This learning area is designed to provide a general background for the understanding of

Earth Science and Biology. It presents the history of the Earth through geologic time. It discusses

the Earth’s structure, composition, and processes. Issues, concerns, and problems pertaining to

natural hazards are also included. It also deals with the basic principles and processes in the study

of Biology. It covers life processes and interactions at the cellular, organism, population, and

ecosystem levels.

Chapter 1. Origin and Structure of the Earth

This chapter puts emphasis on the following lessons:

 Lesson A. Universe and Solar System

 Lesson B. Earth and Earth Systems

Content Standards:
The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 the Formation of the Universe and the Solar System

 the Subsystems (geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere) that make

up the Earth

 the Earth’s Internal Structure

Performance Standards:
The learners shall be able to :

1. Conduct a survey to assess the possible geologic hazards that your community may

experience. (Note: Select this performance standard if your school is in an area near fault

lines, volcanoes, and steep slopes)

2. Conduct a survey or design a study to assess the possible hydro meteorological hazards

that your community may experience)

Learning Competencies:
The learners:
a. state the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the universe.
b. describe the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system.

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 c. recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in the solar system with
properties necessary to support life.
d. explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and
energy flow
e. explain the current advancements/information on the solar system
f. show the contributions of personalities/people on the understanding of the Earth
Systems
g. identify the layers of the Earth(crust, mantle, core)
h. differentiate the layers of the Earth

BIG IDEA 1.1

The universe and the Solar System have origins. These are explained by different theories.

1.1a Origin of the Universe

How did the universe form?

There are plenty of versions of different
stories from different walks of life.
Different cultures have their creation
myths.
A creation myth is a symbolic
narrative of the beginning of the world
as understood by a culture. These are
handed down from generation to
generation through stories, songs, and
work of art, among others. The story of
the origin of the universe is never an
exemption. According to GENESIS, in Figure 1.1 a. The Creation Story
the Old testament, the creation of the entire cosmos (universe) is done in six days, although there
are several accounts to this Genesis Myth.
The most popular theory of our universe' origin centers on a cosmic cataclysm unmatched
in all of history—the big bang. This theory was born of the observation that other galaxies are
moving away from our own at great speed, in all directions, as if they had all been propelled by
an ancient explosive force.

Before the big bang, scientists believe, the entire vastness of the observable universe,
including all of its matter and radiation, was compressed into a hot, dense mass just a few
millimeters across.

BIG BANG and other Theories

There are several theories explaining the origin of the universe. These include the Big
Bang theory, Steady State theory, Inflation theory, String Theory and M theory, and many more.

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Big Bang Theory. The proponents of the theory are Aleksander Friedman and George Lamaitre
in 1920.

According to the theory, around 13.7 billions years ago, there was nothing and nowhere.
Then suddenly, due to random
fluctuation in an empty void, there
is a great explosion or expansion.
The explosion sent space, time,
matter, and energy in all
directions. The event is called BIG
BANG.

The occurrence of the Big

Bang resulted into several events
that led to the creation of forces and
celestial bodies we know today.
Figure 1.b shows the timeline of the
Fig. 1.1b Big Bang Timeline of Events
events.

Big Bang Timeline of Events:

1. Inflationary epoch (10-43 sec). The cosmos goes through a superfast “inflation,” expanding
from the size of an atom to that of a grapefruit in a tiny fraction of a second.
2. Post Inflation(10-32 sec). The universe is a seething hot soup of electrons, quarks and other
particles.
3. Rapid Cooling(10-6 sec). A rapid cooling cosmos permits quarks to clump into protons and
neutrons.
4. Post-Cooling Period( 3million years). Still too hot to form into atoms, charged electrons and
protons prevent light from shining; the universe is a superhot fog.
5. Formation of basic elements. ( 300,000 years) Electrons combine with protons and neutrons
to form atoms, mostly Hydrogen and Helium. Light can finally shine.
6. Coalition Period. ( I billion years) Gravity makes Hydrogen and Helium gas coalesce to
form the giant clouds that will become galaxies; smaller clumps of gas collapse to form
the first stars.
7. Birth of stars and galaxies (15 billion years). As galaxies cluster together under gravity, the
first stars die and spew heavy elements into space; those will eventually turn into new
stars and planets.

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 Among all other theories, it is said to be the most credible one due to the supporting
evidences:

(a) Galaxies moving away- In 1924, Edwin Hubble found that stars are not uniformly
distributed in space. They gather together forming clusters called galaxies. He found out
that nearly all galaxies were moving away. The distance between distant galaxies was
increasing with time. If it was expanding, they must have been closer together in the past
and maybe a single point in the beginning.
(b) Presence of cosmic microwaves background (CMB)-In 1920, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
discovered a background radio emission coming from every direction in the sky. This
radiation was speculated to be the remnant energy left over from the formation of the
universe. The discovery of CMB placed to an end of the Steady State theory of the
universe.
(c) Abundance of light elements. These are Helium, Hydrogen, Deuterium, and Lithium, found
in observable universe agrees with the hypotheses of the Big Bang theory. Their
abundance is checked from the spectra of the oldest stars and gas clouds. The ratios of
these light elements match with what is expected from the Big Bang nucleosynthesis.

Steady State Theory. The proponents of the theory are Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Sir
Fred Hoyle in 1948.

According to the theory, the expansion of the universe is balanced by the spontaneous
production of bubbles of matter-anti-matter, so that the Perfect Cosmological Principle is
preserved. It proposes that universe is unchanging in time and uniform in space. Nucleo
synthesis in stars can account for the abundances of all the elements except the very lightest one.
The discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) contradicted the basic assumptions of
the Steady State theory that everything is constant. Figure 1.1c shows the comparison between
the Big Bang and the Steady State theories. Steady State Theory claims the universe to be
expanding yet it remains the same
by way of keeping its density
maintained and not decreasing.

The following accounts for

the unresolved conflicts between
Big Bang and the Steady State
theories:

a. Flatness. The Wilkinson

Microwave Anistrophy
Probe (WMAP) revealed
that the geometry of the
universe was nearly flat.
Figure 1.1c Comparison between the Big Bang and the Steady
State

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 As with Big Bang, there has to be curvature as time grows.
b. Monopole. The Big Bang theory predicts the production of heavy stable magnetic
monopoles in the early universe, yet, there has been none observed.
c. Horizon. Distant regions of space in opposite directions of the sky are so far apart that
they could never have been in causal contact with each other, but, the evidences show
the uniformity of cosmic microwave background temperature revealed that these
regions have been in contact with each other in the past.

Inflation Theory. The proponents are Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhart, and Andy
Albrecht, who offered solutions to the existing conflict.

The theory proposed a period of exponential expansion of the universe prior to the more
gradual big bang expansion. The energy density of the universe is dominated by a cosmological
constant-type of vacuum energy, which later decayed to produce the matter and radiation that
filled up the universe. Inflation Theory is said to be the extension of the Big Bang theory. To
resolve the conflict, the following notions were offered:

a. Flatness. The vastness of the universe would appear flat to an individual even though
it is still a sphere. This is the same with our Earth experience. Inflation stretches any
initial curvature of the
universe to near flatness.
b. Monopole. Monopoles are
produced prior to
inflation. During the rapid
expansion, the density of
the monopoles dropped
exponentially to an
undetectable level.
c. Horizon. The exponential
expansion in the early
universe presupposes that
the distant regions were
much closer with each
other prior to inflation.
Fig. 1.1 d Timeline of the universe based on Big Bang Theory and inflation models.

The idea of inflation had explained several phenomena, yet there are still other accounts
to consider such were the presence of dark matter and dark energy. The nature of dark matter
and dark energy were unknown. However, it is said that dark energy is the energy of the empty
space and is causing expansion of the universes to accelerate. Dark matter, likewise, is a
hypothetical matter, which accounts for most of the matter in the universe that cannot be seen by
telescopes, but they exist!

5
 Gravitational waves (ripples in the fabric of space-time) were detected by the team of
astronomers led by John Kovac of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics on March
17, 2014. Examining the CMB also gives astronomers clues as to the composition of the universe.
Researchers think most of the cosmos is made up of matter and energy that cannot be "sensed"
with conventional instruments, leading to the names dark matter and dark energy. Only 5 percent
of the universe is made up of matter such as planets, stars and galaxies, and even life.

String theory. Remained perplexed of the origin of the universe, physicists resorted to a new
theory that came out combining the principles of Einstein’s theory of relativity with quantum
mechanics. String theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle
physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. It describes how
these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than
the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge and other
properties determined by the
vibrational state of the string. In
string theory, one of the many
vibrational states of the string
corresponds to the graviton,
a quantum mechanical particle that
carries gravitational force. Thus
string theory is a theory of quantum
gravity.

String theory originated in

1970 when particle theorists realized
that the theories developed in 1968
to describe the particle spectrum Fig. 1.1 e Open and closed forms of strings

also describe the quantum

mechanics of oscillating strings.
Supersymmetry was introduced in 1971.

In string theory, the assembly of the particle type is replaced by a string with dimensions
confined to Planck length. It comes in an open and closed forms, of which they are free to vibrate
at different modes. The different vibrational modes may represent different particle types like
electron, photon or even a graviton, which carries the force of gravity. It is at this point that there
is a great hope that the String Theory will be able to unite all known forces and particles into a
single “theory of everything”.

M Theory The origin of the universe occurs as a result of the contact of two hyperdimensional
branes . Strings can actually attach at one or both ends of the string. The collision of the branes
lead to the formation of the universe. M-theory is a theory in physics that unifies all consistent
versions of superstring theory. The existence of such a theory was first conjectured by Edward

6
Witten at a String Theory conference at the University of Southern California in the spring of
1995. Witten's announcement initiated a flurry of research activity known as the Second
Superstring Revolution.

In 1994, Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study suggested that the five
different versions of string theory might be describing the same thing seen from different
perspectives. He proposed a unifying theory called "M-theory", in which the "M" is not
specifically defined but is generally understood to stand for "membrane". The words "matrix",
"master", "mother", "monster", "mystery" and "magic" have also been claimed. M-theory brought
all of the string theories together. It did this by asserting that strings are really one-dimensional
slices of a two-dimensional membrane vibrating in 11-dimensional space-time.

Undeniably true, these several theories and more remain under question and far beyond
what imagination could fathom. The origin of the universe still remains daunting and probably
beyond comprehensible as of the present. But what do you thinks sounds convincing?

1.1b Origin of the Solar System

The birth of the stars and the galaxies about 300 million years ago marked simultaneously
the formation of the solar bodies.

Galaxy is defined as gravitationally-bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar

gas and dark matter. Milky Way is one of the billion galaxies. In the Milky Way galaxy, our solar
system is found. So, how did the solar system form?

There are also several theories that attempt to explain the origin of our solar system:
Descartes’ Vortex Theory, Buffon’s
Collision Theory , Kant-Laplace
Nebular Hypothesis, Jeans-
Jeffreys’ Tidal Hypothesis, and
Solar Nebular Theory, among
others.

Descartes’ Vortex Theory Rene

Descartes , a French mathematician
and physicist, explained that the
orbits of the planets are in terms of
whirlpool-like motion and the
satellites around the planets as
Fig. 1.1f. Orbits of the planets in a whirlpool-like motion
secondary whirlpool-like motion.

7
 Solar System formed into bodies with nearly circular orbits because of the whirlpool-like
motion in pre-solar materials.

Buffon’s Collision Theory George

Leclerc and Comte de Buffon,
French naturalists, proposed that
the planets were formed by the
collision of the Sun with a giant
comet. The resulting debris formed
into planets that rotate in the same
direction as they revolve around
the sun.
Fig. 1.1g Planets are formed from debris after the collision

Kant-Laplace Nebular Hypothesis

Immanuel Kant & Pierre Simon
Laplace proposed a nebular theory
which states that nebula (great cloud
of gas and dust) begins to collapse
because of gravitational pull. As the
cloud contracted they spun more
rapidly. As nebular collapses further,
local regions contract on their own
due to gravity and become the sun
and the planets.
Fig. 1.1h Gravitational force collapses the cloud and spins rapidly

8
 Jeans-Jeffreys’ Tidal Hypothesis Sir
James Hopwood Jeans & Harold
Jeffreys suggested a dualistic
theory in which the planets and the
sun were produced by different
mechanisms.

Tidal Theory proposed that

the planets were formed from the
substance that was torn out of the
Fig. 1.1i Planets are formed from condensed materials from the sun
sun. As the speeding massive star
passed near the Sun, it pulled off
material due to gravitational attraction. Torn off materials condensed to form planets.

Solar Nebular Theory. The solar system

was formed from the condensation of
Hydrogen gas (interstellar gas) and
dust cloud. Explosion of supernova
caused the gas and dust to collapse and
form the sun and the planets. Gas and
dust cloud collapsed due to the force of
gravity, the center compressed and
became protostar. Continuous
shrinking speeds up the rotation.
Contraction converted gravitational
energy into heat energy and caused the
center to glow, nuclear reaction began
Fig.1. 1j The mechanisms that gave birth to the Solar System
and sun was formed. The remaining gas
dust cloud formed disk-shaped bodies (due
to rotation) called solar nebulae. The solar nebulae came together to form planets.

Regardless of what theory is closer to the speculated mechanics of how the solar system was
formed, any theory to describe the formation of our Solar System must adhere to these facts:

1. Each planet is isolated in space.

2. The orbits are nearly circular.

9
 3. The orbits of the planets all lie in roughly the same plane.
4. The direction they orbit around the Sun is the same as the Sun’s rotation on its axis.
5. The direction most planets rotate on their axes is the same as that of the Sun.
6. The direction of a planet’s moon’ orbits is the same as that of planet’s direction of rotation.
7. The Terrestrial planets are very different from the Jovian planets.
8. Asteroids are different from both types of planets.
9. Comets are icy fragments that don’t orbit in the ecliptic plane.

Properties and Current Information on the Solar System

The solar system showed remarkable regularities . Most of these regularities are observed
in the motion and location of the planets and their satellites. These are the following:
 The orbits of all the planets are almost in the same plane. This means that the solar system
is flat.
 The planetary orbits are nearly circular. The elliptical orbits depart only slightly from
being a perfect circle.
 The orbits of the planets are nearly in the same plane as the rotation of the sun.
 All planets revolve around the sun in a counterclockwise fashion.
 The calculated distances and the observed distance of the planets from the sun are almost
the same with the exception of Neptune and Pluto.
 The satellite systems of Jupiter and Saturn are nearly identical in their arrangements with
the solar system.
 The satellites and planets contain almost all the rotational motion of the solar system.
 The solar system also contains asteroids and comets.

Early astronomers knew Moon, stars, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, comets,
and meteors. But now, we know that the solar system has 166 moons, one star, eight planets,
asteroids, comets, meteoroids, dwarf planets, and Kuiper Belt objects, and still counting on for
more celestial bodies to be discovered.
The other members of the solar system includes the asteroids, comets and the
meteors.Asteroids are made up of rocks, referred to as minor planets. They never got formed into
planets because of Jupiter’s high gravitational force. Comets are composed of mainly ice (frozen
water and gas) and non-volatile dust. Sun’s heat causes the frozen gases to sublimate forming
vaporous jet of streams. Meteors are known as shooting stars, they’re the ones seen burning up
in the sky. Meteorites are those that had survived the impact and reaches the Earth. Meteoroids
remain in the outer space.
The planets are grouped into two categories based on composition: Terrestrial planets

10
include Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
which are made of dense, rocky,
metallic materials and Jovian planets
are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.,
which are mainly made of hydrogen
and helium.
Why do planets have different
composition if they come from the
same cloud of gas? This is explained by
where these planets are formed in
relation to the distance from the sun
defined by the frost line. The frost line
is the distance of the solar nebular from
Fig.1.1k The frost line dividing the inner and warm
the protostar. As the radius from the regions
protostar increases, the temperature
decreases. At cooler temperature, more materials condense.
There are also other bases of
Comparison Between the Terrestrial & Jovian Planets
classifying the planets:
Terrestrial Jovian
- composition
Close to the sun Far from the sun
Closely-spaced orbits widely-spaced orbits - size
Small masses Large masses - proximity to the sun
Small radii Big radii - position relative to Earth
Predominantly rocky Predominantly gaseous - history
Has solid surface Has no solid surface
High density Low density Why is Pluto reclassified as a
Slower rotation Faster rotation dwarf planet in Aug. 24, 2006 by
Weak magnetic fields Strong magnetic fields International Astronomers Union
No rings Many rings (IAU)? Pluto does not dominate its
few moons Many moons neighborhood. Pluto was not able
to “sweep up” asteroids, comets
and other debris to clear a path
along the orbits.
A planet must have the following characteristics:
-Is in orbit around the sun.
-Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes
nearly-round shape.
-Has cleared the neighborhood around it.
-Is not a satellite.

There are four celestial bodies that have been categorized as dwarf planet by the International
Astronomers Union (IAU). These are Eris, Pluto, Ceres and Make.

11
 Recently, ESA's historic Rosetta
mission concluded as planned, on
30 September 2016, with a
controlled impact onto the comet it
had been investigating for more
than two years. The mission was
launched on 2 March 2004, on a 10-
year journey towards comet
67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. En
route, it passed by two asteroids,
2867 Steins (in 2008) and 21 Lutetia
(in 2010), before entering deep-
Fig.1.1l Comet Watch from Kepler
space hibernation mode in June
2011. On 20 January 2014, it 'woke
up' and prepared for arrival at the
comet in August that year. On 12 November, the mission deployed its Philae probe to the comet,
the first time in history that such an extraordinary feat was achieved. During the next phase of
the mission, Rosetta accompanied the comet through perihelion (13 August 2015) until the end of
the mission.

During the last month of Rosetta's

operations at Comet 67P/
Churyumov-Gerasimenko, it was
no longer possible to observe the
comet with telescopes on Earth
because it was too close to the Sun's
position in the sky and therefore
not visible in the night-time.
Fortunately, NASA's Kepler space
observatory stepped in, taking
images of the comet every 30
minutes from 7 to 20 September,
providing important context to
Fig. 1.1m Impact of Rosetta Rosetta's in situ measurements.

12
 Three teams of astronomers have
made use of SPHERE, an advanced
exoplanet-hunting instrument on the Very
Large Telescope at European Southern
Observatory (ESO)'s Paranal Observatory,
in order to shed light on the enigmatic
evolution of fledgling planetary systems.
The explosion in the number of known
exoplanets in recent years has made the
study of them one of the most dynamic
fields in modern astronomy.

Fig.1.1n Three planetary discs observed with the Sphere instrument, mounted on
ESO’s very large telescope

The Supermoon Phenomenon

The average distance

between Earth and the moon is
384,500 km. To be called a
supermoon, the moon has to be
both at its closest distance from
Earth as well as full. On top of the
moon’s bigger than usual size, this
supermoon had an additional
“low-hanging moon” effect. This is
an optical illusion caused by the
moon being close to the horizon,
where it can be measured against
familiar objects such as trees and
Figure 1.1o Supermoon has an additional 'low-hanging moon' effect. This is an
optical illusion caused by the moon being close to the horizon.
houses

Last November 14, 2016, the full moon was 356,508 km from Earth, the closest since
Read more
January at: when it was nearly 47 km closer. While they’re a treat to watch, supermoons are
1948,
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/55453403.cms?u
not all that rare. One in about every 14 full moons is a supermoon, University of Wisconsin
tm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=
astronomer
cppst Jim Lattis told Reuters. In fact, is said that by the time 2016 ends, it will have seen
three supermoons — on October 16, November 14, December 14.

And there are more counting discoveries that would shed light to our understanding of
the universe and the world we live in.

CHALLENGE 1.1
Make a Concept Map, Formation of the Universe or the Solar System, to logically trace
the early beginnings of our existence.
13
Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Concept map visually represents the

relationships between ideas. Concepts are most often Example:
depicted as circles or boxes joined by lines or arrows
containing linking words to show how ideas are
connected.
Concept mapping is a tool for organizing
and structuring knowledge, integrating new and old
information to allow for better retention and
comprehension.
Here’s a “quick-how” of doing the Concept
Map.
 Determine the Main Concept, from which all
other concepts will be linked.
 Identify Key Concepts. These are important
terms/concepts of the lesson.
 Organize Shapes and Lines. This ensures
proper structuring of knowledge.
 Fine Tune the Map by rechecking if the
linking words used are really appropriate. Read through as if you are reading sentences.
Concept Map#______

The Formation of the Universe/ the Solar System

TITLE

14
BIG IDEA 1.2
Earth is a dynamic body with many separate, but highly interacting parts or spheres.
The Earth is a system consisting of four major interacting subsystems: geosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere and the biosphere.

1.2a. Earth, as a Unique Planet

Earth is the only planet in our

solar system capable of hosting life.
It is a complex system of interacting
physical, chemical and biological
processes, and provides a natural
laboratory whose experiments have
been running since the beginning of
time. The following are the
characteristics that make, Earth, a
unique planet:
 the existence of water at the
Earth’s surface—neither too
much nor too little—that is in Fig. 1.2a Earth as a closed system
liquid form
 proximity to the sun—
neither too much heat nor
too little
 system of plate tectonics that enables the carbon-silicate cycle regulating temperature
 the right size—large enough to hang on to its atmosphere, but not so large to hold on to
too much atmosphere and consequently too much heat
 its protection by “big brother Jupiter,” whose gravity helps divert and vacuum up
incoming debris and keep Earth safe
 the moon’s stabilizing effect on our planetary rotation, which prevents the poles from
shifting unexpectedly
 as a closed system, where there is an exchange of energy but negligible exchange of mass
with surroundings

Could Earth’s structure be one of the features to make it a unique planet too? Remember, all
planets are products of accretion, but the Earth had undergone the final step which is
differentiation; dense materials sank to the center while the less dense ones comprise the surface
of the Earth. The succeeding lessons will also help shed light of our understanding of the Earth’s
uniqueness.

15
1.2b Earth and its Subsystems

Earth has a unique structure

and consists of different layers and
interacting subsystems. Earth is a
dynamic body with many separate,
but highly interacting parts or
spheres. Earth system science studies
Fig. 1.2 b The Four Spheres of Earth
Earth as a system, is composed of
numerous parts, or subsystems. There
are four subsystems of the Earth:
geosphere, comprises the solid Earth
and includes both Earth’s surface and
the various layers of the Earth's Fig . 1. 2b The Four Spheres of Earth

interior; atmosphere, gaseous

envelope that surrounds the Earth
and constitutes the transition between
its surface and the vacuum of space;
hydrosphere, includes all water on
Earth (including surface water and
groundwater) and biosphere, which is
the life zone of the Earth and includes
all living organisms, and all organic
matter that has not yet decomposed.
These are interconnected and
continuously interact with one
another. In fact, there is an
overlapping cycle in the Earth System.
The Earth system is powered by Fig . 1. 2c The Overlapping Cycles of the Earth System

energy from two major sources: the

Sun and the planet's internal heat. People are part of the Earth system and they impact and are
impacted by its materials and processes.

Geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and ocean crust as well the various
layers of Earth’s interior.
• 94% of the Earth is composed of the elements oxygen, silicon, and magnesium.
• The geosphere is not static, but its surface (crust) is in a constant state of motion.
• Mineral resources are mined from the geosphere.

16
Atmosphere is a blanket of air
surrounding the Earth. The
atmosphere consists of four unique
layers (the troposphere, the
stratosphere, the mesosphere, and the
thermosphere). The atmosphere
reaches over 560 kilometers (348
miles) up from the surface of the
Earth. The atmosphere is primarily
composed of nitrogen (about 78%) and
oxygen (about 21%), and water
vapour. Other components exist in
small quantities.
 The mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere
Fig. 1. 2d The Layers of the Atmosphere
are zones of diffuse
atmospheric components in the
far reaches of the atmosphere.
 The troposphere (0-10 km) constitutes the climate system that maintains the conditions
suitable for life on the planet's surface.
 The troposphere (0-10 km) constitutes the climate system that maintains the conditions
suitable for life on the planet's surface.

Hydrosphere contains all the water found on our planet.

 Water found on the surface of our planet includes the ocean as well as water from
lakes and rivers, streams, and creeks.
 Water found under the
surface of our planet includes water
trapped in the soil and groundwater.
 Water found in our
atmosphere includes water vapor.
 Frozen water on our planet
includes ice caps and glaciers.
The subcomponents of the
hydrosphere are connected via the
hydrologic cycle.

Fig. 1. 2e The Water found on our planet that takes part in a Hydrologic
Cycle

17
 Only about 3% of the water
on Earth is “fresh” water, and
about 70% of the fresh water is
frozen in the form of glacial ice.
Ocean water comprising a
large portion of the water reserves Fig.1. 2f The Distribution of Water
has a salinity of 35%. Salinity refers
to the proportion of the dissolved
salts to pure water expressed in
parts for thousand. These salts
come from weathered rocks that
had been carried by streams to the
oceans. Volcanic outgassing also
contribute to the large amount of Fig. 1.2f The Distribution of Water on Earth

Chlorine, Bromine, Sulfur and

Boron.
Oceans are divided into layers called
zones: horizontal and vertical
zonation.

HORIZONTAL OCEAN ZONES

The seabed is divided into the
zones described above, but ocean itself
is also divided horizontally
by distance from the shore.
 Nearest to the shore lies
the intertidal zone (also called the
littoral zone), the region between the
Fig. 1.2g Principal Substances Dissolved in Sea Water

high and low tidal marks. The

hallmark of the intertidal is
change: water is in constant
motion in the form of
waves, tides, and currents. The
land is sometimes under water
and sometimes exposed.
 The neritic zone is from low tide
mark and slopes gradually
downward to the edge of the
seaward side of the continental
shelf. Some sunlight penetrates Fig. 1.2h Horizontal Zones of the Ocean
to the seabed here.

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  The oceanic zone is the entire rest of the ocean from the bottom edge of the neritic zone,
where sunlight does not reach the bottom. The sea bed and water column are subdivided
further.
VERTICAL OCEAN ZONES
To better understand the regions of the ocean, scientists define the water column by depth.
They divided the entire ocean into
two zones vertically, based on light
level. Large lakes are divided into
similar regions.
Sunlight only penetrates
the sea surface to a depth of about
200 m, creating the photic
zone ("photic" means light).
Organisms that photosynthesize
depend on sunlight for food and so
are restricted to the photic zone.
Since tiny photosynthetic
organisms, known as
phytoplankton, supply nearly all
Fig. 1.2i The Aphotic Zones of the Ocean
of the energy and nutrients to the
rest of the marine food web, most
other marine organisms live in or at
least visit the photic zone.
In the aphotic zone there is not enough light for photosynthesis. The aphotic zone makes
up the majority of the ocean, but has a relatively small amount of its life, both in diversity of type
and in numbers. The aphotic zone is subdivided based on depth. These are:epipelagic zone
(sunlight zone), mesopelagic zone(twilight zone), and bathypelagic ,abyssopelagic and
hadopelagic zones (midnight zones).

Biosphere is the “life zone” of the Earth, and includes all living organisms (including humans),
and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
• The biosphere is structured into a hierarchy known as the food chain (all life is dependent
on the first tier – mainly the primary producers that are capable of photosynthesis).
• Energy and mass is transferred from one level of the food chain to the next.

Biosphere is divided into biomes. Biomes are regions in the world that share similar plant
structures, plant spacing, animals, climate and weather. These are the world’s major
communities. They are classified according to the predominant vegetation characterized by
adaptations of organisms to that particular climate.
There are 4 major biomes:
1.Aquatic- includes freshwater(ponds, lakes, rivers, etc.) and marine (ocean, estuaries, etc.)
2. Forest- includes tropical, temperate, coniferous and taiga.
3. Desert- is characterized by low rainfall (less than 50 cm/year).

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4.Tundra is the coolest of all biomes, has low biotic diversity and simple vegetation structure.

Tropical Rainforest
The tropical rainforest is a hot,
moist biome found near Earth's
equator. The world's largest
tropical rainforests are in South
America, Africa, and Southeast
Asia. Tropical rainforests receive
from 60 to 160 inches of
precipitation that is fairly evenly
distributed throughout the year.
The combination of constant
warmth and abundant moisture Fig. 1.2j Tropical Rainforest Biome
makes the tropical rainforest a
suitable environment for many
plants and animals. Tropical rainforests contain the greatest biodiversity in the world. Over 15
million species of plants and animals live within this biome.
The hot and humid conditions make tropical rainforests an ideal environment for bacteria
and other microorganisms. Because these organisms remain active throughout the year, they
quickly decompose matter on the forest floor. In other biomes, such as the deciduous forest, the
decomposition of leaf litter adds nutrients to the soil. But in the tropical rainforest, plants grow
so fast that they rapidly consume the nutrients from the decomposed leaf litter. As a result, most
of the nutrients are contained in the trees and other plants rather than in the soil.

Taiga The taiga is the biome of the

needleleaf forest. Living in the taiga
is cold and lonely. Coldness and
food shortages make things very
difficult, mostly in the winter.
Some of the animals in the taiga
hibernate in the winter, some fly
south if they can, while some just
cooperate with the environment,
which is very difficult. The winters
in the taiga are very cold with only
snowfall. The summers are warm,
Fig. 1.2k1 Taiga Biome
Fig. 1.2k1 Taiga Biome rainy, and humid. A lot of
coniferous trees grow in the taiga. The taiga is also known as the boreal forest. The taiga doesn't
have as many plant and animal species as the tropical or the deciduous forest biomes. It does

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have millions of insects in the
summertime. Birds migrate there every
year to nest and feed. There are not a lot
of species of plants in the taiga because
of the harsh conditions. Not many
plants can survive the extreme cold of
the taiga winter. Coniferous trees are
also known as evergreens. They have
long, thin waxy needles. The wax gives
them some protection from freezing
temperatures and from drying out.
Evergreens don't loose their leaves in
Fig. 1.2k2 Taiga Biome a.k.a Coniferous Forest/Boreal
the winter like deciduous trees. They
keep their needles all year long. This is
so they can start photosynthesis as soon as the weather gets warm. The dark color of evergreen
needles allows them to absorb heat from the sun and also helps them start photosynthesis early.
Animals of the taiga tend to be predators like the lynx and members of the weasel family
like wolverines, bobcat, minks and ermine. They hunt herbivores like snowshoe rabbits, red
squirrels and voles. Red deer, elk, and moose. Many insect eating birds come to the taiga to breed.
They leave when the breeding season is over. Seed eaters like finches and sparrows, and
omnivorous birds like crows stay all year long.

Desert The desert biome is an

ecosystem that forms due to the low
level of rainfall it receives each year.
Deserts cover about 20% of the Earth.
There are four major types of desert in
this biome - hot and dry, semiarid,
coastal, and cold. They are all able to
inhabit plant and animal life that are
able to survive there. Although the
daytime temperatures of the desert
biome are very hot, they can get very
cold at night. The vegetation does not
grow very tall so the desert biome can
only accommodate small animals, Fig. 1.2l Desert Biome
rodents, and reptiles. These animals
can escape the harsh Sun by hiding under small scrubs or hiding in burrows. Many desert animals
tend to be nocturnal, sleeping during the day and coming out at night when the temperatures are
more tolerable. Because there is hardly any standing water in the desert biome, animals either

21
store water in their bodies or get their water needs met by the foods they eat. The plants that are
able to grow in the desert biome store water in their stem. They normally grow spaced out so that
their roots can extend and find water. Some deserts are so hot that when it rains, the water
evaporates in the air before ever hitting the ground. There are some deserts in Antarctica that are
known as cold deserts. They are considered deserts because of the small amount of vegetation
that grows there. The driest desert on Earth receives on average 1 centimeter of rainfall every 5
to 20 years. Because body fat retains heat, most desert animals have an adaptation that allows
them to store all their body fat in one area of their body. The camel stores all its body fat in its
hump. Cacti have many adaptions to survive in the desert. Their spines protect them from being
eaten by animals and their waxy
outer covering keeps moisture
from escaping.
Tundra The tundra biome is the
coldest of all biomes. It is also quite
big. The tundra covers about one
fifth of the land on earth. The
tundra is the coldest and the driest
of all the biomes on Earth. There is
very little rainfall in the tundra; it
rains less than ten inches a year.
Winters here are long, and
summers short, sometimes they
Fig. 1.2m Tundra Biome
last for only 6 - 10 weeks. In the
winter the temperature can reach -
50°F (-45.5°C). Because the tundra is so close to the north pole, summer days are 24 hours long!
Summer temperatures rarely get above 50°F (10°C), just enough to thaw the surface of the ground.
What a place for a summer vacation! In the summer the soil becomes very soggy from melted
snow and rain. The moisture sinks into the ground, which is called permafrost. The permafrost
lies six inches below the ground, and is frozen for most of the year. The top layer of the permafrost
thaws, but the bottom layer of gravel and finer material stays frozen all year which keeps
moisture from rain on the surface of the ground. There is low diversity in organisms that live
here, but many still flourish. Many lichens, mosses, and small shrubs flourish in the arctic tundra.
The plants that live in the harsh permafrost soil usually adapt to the weather by being short and
grouped together to resist winds and to be protected. Animals who live in the tundra have special
adaptations to survive. Some animals in the tundra are adapted to the climate by breeding and
raising their young in the summer. Many animals hibernate, or sleep during the worst part of
winter to minimize energy loss. Because animals of the tundra are generally migratory, this
biome's population is constantly changing. Resident animals have to change what they are
hunting and eating as the seasons change. The food chain in the Arctic Tundra consists of

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predators such as owls, foxes, wolves, and polar bears at the top of the chain. Predators hunt
herbivores, plant eating animals, such as caribou, lemmings, and hares. Mosquitoes, flies, moths,
grasshoppers, arctic bumblebees, and other insects are at the bottom of the arctic food chain.
Many birds feed on these insects.

Freshwater Biome The freshwater

biome is made up of any of body of
water that is made of freshwater
such as lakes, ponds, streams, and
rivers. They cover roughly 20% of
the Earth and are in various
locations spread out all over the
world. Most freshwater biomes
consist of moving water and
contain many types of fish. Many
animals besides fish live in
freshwater biomes. This includes
crocodiles, hippopotamus, turtles,
and frogs. Freshwater biomes are
subdivided into three groups: lakes
Fig. 1.2n Freshwater Biome
and ponds, streams and rivers, and
wetlands. There are four key features that determine the ecology of streams and rivers - the flow
of the water, amount of light, the temperature or climate, and the chemistry of the river. The water
in a freshwater biome contains less than 1% of salt water. Any body of water that contains little
to no salt is considered freshwater. There are many insects living in the freshwater biome that
some might consider being pests including mosquitos and flies. These insects are very important
in that they are a food source to many mammals, birds, and amphibians. Because of the variety
of animals living in the freshwater biome, there are a lot of predator-prey relationships.

Saltwater Ecosystem There are five

ocean biomes - Atlantic Ocean,
Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean,
Southern Ocean, and the Arctic
Ocean. Almost seventy-one percent
of the Earth is covered by ocean.
Some believe that the ocean biome
is in fact the oldest of all biomes.
Majority of the animals and plants
that reside in the ocean biome exist
in areas of the ocean that are rarely
visited by people. There is about
Fig. 1.2 o Ocean Water Biome one cup of salt for every gallon of
water in the ocean. At 36, 200 feet

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deep, the Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the ocean biome, while the largest ocean of the
ocean biomes is the Pacific Ocean. Although the temperatures of the oceans can vary, the average
temperature of any ocean is 39° F. Ocean water is constantly moving. Cold water is moving in
from the poles while warm water is moving in from the tropics. The ocean biome is home to the
largest known mammal of the world - the blue whale. The ocean is more salty in tropical areas
because the Sun evaporates more of the water there leaving more salt in the ocean.

Grassland Ecosystem Grassland biomes

are large, rolling terrains of grasses,
flowers and herbs. Latitude, soil and local
climates for the most part determine
what kinds of plants grow in a particular
grassland. A grassland is a region where
the average annual precipitation is great
enough to support grasses, and in some
areas a few trees. The precipitation is so
eratic that drought and fire prevent large
forests from growing. Grasses can
survive fires because they grow from the
bottom instead of the top. Their stems can
grow again after being burned off. The
Fig. 1.2p Grassland Biome
soil of most grasslands is also too thin and
dry for trees to survive. In the winter, grassland temperatures can be as low as -40° F, and in the
summer it can be as high 70° F. There are two real seasons: a growing season and a dormant
season. The growing season is when there is no frost and plants can grow (which lasts from 100
to 175 days). During the dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow because it is too cold.

There are two types of grasslands: the tropical grasslands (savannah) and the temperate
grasslands (chaparral). In tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of the growing season is
determined by how long the rainy season lasts. But in the temperate grasslands the length of the
growing season is determined by temperature. Plants usually start growing when the daily
temperature reached about 50° F. In temperate grasslands the average rainfall per year ranges
from 10-30 inches. In tropical and sub-tropical grasslands the average rainfall per year ranges
from 25-60 inches per year The amount of rainfall is very important in determining which areas
are grasslands because it's hard for trees to compete with grasses in places where the uppers
layers of soil are moist during part of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always dry.

24
 How do the four subsystems interact with one another? There are several ways. To cite a
few on atmosphere’s interaction with the other systems: The gases of the atmosphere readily
exchange with those dissolved in water bodies (e.g. oceans, lakes, etc.).The atmosphere supplies
oxygen and carbon dioxide that form the basis of life processes (photosynthesis and respiration).
While the gases in the atmosphere react with water to produce weak acids that aid in the
breakdown of rock. A very concrete scenario for this, for instance, hurricanes (atmosphere) sweep
across the ocean (hydrosphere) and onto the land (geosphere), damaging the dwellings of people
(biosphere) who live along the coast.Volcanoes (geosphere) may erupt, sending ash and gases
into the air (atmosphere) and sending lava and ash down onto surrounding forests (biosphere)
and human habitations (biosphere).

Interaction among the four subsystems is also manifested on how matter and energy flow
across boundaries of the four subsystems of the Earth. How does it happen? Energy flows in a
one-way traffic while nutrients is cycled in the process. These help sustain life on Earth.

Global cycles recycle nutrients through the Erath’s air, land, water, and living organisms.
Nutrients are the elements and compounds that organisms need to live, grow, and reproduce.
Biogeochemical cycles move these substances through air, water, soil, rock and living organisms.
The following are the different Biogeochemical cycles that help sustain life the Earth.

Carbon is found in
carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
bones, cartilage and shells Carbon
cycle describes the route of carbon
atoms through the environment.
 Photosynthesis by plants,
algae and cyanobacteria, which
removes carbon dioxide from air
and water, in turn, produces
oxygen and carbohydrates. Plants
are a major reservoir of carbon
 Respiration returns carbon to
Fig. 1.2q Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
the air and oceans.

Nitrogen comprises 78% of our atmosphere. It is contained in proteins, DNA and RNA

25
 Nitrogen cycle describes
the routes that nitrogen atoms take
through the environment. Nitrogen
gas cannot be used by organisms ,
nitrogen fixation is done, where
lightning or nitrogen-fixing
bacteria combine (fix) nitrogen
with hydrogen to form ammonium,
which can be used by plants.
Nitrification is done when
a bacteria converts ammonium ions
first into nitrite ions then into
nitrate ions. Plants can now avail
Fig. 1.2r Nitrogen Cycle
these ions. Animals obtain nitrogen
by eating plants or other animals.
Decomposers get it from dead and decaying plants or other animals, releasing ammonium ions
to nitrifying bacteria.
Denitrifying bacteria, on the other hand, convert nitrates in soil or water to gaseous
nitrogen, which now releases back
nitrogen into the atmosphere.

Phosphorus (P) is a key component

of cell membranes, DNA, RNA, ATP
and ADP. Phosphorus cycle
describes the routes that phosphorus
atoms take through the
environment. Most phosphorus is
within rocks. It is released by
weathering. Phosphorus has no
significant atmospheric component,
Fig. 1.2s Phosphorus Cycle and with naturally low
environmental concentrations.
These are cycled when they are
absorbed by the roots of plants, which then are eaten by the next orders of consumers. It is
returned to the soil as decomposers act on dead bodies.

CHALLENGE 1.2
Develop an essay on , How Unique Earth Is.

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Name:________________________Strand & Block:_____________Date:___________Score:_______

Develop an essay on, How Unique Earth Is, in not more than 250 words. Be sure to subsume
important terminologies/ concepts discussed in the class. Please see rubric of essay, for your
reference.
Essay No. 1
How Unique Earth Is____
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Word Count: ___

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 BIG IDEA 1.3
The Earth is made up of three main layers: crust, mantle and core. Each layer has its
own individual composition and physical properties.

1.3 The Earth’s Internal Structures

Although planets surround stars in the galaxy, how they form remains a subject of debate.
Despite the wealth of worlds in our own solar system, scientists still aren't certain how planets
are built. Currently, one highly accepted theory that talks about how the Earth was formed is the
- Core Accretion Model.
Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a cloud of dust and gas known
as a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to spin, forming the sun
in the center of the nebula. With the rise of the sun, the remaining material began to clump up.
Small particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles. The solar wind
swept away lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, from the closer regions, leaving only
heavy, rocky materials to create smaller terrestrial worlds like Earth. Earth's rocky core formed
first, with heavy elements colliding and binding together. Dense material sank to the center, while
the lighter material created the crust. The planet's magnetic field probably formed around this
time. Gravity captured some of the gases that made up the planet's early atmosphere. Fig. 1.3a
shows the steps of Earth’s formation through Accretion.

Fig. 1.3a Steps in the formation of Earth through Accretion

To have a better grasp of understanding as to how the Earth was formed through
accretion, the following are the simplistic view of the steps on how Accretion happened:
a. Accretion of dust particles
b. Physical Collision
c. Gravitational accretion
d. Molten protoplanet formation from planetisimals due to heat of accretion

28
 The final step is the differentiation of the Earth. Heavy or dense materials like Nickel
(Ni) and Iron (Fe) sank to the center of the Earth. Light or dense materials rose to the surface.
Earth has many layers because it was shaped by the geologic processes that started at the Earth’s
origin. Each layer is different from each other based on its composition.

The Earth’s Layers

Studying Earth’s interior is very difficult due to its inaccessibility. So, how did we get
these bountiful information? Seismic information and computer models gave us these
information. Inge Lehmann, a seismologist, discovered in 1936 that the earth has a solid inner
core. All other information were derived from several studies then.
If we could take a chunk out of the Earth, we would see that it is made up of different
layers.
The Earth is made up of 3 main layers,
which are:
– Crust
– Mantle
– Core
Each layer has its own individual
composition and physical properties.

CRUST
The crust is the outermost layer of the
Earth, however it is said to be the thinnest layer
(approx.. 5-70km thick) It has a surface
temperature. This comprises 1% of Earth’s mass.
This is where we live, and the one that touches the
atmosphere . It consists of loose rocks & soil.
There are two types of crust: continental crust and Fig. 1.3b Layers of the Earth

oceanic crust. Continental crust is made up of dry land, and granite materials. It is said to be
less dense than the oceanic crust. The oceanic crust refers to the ocean floor. This is said to be
made up of basalt material and is thinner than the continental crust , but this is more dense.

Fig. 1.3c Types of Crust: oceanic and continental crust

29
 What about the tectonic
plates? Earth’s crust is broken into
about 19 pieces. These plates move
on top of the asthenosphere, a
middle mantle which is composed
of solid flowing rock. A plate could
have a portion of it being oceanic
and a continent.

MANTLE
The mantle is said to be the
thickest layer of the Earth (approx.
2900km thick). It has a temperature
Fig. 1.3d Some major plates in the world
of 1600-4000 °F. The mantle
comprises 66% of Earth’s mass. This is said to be flowing because of its main composition which
is the molten rock called, magma.

CORE
The core, being the innermost
layer of the Earth is very hot with a
temperature reaching 4000-8000 °F . It is
said to be very dense. This layer of the
Earth is noted to be of high pressure.
The core is approximately 4000 miles
from surface.
This comprises 33% of Earth’s
mass, and is said to be very dense due
to iron and Nickel.
The core is about the same size as
Mars.

Fig. 1.3e Crust, mantle and core of the Earth

As once gets deeper inside the Earth, the temperature increases ,the pressure as well
increases .
The 3 main layers of the Earth can be divided further by the way they “act” within
the Earth and by their different physical properties.

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 The other layers of the Earth are:
Lithosphere
This consists the crust and upper
mantle. This is the outermost layer. It is
considered a rigid layer. It is divided
into pieces or tectonic plates. The
lithosphere is mainly made up of rocks
and soil.

Asthenosphere
Fig. 1.3g The Lithosphere
This consists of middle mantle.
It is s composed of solid flowing rock
called magma. The layer on which
pieces of lithosphere move on top of
the solid rock that flows. Fig. 1.3f The Lithosphere

Mesosphere This is the bottom

mantle- the lower part of the
mantle. It is said to be strong layer
found between asthenosphere and
core.

Core The outer core is divided

into two parts: the outer and the
inner core.
The outer core is made up of
liquid iron and Nickel that is
spinning.
The inner core is made up of
solid Iron and Nickel. The metals
Fig. 1.3g The Asthenosphere are solidified because of the

pressure of the rest of the Earth’s layers surrounding it.

31
 Fig. 1.3g The Core: inner and outer

How did the geologist know these? Were there anyone who had journeyed towards the center
of the Earth?
The answer is no one- not even the most high-tech gadget had ever drilled and reached the
centremost part of the Earth. However, through seismic waves, the scientist were able to gain
understanding and formed assumptions as to the following information we now believe to be.

• Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the
earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded
on seismographs.
• There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways.
The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves.

BODY WAVES

P Waves (compression wave)

• The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of
seismic wave. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid
layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves
push and pull the air.
S wave (transverse wave)
 The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave
you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through
solid rock. This wave moves rock up and down, or side-to-side.

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SURFACE WAVES
Love Waves
• The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It's
the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
Rayleigh Waves
• The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt, Lord
Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A
Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction
that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

Fig. 1.3h Types of Waves

Seismic waves produced by earthquakes travel at different speeds through solid rock and
liquids. This helps scientist identify the components of the different layers making up the Earth.

33
 Fig. 1.3i How seismic waves travel

Between surface and body waves, which one do you think is more devastating? It is
believed that surface waves are said to be the one causing much devastation. Infrastructures are
built on top of the Earth’s crust, therefore as these waves bringing up and down, side to side
movement destroys building on top of it.
Point of clarification: Earthquakes do not kill people. It is the infrastructures that topple
down are responsible for the fatalities after an earthquake had occurred.

So, what makes Earth a unique planet? Not only because of the popular notion ”the only
planet capable of hosting life”, but all these help define Earth as a unique planet.

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Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Chapter Review No.1: Origin & Structure of the Earth

I. Give what is asked in the following:

1.Three Theories explaining the Origin of the Universe
a.______________________________b._________________________c._________________________
2. Three Theories explaining the Origin of the Solar System
a.______________________________b._________________________c._________________________
3. Three Terrestrial planets
a.______________________________b._________________________c._________________________
4. Three characteristics that make Earth, a unique planet
a.___________________________________________________
b.___________________________________________________
c.___________________________________________________
5. Four Subsystems of Earth
a._____________________b._____________________c.___________________d._________________
II. Illustrate the layers of the Earth. Be sure to label them appropriately. (10 points)

III. Easy Essay. Read through the given questions, and answer them in a three sentences only.
A.Choose only 1 item to develop. Expound the chosen concept by describing it in details.
1. The Formation of the Universe or the Solar System
2. The Four Subsystems that make up the Earth
3. The Earth’s Internal Structure
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

B. Why do we need to have an understanding of the Origin and Structure of the Earth? Of what
importance are they?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Module 01 How did the Earth and the Solar System form?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

In this module, you will spend __3__ hours to :

a. describe Solar Nebular Theory from among the different hypotheses explaining the origin of
the solar system
b. simulate Accretion process
c. discuss how Accretion formed Earth and all other planets

What is this module all about?

According to Solar Nebular Theory, approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a
cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to
spin, forming the sun in the center of the nebula.

The existence of the sun initiated the clumping-up of the remaining materials. Small particles drew
together, bound by the force of electrostatic gravity, into larger particles. The solar wind swept away
lighter elements, such as the two lightest elements Hydrogen and Helium, from the closer regions, leaving
only heavy, rocky materials to create terrestrial planets including the Earth. But farther away, the solar
winds had less impact on lighter elements, allowing them to coalesce into gas giants. In this manner, all
other members of the solar system were formed such as: asteroids, comets, planets, and moons.

The most widely accepted theory to explain the process of planetary formation is the Accretion
Model. How do this happen?

What is

What is expected of you?

You are to perform a group activity, entitled, How did the Earth and the Solar System Form: A
Group Simulation Activity.

What is expected of you?

Here is your work!

Here is your work!

36
 You are going to simulate how Accretion process had occurred. Please refer to the given
instructions as follows:

1. You are going to work as a class. The Class Representative is the facilitator of the game, at the
same time, the sun.
2. You need a large open area where you can freely move with your classmates.
3. The following are the materials that you need to prepare:
Materials: Student Role Cards (see examples below): You may reproduce them based on the number
specified.

 Interstellar Dust:  Planetesimal (~6 cards)  Protoplanet (~4 cards)

o Metallic grains (~8 cards)
o Rocky grains (~8 cards)
o Icy Grains (~14 cards

STUDENT ROLE CARDS

Planetisimals are objects in the early
Solar System that are of the same size of
a small moon amd have gravitational
fields strong enough to influence their
neighbors.
Protoplanetss are objects that preceeded
the formation of planets in the Solar
System.
Interstellar dust: Silicates and rocky grains including
heavy elements such as Silicon, iron, Magnesium and
Aluminum combined with Oxygen to form rocky materials
at a temperature of about 1000 K.(Chaisson, 2008).
Interstellar dust: Metallic grains including spherical balls
of Minerals and metal grew by condensation from a gas
between and about 1100 °C and 1000 °C formed around
the orbit of Mercury.

Interstellar dust: Icy grains including the condensation

of water, ammonia, and because of the large amounts of
the elements that make up these compounds they
greatly outnumber the rocky and metallic grains. Icy
grains formed around 5AU (Chaisson, 2008)

4. Kindly follow the instructions:

 Prepare the Student Role Cards, using either magic markers on poster paper or making computer-
generated labels or a photocopy of these. The color codes of the paper are important so that
students can see the color of other students’ labels at a distance. Make sure to have with you the
role cards. Take them with you during the simulation game.
 Directions: This game is similar to “tag.” When you tag a person they have to stay near you as you
form an asteroid! The goal is to tag as many students as you can as the game progresses.
 The class representative is the Sun. S/He stands in the middle of a circle of students, and gives
further instructions to let the game going.
 Distribute one Interstellar Dust Card to each student so that there are roughly equal numbers of
types of grains (metallic, rocky, icy) represented in the class, making sure that all students have role
cards.

 Move to the setting (pentagon, etc.) for the simulation. Students should stand close for directions.

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To the Class Rep:

 When you have their attention, tell them. “This game is similar to ‘tag.’ When you tag a person
they have to stay near you as you form ‘clumps’. The goal is to tag as many students as you
can as the game following the specific directions given as the game progresses.”
 Tell students that they are modeling interstellar dust particles, the dust grains around which
matter began to accumulate in the early Solar System. Have them note that there are three kinds of
dust grains. Those wearing red colored tags are silicates and rocky dust grains; those with blue colored
tags are metallic dust grains; and the white colored tags indicate icy grains. Have them read the
description of their types of dust grains on their role cards.

 Give them directions for the game. They will jog (not run) in a counter clockwise circular path
around the “Sun” which is in the center of the large open area. As students jog they should keep their
arms to their sides until the come close to another student. Explain that for the first part of the activity,
they are modeling “sticky attraction.” That is, they can tag and stick only to like grains. For example,
if one icy grain tags another icy grain, they form a pair and can now extend their arms in order to tag
another icy grain. An icy grain, however, cannot tag a metallic or a rocky grain.

 Have the students move out so the ring is large enough for safe orbiting and give them the
“start orbiting” signal.
 Allow the orbiting to continue for several minutes and then call time.
 Explain that the students who are paired up are called clumps. Explain that the force at work
in the activity where like grains can attract and stick to like grains is electrostatic attraction.
 Give students the following directions for the next orbiting period. “When the clumps tag
other like grains (one or more) the group will stay together and can try to tag others.”
 After a few more minutes, call time again.

 At this point, have the students observe that there are groups of various sizes. Tell them that
groups that have four or more students represent planetesimals.

 Hand a “planetesimal” sign to each of the student groups of four or more as you say: “You have
just modeled the first phase of Condensation Theory of Solar System formation— from interstellar
dust particles to planetesimals. Planetesimals are larger than “clumps” but each planetesimal is
made of the same type of constituents. Some of you planetesimals are made of rocky materials,
some are made of metallic materials, and others are made of icy materials.”

 Continue: “You were also traveling at relatively low velocities so that when you collided with
the same type of dust particles you ‘stuck’ and didn’t just bounce off them. If you were real
planetesimal, you would have accumulated enough dust particles to be the size of a small
moon.”
 Give students these directions for the next phase of the simulation.
a. Those groups who formed planetesimals can now tag and stick to any other type of grain. You
have formed large enough groups that you can use your gravitational force (extended reach)
to attract other dust particles or other planetesimals.
b. Call time when they have tagged other planetesimals or icy, rocky, or metallic grains to form
much larger clumps.

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 c. Designate the two planetesimals that form the largest clump after the allotted time as
protoplanets by handing them cards labeled “Protoplanet.” Explain that they have just
modeled the second phase of Condensation Theory of Solar System formation—where
planetesimals grew in size to form protoplanets using gravitational accretion.
 Repeat the game and see if the results change.

Points to Ponder:

“Simulations indicate that, in perhaps as little as 100,000 years accretion resulted in objects a few
hundred kilometers across” (Chaison, 2008). It is thought that the formation of protoplanets from
nebular dust grains required a few million years. How can a dust become a rock? One way to
think about this is for students to think about the amount of time involved in Solar System
formation and that over a lot of time and with many dust particles, they will eventually form
grains (like sand) and then like a little pebble then eventually the size of a baseball, then the
size of a basketball and so forth. Similar interstellar dust particles stick through electrostatic
attraction; after clumps grow to a certain mass they gather materials to form planetesimals
through the force of gravity.

“ Accretion and fragmentation are competing processes. The planetesimals grew from
dust grains by gradually sticking together, but small bodies were also broken apart by collisions
with larger ones.”

SELF-ASSESSMENT

Let’s check how far have we understood the Simulation Task.

Post-Activity Discussion Questions:

1. What happened to the student dust particles at the beginning of the game?
______________________________________________________________________________
L Let’s check how far have we understood the Simulation Task.
2. How did the clumps interact with students representing similar interstellar dust
particles?______________________________________________ Was the movement of the two
students the same or different?__________________ What force was in effect?_______________
3. Did unlike dust particles interact? Why or why not?
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. What happened when there were more than four clumps?_______________________________ Was
the movement of the two students after the interaction the same or different?
___________________Was the movement of student dust particles the same as that of the student
clumps?__________________ What force was in effect?___________________________
5. What did you notice about the dust particles at the end of the activity?
_______________________________________________________________________________
6. Think back to your response about how you thought asteroids formed. Based on this activity:
a. In what ways was it similar? ___________________________________________________
b. In what ways was it different?_____________________________________________________
7. How would the difference in the makeup of the solar nebula in the different regions of the asteroid

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 nebula affect the “sticky” accretion that they were modeling?

_______________________________________________________________________________
8. Would you find the same kind of problem when you model gravitational accretion?
_______________________________________________________________________________

9. What do you think would happen if another large group of (maybe 100) students, which might
represent a large planet like Jupiter, entered the circular path where you have been running?
_______________________________________________________________________________
10. Suppose that two fairly large planetesimals that are traveling at a high velocity were attracted to each
other. Do you think that a collision between them would always result in accretion? What else might
happen?_______________________________________________________________

What have you learned from the activity? How is the model different from the real
thing?____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Source: https://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/pdfs/ActiveAccretion_Dawn.pdf

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