15.

88 SECTION FIFTEEN

as including lengths from about 1,000 to about 1,800 ft.)

For long spans, it is not economically feasible to obtain any material increase in natural
frequency of vertical modes above that inherent in the span and sag of the cable.
The possibility should be considered that for longer spans in the future, with their
unavoidably low natural frequencies, oscillations due to unfavorable aerodynamic char-
acteristics of the cross section may be more prevalent than for bridges of moderate span.
• At most bridge sites, the wind may be broken up; that is, it may be nonuniform across
the site, unsteady, and turbulent. So a condition that could cause serious oscillation does
not continue long enough to build up an objectionable amplitude. However, bear in mind:
There are undoubtedly sites where the winds from some directions are unusually steady
and uniform.
There are bridge sections on which any wind, over a wide range of velocity, will
continue to build up some mode of oscillation.
• An increase in stiffness arising from increased weight increases the energy-storage capacity
of the structure without increasing the rate at which the wind can contribute energy. The
effect is an increase in the time required to build up an objectionable amplitude. This may
have a beneficial effect much greater than is suggested by the percentage increase in
weight, because of the sharply reduced probability that the wind will continue unchanged
for the greater length of time. Increased stiffness may give added structural damping and
other favorable results.

Although more specific design criteria than the above cannot be given, it is possible to
design a suspension bridge with a high degree of security against aerodynamic forces. This
involves calculation of natural modes of motion of the proposed structure, performance of
dynamic-section-model tests to determine the factors affecting behavior, and application of
these factors to the prototype by suitable analysis.
Most long-span bridges built since the Tacoma bridge failure have followed the above
procedures and incorporated special provisions in the design for aerodynamic effects. De-
signers of these bridges usually have favored stiffening trusses over girders. The second
Tacoma Narrows, Forth Road, and Mackinac Straits Bridges, for example, incorporate deep
stiffening trusses with both top and bottom bracing, constituting a torsion space truss. The
Forth Road and Mackinac Straights Bridges have slotted decks. The Severn Bridge, however,
has a streamlined, closed-box stiffening girder and inclined suspenders. Some designs in-
corporate longitudinal cable stays, tower stays, or even transverse diagonal stays (Deer Isle
Bridge). Some have unloaded backstays. Others endeavor to increase structural damping by
frictional or viscous means. All have included dynamic-model studies as part of the design.

15.21.3 Wind-Induced Oscillation Theories

Several theories have been advanced as models for mathematical analysis to develop an
understanding of the process of wind excitation. Among these are the following.

Negative-Slope Theory. When a bridge is moving downward while a horizontal wind is

blowing (Fig. 15.66a ), the resultant wind is angled upward (positive angle of attack) relative
to the bridge. If the lift coefficient CL , as measured in static tests, shows a variation with
wind angle ␣ such as that illustrated by curve A in Fig. 15.66b, then, for moderate ampli-
tudes, there is a wind force acting downward on the bridge while the bridge is moving
downward. The bridge will therefore move to a greater amplitude than it would without this
wind force. The motion will, however, be halted and reversed by the action of the elastic
forces. Then, the vertical component of the wind also reverses. The angle of attack becomes
negative, and the lift becomes positive, tending to increase the amplitude of the rebound.
With increasing velocity, the amplitude will increase indefinitely or until the bridge is de-
 CABLE-SUSPENDED BRIDGES 15.89

FIGURE 15.66 Wind action on a cable-stayed bridge. (a) Downward bridge motion develops upward wind
component. (b) Lift coefficient CL depends on angle of attack ␣ of the wind.

stroyed. A similar, though more complicated situation, would apply for torsional or twisting
motion of the bridge.

Vortex Theory. This attributes aerodynamic excitation to the action of periodic forces hav-
ing a certain degree of resonance with a natural mode of vibration of the bridge. Vortices,
which form around the trailing edge of the airfoil (bridge deck), are shed on alternating
sides, giving rise to periodic forces and oscillations transverse to the deck.

Flutter Theory. The phenomenon of flutter, as developed for airfoils of aircraft and applied
to suspension-bridge decks, relates to the fact that the airfoil (bridge deck) is supported so
that it can move elastically in a vertical direction and in torsion, about a longitudinal axis.
Wind causes a lift that acts eccentrically. This causes a twisting moment, which, in turn,
alters the angle of attack and increases the lift. The chain reaction becomes catastrophic if
the vertical and torsional motions can take place at the same coupled frequency and in
appropriate phase relation.
F. Bleich presented tables for calculation of flutter speed vF for a given bridge, based on
flat-plate airfoil flutter theory. These tables are applicable principally to trusses. But the tables
are difficult to apply, and there is some uncertainty as to their range of validity.
A. Selberg has presented the following formula for flutter speed:

冪冋1 ⫺ 冉␻␻ 冊 册
2
兹v
vF ⫽ 0.88␻2b 1
(15.57)
2 ␮
where v ⫽ mass distribution factor for specific section ⫽ 2r 2 / b 2 (varies between 0.6 and
1.5, averaging about 1)
␮ ⫽ 2␲␳b2 / m (ranges between 0.01 and 0.12)
m ⫽ mass per unit length
b ⫽ half width of bridge
␳ ⫽ mass density of air
␻1 ⫽ circular vertical frequency
␻2 ⫽ circular torsional frequency
r ⫽ mass radius of gyration
Selberg has also published charts, based on tests, from which it is possible to approximate
the critical wind speed for any type of cross section in terms of the flutter speed.

Applicability of Theories. The vortex and flutter theories apply to the behavior of suspen-
sion bridges under wind action. Flutter appears dominant for truss-stiffened bridges, whereas
vortex action seems to prevail for girder-stiffened bridges. There are mounting indications,
however, these are, at best, estimates of aerodynamic behavior. Much work has been done