl – Ions do not undergo hydrolysis
NH4CH3COO (Ammonium Acetate):
 NH4+ + H2O → NH3 + H3O+
 CH3COO- + H2O → CH3COOH + OH-

 Acidic Salts:
Salt solutions formed from a strong acid and a weak base
Solutions of NH4+:
 NH4+ + H2O → NH3 + H3O+
 Basic Salts:
Salt solutions formed from a weak acid and a strong base
KCH3COO (Potassium Acetate):
 CH3COO- + H2O → CH3COOH + OH-

Identify Amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe their behaviour in

acidic and basic solutions:
  Definition: Substance acting as either acid or base, donating or accepting
protons
 Water – Amphiprotic Molecule
Acid – H2O → H+ + OH-
Base – H2O + H+ → H3O+
 Hydrogen Carbonate – Amphiprotic Ion
Acid – HCO3- → H+ + CO32-
Base – H+ + HCO3- → H2CO3

Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic:

 Proton Transfer:
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Net Ionic: H+ + OH- → H2O
From above neutralisation is a proton transfer reaction
Proton from acid transfers to hydroxide ion of base
 Exothermic Reactions:
All neutralisations are exothermic
Heat of neutralisation always about 57 kJ per mole of water formed

Asses the use of neutralisation reactions as a safety measure or to mnimise damage in

accidents or chemical spills:
 Amphiprotic Ions for Neutralisation:
Substance containing an amphiprotic ion, such as the hydrogen carbonate
ion in Sodium Bicarbonate, quite suitable for neutralising chemical spills:
 If the chemical spill contains an acid – H+ + HCO3- → H2O + CO2
 If the spill contains a base – HCO3- + OH- → CO32- + H2O.
Neutralisation is practiced in chemical spills where the acid or alkali is
strong
Substances used to neutralise the chemicals are either weak acids (such as
dilute vinegar) or weak bases (Such as Sodium Bicarbonate)

Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of standard
solutions:
 Standard Solution: Solution of accurately known concentration (in mol
L-1)
Primary Standard – Solution made by dissolving accurately measured
mass of
solute in a solvent
 Secondary Standard – Solution whose concentration is determined by
titration
against a primary standard
A chemical suitable for preparation as a standard solution must be:
1. A water soluble solid
2. High purity
3. Accurately known formula
4. Stable in air – does not lose or gain water or react with oxygen or carbon dioxide
Primary Standard Solution Prepared By:
1. Accurately weighing a calculated amount of solid
2. Dissolving in water
3. Transferring all of the dissolved solid to a volumetric flask
4. Adding water to the flask to prepare a fixed volume of solution
 Titration Procedure:
1. Ensure all equipment is cleaned and rinsed with the correct liquid:
Pipette and Burette rinsed with liquid they will contain
Flask rinsed with distilled water
2. Use the pipette to measure a volume of one solution
3. Transfer this to the conical flask
4. Add a few drops of a suitable indicator:
Weak Acid/Strong Base – pH > 7 – Phenolphthalein
Strong Acid/Strong Base – pH around 7 – Bromothymol Blue
Strong Acid/Weak Base – pH < 7 – Methyl Orange
5. Rough titration – add the second solution slowly from a burette into the
conical
flask , swirling constantly, until the indicator changes colour
6. Repeat carefully until you have three readings within 0.1 mL of each other
7. Perform Calculations
 Definitions:
Titration – procedure used to experimentally find concentration of
solution
Titration is a volumetric analysis (using volumes) technique
Equivalence Point – Point when reaction is complete
Indicator used to show when reaction is completed
End Point – Point when indicator changes colour
Pipette – Titration equipment which measures a fixed volume of solution
to provide fixed number of moles of one reactant
Flask – Titration equipment in which reaction takes place
Burette – Titration equipment which allows measure of exact volume of
reactant needed to reach equivalence point
Titre – Volume of solution delivered from burette
Titrant – Solution of known concentration and composition
Aliquot – Fixed volume of solution delivered by Pipette

Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional groups in
carbon compounds:
  Alkanols:
Hydroxy functional group (OH)
Provides characteristic properties such as high melting points and boiling
points
Polar Molecules, more water soluble
 Alkanoic Acids:
Carboxylic Acid functional group (COOH)
Can lose a hydrogen ion and behave as a weak acid
Polar Molecules, more water soluble
Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straight-chained
alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary alkanol structures:
 Alkanols:
High melting and boiling
points due to hydrogen bonding
Between the O in one
molecule and the H of an -OH in a
nearby molecule

 Alkanoic Acids:
Ability of -COOH group,
involved in two hydrogen bonds
Even higher boiling point than
that of a similar sized alkanol
Two hydrogen bonds occur
between pair of Alkanoic acid molecules
Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by reactions of
straight-chained alkanoic acids and straight-chained alkanols:
 The example on the left is Ethyl
Ethanoate
 R is the straight chain of the
alkanol
 R’ is the straight chain of the
alkanoic acid
 When naming Esters:
Alkanol becomes ‘Alkyl’ part
Alkanoic Acid becomes
Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and describe,
using equations, examples of esterification:
 Definition: Chemical reaction, alkanol chemically bonded to organic acid
with
elimination of water
 Acid, containing -COOH functional group, reacts with alkanol, containing
-OH functional group, producing ester and water
R-OH + HOOC-R! R-OOC-R! + H2O
alkanol acid ester water
 Reversible reaction, comparable quantities of alkanol, acid, ester and
water, equilibrium
 The C=O and C-O bonds make esters polar substances
 Lack of hydrogen bonding means, esters have lower boiling points than
acids or alkanols of same molecular weight
Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis
 Esterification catalysed by addition of small amount of acid
 Esterification is a condensation reaction, water molecule condensed out
 Small amount of concentrated acid added, catalyses reaction
 Concentrated sulfuric acid added in large amounts, significant effect on
equilibrium
 Concentrated sulfuric acid is a dehydrating agent
 Significant amount of sulfuric acid present, shifts equilibrium position to
right by absorbing water: alcohol + acid ester + water
 Increases yield of ester, but using large amounts of sulfuric acid is
wasteful, uneconomic and complicates the separation of ester from the reaction
mixture
Explain the need for refluxing during esterification:
 Definition – Products and remaining reactants returned to chemical
reaction
 Esterification requires heat for reaction to reach equilibrium within an
hour, rather than after many days
 Boiling chips added to promote even boiling
 Reaction mixture heated, volatile components, such as reactant alcohol
and product ester, could escape
 Problem overcome by refluxing reaction mixture
 Condenser placed on top of reaction vessel, volatile components pass into
condenser
 Condenser water or air-cooled, volatile components condense back to
liquid fall back into reaction mixture
 Refluxing improves safety of the operation, as the volatile components are
flammable
Outline some examples of the occurrence and uses of esters and identify and describe
the uses of esters as flavours and perfumes:
 Occurrence:
Occur naturally in the form of flavouring agents and scents
Odours and flavours of fruits caused by presence of esters
Solid animal fats and plant oils are also esters
 Examples of their uses:
Fragrances and flavours:
 Octyl Ethanoate – Orange Flavour
 Ethyl Butanoate – Pineapple Flavour
 Pentyl Ethanoate – Banana Flavour
 Pentyl Butanoate – Apricot Flavouring
 Methyl Butanoate – Apple Flavouring
 Benzyl Ethanoate – Jasmine Fragrance
 Isobutyl Methanoate – Raspberry Fragrance
Solvents and medications:
 Ethyl Ethanoate – Solvent and Thinner
 Butyl Ethanoate – Nail Lacquer
 Acetyl Salicylic Acid – Aspirin