Biology Notes (based on learning objectives)

UNIT 1- ORGANISMS AND LIFE PROCESSES

Understand the Characteristics shared by living organisms

 All living things are composed of cells

o Multicellular- composed of many cells
o Unicellular- composed of a single cell
 Movement- by action by muscles in animals and slow growth movements in plants
 Respire- release energy from food (ATP)
 Stimuli- sensitive to changes in surroundings
 Growth- increase in size using materials from food
 Reproduce- produces offspring
 Excretion- rid of waste products
 Homeostasis- controls internal conditions, maintaining steady state inside the body
 Nutrition- plants make their food, animals eat other organisms

Describe Cell structures and their functions (and differences)

Nucleus

Cell organelle that contains chromosomes and

controls the activities of the cell

Cytoplasm

Jelly-like material that makes up most of a cell

Ribosome
(DIAGRAM OF AN ANIMAL CELL)
Tiny structure in the cytoplasm of cells, the site of
 Multicellular protein synthesis
 Have 3 main differences from plant cells: Cell membrane
o Have no chloroplasts
o Have no cell walls Thin surface layer around the cytoplasm of a cell,
o Have smaller vacuoles forming a partially permeable barrier between the
 Animals: cell contents and outside of the cell
o Stores carbohydrates as glycogen
Mitochondrion (mitochondria (plural))
o Have coordination and can move
Organelle that carries out aerobic respiration,
releasing energy for the cell (ATP is made)
 Cell wall

Non-living layer outside of the cell membrane of

certain types of cell, composed of cellulose (plants
and algae), chitin (fungi) or peptidoglycan (bacteria)

Chloroplasts

Organelle found in some plant cells, site of reactions

of photosynthesis
(DIAGRAM OF A PLANT CELL)
Chlorophyll- green pigment present in chloroplasts,
 Multicellular absorbs light energy during photosynthesis
 Have 3 main differences from animal cells: Vacuole
o Have chloroplasts
o Have cell walls Membrane-bound space in plant cells, filled with a
o Have larger vacuoles solution of sugars and salts called a cell sap
 Plants:
o Stores carbohydrates as starch or sucrose

Understand the role of enzymes as biological Catalysts in metabolic reactions

Enzymes:

 Biological catalysts – chemical which speeds up reactions without being used up

o Each cell contains different enzymes, catalysing different reactions
 How different activities in cells are controlled:
o Nucleus contains genes which controls production of enzymes which then catalyse reactions in
cytoplasm
o Genes -> proteins (enzymes) -> catalyse reactions
 Why is it needed:
o Temperatures in organisms are low (37°c)
o Without catalysts, most of the reactions that occur in cells are too slow for life to form
o Reactions can take place quickly enough when enzymes are present to speed them up
 Enzyme key words:
o Substrate- molecule upon which an enzyme acts
o Active site-area on the surface of an enzyme where the substrate attaches and products
are formed
Lock key model:

Understand how changes in temperature and pH affect enzyme function

Temperature
Why? Enzymes in human body have evolved to pH in cells are neutral (7) making most
work best at body temperature
Low There isn’t enough heat to increase the
Temp/pH rate of reaction so less energy is provided
to the particles, causing them to collide
less
High Enzymes are composed of protein which
Temp/pH breaks down in heat. Heat destroys
enzyme (denature) by changing shape of
the activation site so the substrate can’t fit
on it. Denaturing is permanent.
Optimum Optimum temperature is high enough to
increase the rate of reaction since increase
in temperature gives molecules more
energy, causing them to collide more
often and to increase activation energy in
particles
Optimum 37°C
temp/pH
Graph
pH
enzymes work best in it
Decreases enzyme activity by
affecting and changing enzyme
structure, changing shape of active
site
Decreases enzyme activity by
affecting and changing enzyme
structure, changing shape of active
site
Enzyme works best in the optimum
pH
7
Describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration:

𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 → 6𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water
dioxide

 Uses oxygen
 Happens in cells of humans and those of animals, plants and many
organisms
 Occurs in the mitochondria of the cell
 Releases more energy than anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic Respiration:

𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 → 𝐿𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 + (𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒)𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Glucose

𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 + 6𝐶𝑂2 + (𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒)𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Glucose Ethanol Carbon
dioxide

 Doesn’t use oxygen

 Glucose isn’t completely broken down, so less energy is released
 Can occur in situations where there is lack of oxygen
o Yeast cells – fermentation
o Muscle cells- when in short of oxygen when muscles are over
worked (i.e. sprinting) releasing lactate and some energy
o After the exercise, lactate is respired aerobically in mitochondria
 The volume of oxygen needed to completely oxidise the lactate that builds
up in the body during anaerobic respiration is called: OXYGEN DEBT
 Understand how the process of respiration produces ATP in living organisms

 Respiration releases energy while other cell processes use it up

 Cells passes the energy from respiration to other processes that need it by using ATP

WHEN ENERGY IS NEEDED ATP IS BROKEN DOWN INTO ADP AND PHOSPHATE

ADENOSINE P P P + WATER  ADENOSINE P P + P

DURING RESPIRATION ADP AND PHOSPHATE MAKES ATP

ADENOSINE P P + P  ADENOSINE P P P + WATER

ROLE OF ATP:

 Provides energy for cells

What is RESPIRATION?

 Obtaining energy from breaking down food to release stored chemical energy
 Oxygen is used to oxidise food to release energy
 Main food oxidised is sugar (glucose) which contains stored energy

ROLES OF ATP

 Contraction of muscle cells, producing movement

 Active transport of molecules and ions
 Building large molecules, such as proteins
 Cell division
 PROVIDES CELLS ENERGY
Understand processes of: DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS, and ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Diffusion: Rate of Diffusion is affected by:

 Concentration gradient
o Diffusion happens faster when there is a big
difference in concentrations between two areas
(steep concentration gradient)
 Surface area to volume ratio
o Larger surface area in proportion to volume will
increase the rate
 Distance
o Rate is decreased as the distance over which
diffusion takes place increases
 Temperature
o Rate is faster in higher temperatures due to more
kinetic energy

Osmosis:

 Water moves across cell membranes by osmosis, which is diffusion in water molecules
 Can only happen in permeable membranes

Active Transport

 When particles act against the gradient by going

from low concentration to high concentration by
using ATP
 They require ATP because they use transport
proteins to move ions opposing the gradient
Describe Levels of Organisation within organisms, organelles, cells, tissues, organ systems

Understand the difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms

Describe the features common to plants and recognise examples of flowering plants such as
maize, peas and beans

 All plants are multicellular

 Their cells contain chloroplasts and they carry out photosynthesis
 Have cell walls made of cellulose
 Stores carbohydrates as starch, which is often found in plant cells
 Examples:
o Moss
o Ferns
o Maize
o Peas
o beans

Describe features common to animals and recognise examples such as insects and mammals

 All animals are multicellular

 Vertebrates – have a spinal cord
 Invertebrates- doesn’t have a spinal cord
 Gain their nutrition by consuming plants and animals
 Have co-ordination systems, that enables them to move
 Animals store carbohydrates in their cells as glycogen
 Examples:
o Humans (homo sapiens)
o Sponges
o Molluscs
o Worms
o Starfish
o Insects
o Crustaceans
o Fish
o Amphibians
o Reptiles
o Birds
o Mammals

Describe the features common to fungi and recognise examples such as Mucor and yeast

 Some fungi are multicellular:

o Mushrooms
o Toadstools
o Moulds
  Some fungi are unicellular (i.e. yeast) which has a cell wall made of chitin
 Different species of yeast live on: fruit surface, soil, water and dust in air

 Under soil, mushroom has many thread-like filaments called a hyphae

 Mycelium – whole network of hyphae
 Fruiting bodies- reproductive structure of the organism, called a fruiting body
 Moulds feed by absorbing nutrients from dead material
 Saprotrophic nutrition- when enzymes (extracellular) are secreted out of cells which digests
dead organic matter

Describe the features common to protoctists and recognise examples such as amoeba,
chlorella ad plasmodium

 A mixed group of eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals nor fungi and are mostly
unicellular organisms
o Protozoa- animal-like species of protocists living in water
 Some look like animal cells such as Amoeba which live in ponds in water

 Other protoctists have chloroplasts and carry out photosynthesis, so are more like plants,
such as algae (unicellular)
Describe features common to bacteria and recognise examples such as Lactobacillus,
bulgaricus and pneumococcus

CAPSULE/ CELL WALL

Bacteria are:

 Single celled
 Are prokaryotic organisms – lacks a nucleus and contain circular plasmids of DNA and
chromosome of DNA
 Some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis and others survive through living off dead
organisms
 They are decomposers- decompose or breakdown dead matter
 Are pathogens

PARTS OF BACTERIA AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

 Cell wall / Capsule – gives bacterium extra protection

 Cell membrane – enables materials to come in and out of the bacterial cell
 Cytoplasm- where reactions in bacteria takes place, jelly like substance
 Nucleoid- consists of genetic material of the bacteria, a single loose chromosome
 Flagella- responsible for bacteria movement
 Plasmids- small circular rings of DNA, carrying some of bacterium genes
Describe the features common to viruses and recognise examples such as influenza virus, HIV,
and tobacco mosaic virus

Viruses are:

 Are parasites, can only reproduce in living cells (non-living)

 They don’t feed, respire, excrete, move, grow or respond to surroundings
 Cell which a virus lives is called a host
 Viruses can infect animals, plants and bacteria
 Has no nucleus or cytoplasm and is composed of genetic material surrounded by a
protein coat

HOW DO VIRUSES REPRODUCE:

 Enters host cell and takes over host cell to produce more viruses
 The host cell dies and the particles are released to infect more cells

Examples of VIRUSES:

 Measles
 Mumps
 Polio
 Rubella
 Influenza
 HIV
 AIDs
UNIT 2 – ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Describe the structure of the thorax, including the ribs, intercostals muscles, diaphragm, ...

Roles of Different parts of the Respiratory System:

Thorax- encloses the lungs, also known as the chest

Diaphragm- muscular sheet separating the thorax from the abdomen which is involved in
ventilation

Intercostal muscles- two sets of antagonistic muscles lying between the ribs which
contracts and relaxes to move the ribs during ventilation

Trachea- ‘wind pipe’ leading from the nose, mouth and bronchi; aligned with cells
secreting mucus and push bacteria with cilia hairs to keep clean

Bronchus- tubes leading from the trachea to the lungs; aligned with cells secreting mucus
and push bacteria with cilia hairs to keep clean

Bronchiole- small air passages leading from the bronchi to the alveoli

Alveoli- microscopic air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place

Pleural membrane- two layers of membrane forming a continuous envelope around the
lungs

Pleural cavity- space between the pleural membranes

Pleural fluid- thin layer of fluid filling the pleural cavity

Understand the role of intercostals muscles and the diaphragm in ventilation

Ventilation- movement of air in and out of the lungs

Inhalation- to let more air in, External intercostals muscles contract while the Internal
Intercostal muscles expand to push rib cage upwards and outwards and the diaphragm
contracts

Exhalation- to let more out, pressure is increased when External intercostal muscles relax
while the Internal intercostal muscles contract to push rib cage downwards and inwards and
the diaphragm expands

Explain how alveoli are adapted for gas exchange by diffusion between air in the lungs and
blood in capillaries
 Oxygen is diffused where oxygen moves
from high concentration to low
concentration
 Alveoli have a structure that brings
blood and oxygen close together where
capillaries are close and where walls in
alveoli are one cell thick
 Has a large surface area, where there
are thousands of alveoli in lungs and
where alveoli are shaped like grapes
 Is moist, which increases rate of oxygen
diffusion as it dissolves
Investigating breathing in humans, including the release of carbon dioxide and the effect of
exercise

 Limewater can be used to investigate carbon dioxide concentration

Physical exercise  muscles more active  respiration increases  more carbon dioxide is
produced by muscle cells  more carbon dioxide diffuses into blood  pH of blood decreases
 brain detects lower pH  increases breathing rate and depth

Understand the biological consequences of smoking in relation to the lungs and circulatory
system, including coronary heart disease

Effects: Lining in Air passages Emphysema Lung Cancer Carbon Monoxide

Why? Chemicals and hot air Chemicals in Cigarettes Smoke emitted from
present in smoke and cigarettes damages contain cigarettes contain
cigarettes damages and alveoli structures, carcinogens carbon monoxide
destroys cilia decreasing its which are cancer
surface area causing
chemicals
What? Cilia is destroyed Walls of alveoli Cells in lungs When it enters in to the
causing the mucus and become less elastic become lungs, since
bacteria to remain in and damages its damaged and haemoglobin binds
lungs irritating air shape, decreasing mutated which more with carbon
passages causing more in surface area, then rapidly monoxide rather than
secretion of mucus, diffusing less divide causing a oxygen, it prevents the
causing ‘smoker’s oxygen in blood, tumour which formation of
cough’ leading to difficulty leads to cancer oxyhemogoblin,
in breathing preventing respiration
Can cause infections in to occur. This is linked to
the bronchi, causing coronary heart disease.
bronchitis, blocking
normal air flow, causing
breathing difficulties

Identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and fats

Use of Food:

 Supply us with ‘fuel’ for energy

 Provide materials for growth and repair for tissues
 Helps to fight diseases and keep bodies healthy

Chemical Composition of Nutrients:

 Carbohydrates: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen

  Lipids: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen (have different structures than carbohydrates)
 Proteins: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen

Describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids as large molecule made up from
smaller ones

How starch is made from simple sugars:

 Made by joining simple sugar molecules together; plants store carbohydrates as starch for
energy, having enzymes that catalyse reactions, joining many glucose molecules into chains

How glycogen is made from simple sugars:

 Is a complex carbohydrate and is stored by animals for energy; is stored in liver and muscles and
is broken down to simple sugars if needed

How proteins is made from amino acids:

 Proteins are long chains of amino acids joined together by peptin bonds; sequence of amino
acids determines type of protein

How fats are made from fatty acids and glycerol:

 Each fat molecule is made of one molecule of glycerol attached to three fatty acids; different
fatty acids form different kinds of lipids

Investigate food samples for presence of glucose, starch, protein and fat

 If the material is solid, it can be grinded with a mortar and pestle, then add water and filter it

Benedict’s test for glucose:

1. Put 5 𝑐𝑚3 of test material in test tube and add 5 𝑐𝑚3 of Benedict’s solution
2. Heat in heated water bath
3. Orange precipitate is the positive test for presence in sugar

Iodine solution for Starch:

1. Put 5 𝑐𝑚3 of test material in test tube and add few drops of iodine solution
2. Blue black colour indicates starch

Biuret test for Protein:

1. Put 5 𝑐𝑚3 of test material in test tube and add few drops of copper sulphate solution followed
by sodium hydroxide
2. Purple colour indicates protein
Ethanol + Cold water for Lipids:

1. Put 5 𝑐𝑚3 of test material in test tube and add 5 𝑐𝑚3 of ethanol and shake and add 5 𝑐𝑚3 of
cold water and shake
2. Cloudy appearance indicates lipids (suspension of tiny water droplets, emulsion)

Identify sources and describe functions of carbohydrate, lipid, protein, Vitamins: A, C, and D
and the mineral ions: calcium and iron, water and dietary fibre as components of the diet

 Balanced diet should consist appropriate amounts of carbohydrate, protein, lipid, vitamins,
minerals, water and dietary fibre

Fats
Proteins
Vitamins and
Minerals
Carbohydrates

Nutrients in Human diet:

Nutrient Food source Uses in Body

Carbohydrate Rice, potatoes To provide immediate source of energy
Protein Meat, milk To replace and to repair damaged cells and creates enzymes
and hormones (lack of protein causes kwashiorkor)
Lipids Butter, cheese To provide long term energy store and warmth
Fibre Bran cereals, Absorbs poison from bacteria in gut and prevents constipation
cabbage
Water Foods, drinks Chemical reactions to take place in solution, keeps body
hydrated
Vitamins and Minerals:

Name Rich food sources Use in Body Deficiency Symptoms

Vitamin A Fish liver oils, carrots, Making a chemical in retina and Night blindness,
mangoes... protects surface in eye damaged cornea of eye
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, vegetables Sticks together cells lining surfaces Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(i.e. mouth) and resistance to disease
Vitamin D Sunlight, fish oil, milk... Absorbs calcium and phosphorus in Rickets, brittle bones
bones and teeth and teeth
Calcium Dairy products, green Making and strengthens teeth and Rickets, muscle
vegetables, fish... bones weakness and cramps
Iron Meat, eggs, liver Formation of haemoglobin in red Tiredness, anaemia
blood cells, helps to carry oxygen
Understand how energy requirements vary with activity levels, age, and pregnancy

FACTOR EXPLANATION

AGE The Amount of Energy requirements that Young People need increases towards
adulthood as this energy is needed for growth.
i.e. Muscle development

ACTIVITY The More Active you are, the more Energy you will require to keep your body moving
LEVELS i.e. If you Exercise, More Muscle Contractions, More Respirations, More Energy Required

PREGNANCY During Pregnancy, the Energy Requirements will increase as Energy is needed to
support the growth of the developing fetus, as well as the Larger Mass that the Mother
needs to carry around, Requiring More Energy.
i.e. It is important for Mothers to consume Protein for the Growth and Repair of the baby

Describe the structure and function of the human alimentary canal, including the mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, ileum), large intestine (colon, rectum) and
pancreas

Duodenum

Ileum

Duodenum- connects stomach to

small intestine

Ileum-where absorption occurs

Colon- where the faeces travels

 Ascending, transverse,
descending

Rectum-where faeces are stored

 Roles of Different parts of the Digestive System:

Mouth- digests the food physically by breaking down food into chunks by our teeth

Oesophagus- part of the alimentary canal between the mouth and stomach, food travels
there via peristalsis

Stomach- consists of gastric acids which breaks food down along with pepsin (enzyme)
forming chyme

Small intestine- consists of villi which absorbs nutrients from broken down food and diffuses
nutrients into blood

Large intestine- where waste products from the small intestine are being transported into
the rectum and anus

Rectum- where faeces are stored

Anus- where faeces exit

Pancreas- a gland, responsible for the production of insulin which controls glucose levels in
cells

Liver- an organ which produces bile which is responsible for neutralising the chyme before it
enters into the small intestine

Gallbladder- stores bile before it is needed

Understand how food is moved through the oesophagus and the gut via peristalsis

PERISTALSIS:
 Involves a wave of muscular contractions and
that squeeze the food bolus, carrying it down to
the stomach
 Behind the food bolus, the circular muscle
contracts to push it down
 In front of the food bolus, the muscle expands
to allow it to go along
 Works the same in the gut
Understand the role of digestive enzymes on digestion of certain nutrients

Nutrient Enzyme Example Digestive action Source of Where it

enzyme acts in
the gut
Carbohydrates Carbohydrases amylase Starch – maltose Salivary Mouth
glands
amylase Starch – maltose Pancreas Small
intestine
maltase Maltose – glucose Wall of Small
small intestine
intestine
Proteases Proteases Pepsin Proteins – peptides Stomach Stomach
wall
Trypsin Proteins – peptides Pancreas Small
intestine
Peptides Peptides – amino acids Wall of Small
small intestine
intestine
Lipases Lipases lipase Lipids – glycerol + fatty pancreas Small
acids intestine

Understand that bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, and understand
the role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and emulsifying lipids

Bile:

 Is a green liquid which is stored in the gall bladder

and passes down the bile duct on to the food
 Is alkaline and neutralises the acidic chyme and
stomach acids to achieve the optimum pH for
digestive enzymes in small intestine
 Bile emulsifies fats by breaking down large globules
of fat into smaller ones
o This increases the surface area for lipase
enzymes to act on the fat
Understand how the small intestine is adapted for absorption, including the structure of a
villus

Lacteal

Blood
Capillaries

PARTS OF THE VILLI:

Villus wall- only one cell thick so substances can easily diffuse through

Blood capillary- amino acids and sugar molecules (maltose) dissolves through the thin villus
wall into the blood capillary

Lacteal- (lymph capillary) fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lacteal

Hepatic portal vein- blood takes food molecules to the rest of the body; absorbed food
molecules are transported to the liver by the hepatic portal vein

ADAPTATION FOR ABSORBTION:

1. Very high surface area, covered with micro villi in surface cells, increasing surface area
and an abundance of villi increases surface area in intestines
2. Lining is very thin, about one cell thick and is close to the blood capillaries and the
lymph
3. Good blood supply, maintaining steep concentration gradient
Understand why simple unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion for movement of
substances in and out of the cell

 Single celled organisms obtain oxygen by diffusion through the surface membrane of
the cell
o The rest of the cell uses the oxygen
 The area of the cell’s surface determines the amount of oxygen the single celled
organism can get
o Known as the supply rate
 The volume of the cell determines the amount of oxygen the cell uses
o Known as the demand rate

𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

 In single celled organisms, their surface area to volume ratio is larger than that of larger
organisms
o Their cell surface membrane has a large enough area to supply all the oxygen the
volume demands

Understand the need for a transport system in multicellular organisms

 Large animals can’t get all the oxygen needed through their surface since they have a
smaller surface area to volume ratio
o Isn’t enough surface to supply all that volume
 Large animals have evolved circulatory systems to overcome that problem:

Need for Circulatory systems:

In mammals blood transports:

 Oxygen from the lungs to all other parts of the body

 Carbon monoxide from all parts of the body to the lungs
 Nutrients from the gut to all parts of the body
 Urea from the liver to kidneys
 Hormones, antibodies, and other substances are transported
 Heat is distributed throughout the body
Understand the general structure of the circulation system, including the blood vessels to and
from the heart and lungs, liver and kidneys

SINGLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Blood is pumped from the heart to
the gas exchange organ and then
directly to the rest of the body
 Blood flows and is pumped once
Examples:
 Fish
 Insects
 ...
Blood is pumped from the heart to
the gas exchange organ, back to the
heart and then to the rest of the
body
Pulmonary circulation:
Deoxygenated blood becomes
oxygenated
Systemic circulation:

Oxygenated blood becomes

deoxygenated

Human Circulatory system comprises:

Heart- acts as a pump

Blood vessels- carry blood throughout the body:

 Arteries- caries blood AWAY from heart and TOWARDS the organs (oxygenated)
 Veins- carries blood TOWARDS the heart and AWAY from the organs (deoxygenated)
 Capillaries- carries blood THROUGH the organs, LINKING the arteries and veins
 Coronary arteries- supplies blood and nutrients to the heart

Blood- the transport medium

Describe the structure of the heart and how it functions

Deoxygenated Blood:

Travels from the organs to the vena cava to

the right atrium and to the right ventricle to
the pulmonary artery to the lungs

Oxygenated Blood:

Travels from the lungs to the pulmonary

vein to the left atrium and to the left
ventricle to the aorta to the organs

THE CARDIAC CYCLE:

1. Blood enters the atria and can’t pass into the ventricles because the bicuspid (mitral) and
tricuspid valves are closed
2. Walls of the atria contract which raises the pressure of blood in the atria which forces the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves open causing blood to pass through the ventricles
3. When ventricles are full, they contract, increasing blood pressure in the ventricles, closing
bicuspid and tricuspid valves again (blood can’t return to atria)
4. Ventricles continue to contract, increasing pressure which forces the pulmonary and the
aortic valve open
5. Blood is ejected into those arteries where the pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood
to the lungs and the aorta carries oxygenated blood to the organs
6. As the ventricles empty, higher pressure in the aorta and pulmonary closes the valves in
these blood vessels where the cycle begins again.

HOW STRUCTURE OF HEART IS ADAPTED TO ITS FUNCTION:

 Heart is divided into two parts by a wall of muscle where the right pumps to the lungs and the
left pumps to the body which is why the muscle wall in the left ventricle is thicker than the right.
 Valves prevent back flow in the heart, so blood flows through one direction
 Walls of atria are thin, enabling it to stretch to receive blood
 Walls of heart is made of cardiac muscle which can continuously contract and expand without
being fatigued
 Cardiac muscle has its own blood supply via the coronary arteries
Understand how factors may increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease- disease caused by blockage of coronary arteries due to a build up of
fatty material which cuts off blood supply to the heart and a result in a heart attack.

Factors that make Heart disease more likely:

 Heredity- some people inherit a tendency to develop coronary heart disease

 High blood pressure- puts more strain to the heart
 Diet- eating large amounts of saturated fat is likely to raise cholesterol levels
 Smoking- raises blood pressure and makes blood clots more likely to form
 Stress-raises blood pressure
 Lack of exercise-regular exercise helps to reduce blood pressure and strengthens the
heart

Explain how the heart rate changes during exercise and under the influence of adrenaline

Context:

 Heart rate increases during exercise since muscles require more oxygen; to deliver more
oxygen into muscles, the heart rate and the volume of blood increases
 When afraid or angry, heart rate increases due to the production of adrenaline which
enables the ‘flight or fight’ response by supplying more blood to muscles

How?

 Changes in heart rate are controlled by nerve impulses from the medulla
o Medulla- part of brain that controls heart and breathing rate
 During exercise, muscles produce more carbon dioxide which receptors in the aorta and
the carotid artery detect, sending electrical signals to the sensory nerve to the medulla
 The medulla responds by sending nerve impulses along the accelerator nerve which
increases heart rate which causes increase in blood pressure
 When carbon dioxide levels are back to normal, the medulla sends fewer impulses,
responding to send impulses along a decelerator nerve
Understand the structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries relate to their functions

ORGAN Name of associated blood vessel

Bringing blood to organ Taking blood away from organ
Heart Vena cava to right atrium; pulmonary vein Pulmonary artery from right ventricle;
to left atrium aorta from left ventricle
Lungs Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein
Liver Hepatic artery Hepatic vein
Kidneys Renal artery Renal vein

ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES

 Transport blood away from
the heart to the organs
(oxygenated)
 Have thicker walls to
maximise blood pressure in
order to transport blood
quickly to organs
 Doesn’t have semi-lunar
valves and have elastic
muscles to contract and
dilate the artery to control
flow
 Has a small and narrow
lumen
 Carry blood away from the
organs to the heart
(deoxygenated)
 Have wide lumen to provide
more space for blood to
flow with less resistance
 Have semi-lunar valves to
ensure that blood moves
only one direction
 They are very narrow and
blood travels very slowly to
give more time for diffusion
 Have one cell thick walls, to
provide short distance for
diffusion
 Are highly branched which
increases surface area for
diffusion
 They have good blood
supply to remain a steep
concentration gradient
Describe the composition of blood

Component of Description Function

Blood
Plasma Liquid part of blood: mainly Carries blood cells, dissolved nutrients,
water hormones, carbon dioxide and urea. Also
distributes heat throughout the body

Red blood cells Biconcave, disc-like cells with no Transport of oxygen- contains
nucleus haemoglobin, which loads oxygen in the
lungs and unloads it to organs

White Blood Cells

Lymphocytes About the same size as red blood Produces antibodies to destroy
cells with a large spherical pathogens- some lymphocytes stay in our
nucleus body to give immunity to diseases
(memory cells)

Phagocyte Much larger than red blood cells, Digests and destroys pathogens during
with large spherical or lobed phagocytosis
nucleus

Platelets The smallest cells- are fragments Release chemicals to make blood clot
of other cells when we cut ourselves

Understand how the adoptions of red blood cells make them suitable for the transport of
oxygen including: shape, absence of nucleus, and presence of haemoglobin
Understand how the immune system responds to infection using white blood cells, by
phagocytes and lymphocytes

Phagocytes Lymphocytes
Phagocytosis- process by which cells engulf Their function is to make antibodies which are
and digest material (i.e. white blood cells soluble proteins that pass into plasma
engulfing bacteria )

Phagocytes do this by changing their shape, Pathogens have chemical ‘markers’ on their
producing extensions known as pseudopodia surfaces (which antibodies recognize) are
which surround the bacterium called antigens

The bacterium is then enclosed in a vacuole
and digestive enzymes then destroy the
bacterium
Antibodies stick to antigens and destroy the
pathogen by:
 Causing pathogen to stick together so
phagocytes can ingest more of them more
easily
 Acting as a label for phagocytes to recognise
 Causing pathogen to burst open
 Neutralising toxins produced by pathogens

Understand how organisms are able to respond to changes in their environment

Stimulus  Receptor  Coordination  Effector  Response

Change in the Detects the Brain/ Spinal Muscle/ gland Reaction to

environment stimulus cord (CNS) which causes stimuli (i.e.
which can be response moves arm)
detected

Stimuli:

Stimulus Receptor
light Eyes (retina)
Sound Ears (inner ear)
Touch
Temperature
mechanical
SKIN
Chemical Tongue (taste buds)
 Understand that the CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and is linked to sense organs
via nerves and how it controls responses and the function of a reflex arc:

Central Nervous System (CNS):

 Brain- protected by the skull

 Spinal cord- protected by vertebral column

The Reflex Arc:

How It Works: Sensory neuron- nerve cell which carries impulses

Reflex Arc- nerve pathway of a reflex action, a response
to a stimulus
1. The stimulus is detected by receptors which generate
impulses in sensory neurons
2. The impulses enter the CNS through a part of the
spinal nerve called the dorsal root
3. In the spinal cord, the sensory neurons connect to
relay neurons which connect with motor neurons
4. The motor neurons emerge from the spinal cord
through the ventral root which send impulses back
from a receptor into the CNS
Motor neuron- nerve cell that transmits impulses
from CNS to effector
Dorsal root- part of spinal nerve that emerges
from the back side of the spine
Relay neurons- short neuron that connects a
sensory neuron with a motor neuron
Ventral root- part of spinal nerve that emerges
from the front side of spine
Grey matter- consists mainly of nerve cell bodies

out to the effectors reacting a response White matter- consists mainly of nerve cell axons
Structure of Neurons:

SENSORY NEURON

RELAY NEURON

MOTOR NEURON

MOTOR NEURON

 Carries signal from the CNS to the effector organ which comes from relay neuron

Parts:

Dendron- extension of the cytoplasm of a neuron that carries impulses towards the cell body

Dendrites- fine extensions of the dendrons of a neuron

Synapses- junction between two neurons (enabling transmission of electrical impulses from one
neuron to the next)

Axon- long extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses in a direction away from the cell
body

Myelin sheath- covering made of lipid material that surrounds an axon providing electrical
insulation, preventing confusion of impulses, making impulses travel more quickly

SENSORY NEURON:

 Carries impulse from sense organs to CNS

 Have same structure to motor neurons but the cell body is located on a side branch of the
fibre, where it has a shorter axon

RELAY NEURON:

 Short neuron that transmits impulses within the CNS from sensory neurons to motor neurons
 Understand the role of neurotransmitters at synapses

Synapse is actually a gap between two nerve

cells

1. Impulses arrive down axon of first neurone

2. Neurotransmitter diffuses across synapse
3. Neurotransmitter attaches to membrane of
second neuron
4. Impulse started in second neurone
5. Neurotransmitter broken down by enzyme
from second neuron

Describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor

Sclera- white, tough outer layer for
protection

Cornea-transparent part of the sclera

that bends light rays

Ciliary muscle-ring of muscle

surrounding lens which controls
thickness

Suspensory ligaments- ligaments joining

lens and ciliary muscles

Choroid-dark layer of blood vessels

preventing reflection of light within the
Iris-colored part of the eye made up of radial and circular eyeof blood vessels preventing reflection
Choroid-dark layer
muscles which changes size of the pupil of light within the eye

Pupil-hole in the centre of the iris that allows light to enter
the eye
Lens-transparent bi-convex disk behind the iris attached
the suspensor ligaments to the ciliary muscles; changes
shape to focus light on retina
Ciliary muscle-ring of muscle surrounding lens which
controls thickness
Suspensory ligaments- ligaments joining lens and ciliary
muscles
Retina-inner lining of the eye containing photoreceptors:
rods (reacts better with darkness) and cones (reacts
better with light, has 3 types: red, green and blue) which
react to light produces impulses to sensory neurons
Optic nerve-bundle of neurons leaving the eye carrying
impulses from photoreceptors to the brain
Fovea-region at the centre of the retina of the eye where
there is a high concentration of light sensitive receptor
cells
Understand the function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects, and in responding
to changes in light intensity

Accommodation- change occurring in the eye to focus on far or near objects

FAR OBJECTS CLOSE OBJECTS

 Ciliary muscles relax and suspensory
ligaments taut
 Lens is pulled into elliptical shape
because distant light rays are nearly
parallel and don’t need to refract much
 Ciliary muscles contract and suspensory
ligaments slack
 Lens becomes more rounded since closer
light rays are more spread out so they
need to be more refracted
Describe how responses can be controlled by hormonal communication

Exocrine Gland Endocrine Gland

 Gland secreting product through a duct
 i.e.:
o salivary glands in mouth secrete
saliva through a tube
o tear glands secrete tears through
ducts leading to the surface of
eyes
 They have no duct and are called ductless
glands
 secrete their product into blood vessels
 i.e.:
o pituitary gland secretes its
hormones into blood vessels

Understand the differences between nervous and hormonal control

Hormone- a chemical messenger, which is carried in the blood and alters activity of one or
more target objects

Nervous system Endocrine system

Works by nerve impulses transmitted through
nerve cells
(although chemicals are used at synapses)
Nerve impulses travel fast and usually have an
‘instant’ effect
Response is short lived
Impulses act on individual cells such as muscle
fibres
Works by hormones transmitted through
bloodstream
Hormones travel more slowly and take longer
to act
Response is longer-lasting
Hormones can have widespread effects on
different organs
(although they only act on particular tissues if the
cells have the correct receptors)
Understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: adrenaline, insulin,
testosterone, progesterone, oestrogen

Some endocrine glands and hormones released: (highlighted: important)

Gland Hormone Some functions of the hormones

Pituitary Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Stimulates egg development and oestrogen
secretion in females and sperm production in
males
Luteinising hormone (LH) Stimulates egg release (ovulation) in females
and testosterone production in males
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Controls water content of the blood
Thyroid Thyroxin Controls body’s metabolic rate
(how fast chemical reactions take place in cells)
Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood glucose
Glucagon Raises blood glucose
Adrenals Adrenaline Prepares the body for physical activity
Testes Testosterone Controls the development of male secondary
sexual characteristics
Ovaries Oestrogen Controls development of female secondary
sexual characteristics
Progesterone Regulates the menstrual cycle

Adrenaline:

Helps prepare the body for action by stimulating the following:

 Liver cells to convert glycogen into glucose which diffuses into the blood
o Makes more glucose reach the muscles as an energy source for the rapid
contraction is needed for sudden action
 The heart rate increases so more glucose and oxygen are delivered to the muscles for
energy release
 Dilation of the airways so that more air reaches the alveoli in the lungs for more gas
exchange (rapid breathing)
 Vasodilatation of arterioles in the brain and muscles so more glucose and oxygen are
delivered to these muscles
 Vasoconstriction of arterioles in the gut and other organs allowing more oxygen to be
diverted to the muscles (blood is directed away from gut and towards the muscles)
 Adrenaline may be secreted: when scared, when in danger, when angry, or nervous
Insulin:

 Is responsible for controlling blood glucose

o Cells need glucose for energy, so they need a constant supply from blood
 The pancreas monitors blood glucose and releases hormones to stimulate liver cells to
add or remove glucose

Normal blood
Glucose concentration glucose level Glucose concentration
decreases (exercise) increases (food intake)

glucagon causes insulin causes

glycogen in liver glucose in liver to
to change into change into
glucose glycogen

Glucose concentration Glucose concentration

normal blood decreases
increases glucose level

 When blood glucose gets too high, the pancreas makes insulin to stimulate decrease of
glucose
 When blood glucose gets too low, the pancreas makes glucagon to stimulate increase
 By doing this, blood glucose stays within limits and doesn’t change so much

Diabetes- where the pancreas can’t make enough insulin to keep their blood glucose level
constant- it rises to very high concentrations

Understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment

Homeostasis- maintaining constant conditions in the body, maintaining constant internal

environment
Understand that control of body water content and body temperature are examples of
homeostasis

Examples of Homeostasis:

 Regulating body temperature

 Regulating water content in body
 Regulating glucose level in body
 Removal of waste products (excretion)

Know the excretory products of the lungs, kidneys, and skin

Lungs Carbon dioxide

Skin Sweat
Kidneys Urine:
Urea 23.3 g/𝑑𝑚3
Ammonia 0.4 g/𝑑𝑚3
Nitrogenous waste 1.6 g/𝑑𝑚3
Sodium chloride 10.0 g/𝑑𝑚3
Potassium 1.3 g/𝑑𝑚3
Phosphate 2.3 g/𝑑𝑚3

Describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating,
vasoconstriction and vasodilatation

Context:

 Homeothermic animals (mammals) keep their temperatures constant via the skin so the
optimum temperatures for enzymes will remain constant
 “Cold blooded” animals (i.e. reptiles) change their temperatures depending on the
temperature they are exposed to

The Skin:

 Protects the body from damage

 Stops pathogens from entering
 Prevents too much water loss
 Detects pressure, pain, and temperature change
 Regulates body temperature by loosing heat by
conduction, convection, and radiation
o Fat under skin acts as insulator
How skin reacts to change in temperature:

 Thermoregulatory centre- part of the brain that monitors core body temperature
 The thermoregulatory centre of the brain is located in the hypothalamus of the brain
acting as the body’s ‘thermostat’
 If the temperature changes, the temperature receptors in the skin send electrical
impulses to the hypothalamus which stimulates the brain to alter our behaviour
o Such as getting a cold drink, putting on a blanket
 These changes aren’t enough so the thermoregulatory centre detects change in
temperature of the blood flowing through it and sends signals to other organs in body to
regulate temperature

Increase in Temperature:

Vasodilation: Sweating:

 Occurs in the capillaries in skin  Sweat is produced by sweat glands, which

 The capillaries expand so more then evaporate which cools the body
heat is lost to the surroundings
Philorelaxation:
 This is because the heat in
blood is more in contact with  The erector muscles relax, which means
the outside world so heat is that the hairs will stay flatten
radiated
Decrease in Temperature:

Vasoconstriction: Shivering:

 Occurs in the capillaries in skin  The hypothalamus stimulates shivering

 The capillaries constrict so
more heat is kept into the body
 This is because heat in the
blood is closer to the body,
making it harder to escape
when heat stored isn’t enough
 This is where muscles contract and expand
which generates heat, warming blood
Philoconstriction:
 The erector muscles contract, which
means that the hairs will stay up

Negative feedback:

 Acts to ensure that conditions (i.e. body temperature) are kept at 37°C
 If body temperature is too high or low, the body takes actions to bring it back to normal
 The thermoregulatory centre (in hypothalamus) detects change in blood temperature
and takes action according to detected temperature
Understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction:

 Reproduction that doesn’t involve fusion of

gametes.
 New organisms are produced by part of an
organism separating from a single parent (the
parent makes mini clones of its self)
 Asexual reproduction are faster than sexual
reproduction
 Organisms produced by asexual reproduction
are less diverse and have less variety, meaning
that they get easily wiped out from a disease
 Species may be suited for one habitat
 Example of Asexual reproduction: binary
fission in bacteria, mitosis

Sexual Reproduction:

 Reproduction involving fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote

 Four stages in any method of sexual reproduction:
o Gametes (sperm and egg cells) are produced
o Male gamete is transferred to the female gamete via sexual intercourse
o Fertilization must occur- sperm fuses with the egg
o Zygote formed develops a new individual
 Where 50% of genetic material from both parents make the offspring
 Takes longer than asexual reproduction
 Organisms produced by sexual reproduction are more diverse and have more variety,
making it easier for the organism to evolve to withstand a disease
 Species can adapt to new environments due to variation, which gives them a survival
advantage
 Production of gametes: meiosis
Understand that fertilization involves fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a
zygote

 Fertilization- is the joining of the nuclei of the male and female gametes (sex cells: egg
and sperm)

Transfer of Sperm to Egg:

 Erect- penis is placed into vagina where penis is moved in and out of vagina stimulating
contractions in sperm ducts and production of seminal fluids
 Ejaculation- occurs, where contractions of urethra in penis causes semen to be
deposited into the vagina
 During sexual intercourse, the sperm enters to the vagina, swimming through the mucus
in the cervix to the uterus and the oviduct where very few sperm survive the journey
o Sperm cells are specialized for swimming since they contain a flagellum and have
mitochondria to provide energy for them to swim

Fertilization:
 The sperm meets the egg in the oviduct, where one sperm
penetrates the egg
 The nucleus of the sperm approaches then fuses with the nucleus
of the egg to form a zygote
 A membrane forms around the zygote to stop other sperm from
entering
 Sperm can survive 1-2 days without fertilization

Understand that the zygote undergoes cell division and develops into the embryo

Key definitions:

 Zygote- cell that is the result of fertilization, will divide by mitosis to form an embryo
 Embryo- an organism in its early stages of development, especially before it has reached
a distinctively recognizable form

Implantation:

 After fertilization, the zygote divides over and over again to form a blastocyst (ball of
cells)
 It implants itself in the wall of the uterus
 After this, it continues to grow and develop into an embryo via mitosis and to a fetus
Understand how the structure and function of the human male and female reproductive
system s are adapted for their functions

Male Reproductive System: Functions + Adaptations:

FUNTIONS OF DIFFERENT PARTS:

Sex glands: produces fluids that will provide sperm cells with nutrients enabling it to survive
conditions in the vagina and to activate motility, provide nutritional energy and transportation

 Seminal vesicles- secretes yellowish slightly alkaline fluid containing substances that nourish
sperm (70% in semen)
 Prostate Gland- excretes its fluid to urethra, (mainly consisting of citric acid and enzymes) during
ejaculation to liquefy semen
 Bulbo- secretes clear mucus that drains into urethra to clear out acidic urine prior to ejaculation

Sperm duct (Vans Deferens)- sperm passes through the sperm duct to be mixed with fluids
produced by sex glands, making semen

Urethra- tube inside the penis that can carry either urine or semen, connects to bladder and to
the sperm duct through prostate

Testes- contained in a bag of skin (scrotum); produces sperm and testosterone

Penis- contains urethra and blood inflated erectile tissue; when erective tissue is inflated it aids
semen to be delivered close to the uterus of female partner

Epididimus- allows sperm cells to mature and gain motility, has to be about 3 degrees lower
than the rest of the body
ADAPTATIONS:

PENIS Is hanging down which makes it easier to place penis in vagina

for sperm to fertilize the egg

Has erectile muscle tissue which is inflated during erection,

TESTES AND SCROTUM
which makes it easier to penetrate making it easier for sperm to
enter into the vagina
Is hanging down since spermatogenesis (making of sperm)
requires temperatures lower than the body temperature to
take place

Parts of the Sperm:

HEAD:

Contains the acrosome, a cap like structure, consisting enzymes to help the sperm to penetrate the
egg

Has the nucleus, consisting of 23 chromosomes, passing genetic material to offspring

MID-PIECE:

Contains the mitochondria which releases energy for movement

TAIL:

Serves a main purpose to let the sperm swim in the vagina, cervix and uterus to fertilize the egg in the
oviduct
Female Reproductive System: Functions + Adaptations:

FUNTIONS OF DIFFERENT PARTS:

Oviduct- connects ovaries to uterus and is lined with ciliated cells to push the released ovum
towards the uterus for fertilization

Ovaries- contains all the ova (female gametes) women will ever have, ovum mature and
develop when hormones FSH is released from brain

Uterus- muscular bag with soft lining (endomitrium) where the fertilized egg cell will be
implanted in after fertilization

Cervix- ring of muscle at the lower end of the uterus to keep the developing fetus in place
during pregnancy

Urethra- tube that passes urine out of the body from the bladder

Vagina- muscular tube that connects uterus to outside of woman’s body, place of penis
insertion during sex and path of fetus from uterus to the outside world

ADAPTATIONS:

VAGINA Is located on the outside, making easier for the penis to

penetrate; leading to more efficient sperm transfer to the egg.
It is also efficient when giving birth

CERVIX Has lining (endometrium) which sheds (menstruation) when the

egg hasn’t been fertilized and renews itself. Doesn’t break
down when egg is fertilized.
Parts of the Egg:

Describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the developing embryo

ADAPTION:

 Huge surface area, having

lots of villi like projections
 Only few cells thick
 Blood supplies to keep
concentration gradients high

The PLACENTA:

 A placenta, connected by an umbilical cord develops form the embryo

 The placenta anchors in the uterus allowing:
o Nutrients and oxygen to move from mother to embryo
o Waste materials and carbon dioxide to move from embryo to mother
 There is no physical connection between circulatory systems of the embryo and its mother, so
their blood doesn’t mix
 Nutrients in the mother blood passes to the placenta to the baby via diffusion

Placenta- Organ in mammals which contains blood vessels of the embryo in close proximity to
blood vessels of the mother; allowing diffusion of gasses, nutrition, waste, etc.
Understand how the developing embryo is protected by amniotic fluid

Key words:

 Amnion- membrane enclosing the embryo during pregnancy

 Amniotic fluid- fluid secreted by the amnion that protects the embryo by acting as a
shock absorber

 The amnion membrane encloses the

developing embryo and secretes amniotic
fluid

Functions:

 Acts like a cushion protecting the baby

from sudden movements and bumps

Structure Function
Placenta Enables diffusion of nutrition and waste between the mother and baby
Umbilical Cord Carries materials between the fetus and placenta and anchors the fetus in place

Amniotic sac membrane enclosing the embryo during pregnancy

Amniotic fluid fluid secreted by the amnion that protects the embryo by acting as a shock
absorber
Stages of Child birth:

1. Dilation of cervix- the cervix dilates to allow the baby to pass through where as the
muscles in the uterus contracts which tears the amniotic sac which allows the amniotic
fluid to escape
2. Delivery of the baby- strong contractions of muscles of uterus push the baby’s head
through the cervix and then through the vagina
3. Delivery of the afterbirth- after birth, the uterus continues to contract and pushes the
placenta out with the membranes that surround the baby
Understand the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in development of secondary sexual
characteristics

Puberty- time when the developmental changes take place in boys and girls that lead to sexual
maturity

HORMONES INVOLVED
Hormone Produced Function
Oestrogen Ovaries  Stops FSH being produced (so only 1 egg matures in cycle)
 Repairs and thickens endometrium
 Stimulates pituitary to release LH
 Causes changes in female body during puberty

Progesterone Corpus luteum (C.L.)  Maintains lining of uterus during the mid part of the
menstrual cycle and during pregnancy
FSH Pituitary gland  Causes egg to mature in the ovary, stimulates ovaries to
release oestrogen (girls)
 Triggers sperm production by increasing testosterone
concentration(boys)
LH Pituitary gland  Triggers ovulation, the release of the mature egg (girls)
 Triggers production of testosterone in leydig cells (boys)

CHANGES IN BOYS:
Changes Hormone
Sperm production starts FSH
Growth and development of male sexual organs
TESTOSTERONE
Growth of armpit, pubic, chest, and facial hair
Increase in body mass (muscle growth)
Voice breaks
Sexual drive develops
CHANGES IN GIRLS:
Changes Hormone
Menstrual cycle begins and eggs released by ovaries every FSH, LH
month
Growth and development of female sexual organs
OESTROGEN
Increase in body mass and development of ‘rounded’ shape
in hips
Voice deepens without sudden breaking

Sexual drive develops

Breasts develop
Understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle

Oestrogen:

 Stimulates the repair of the endometrium after menstruation

 Causes thickening of endometrium in 2nd half of cycle
 Makes uterus ready to receive the blastocyst (implantation)
 Causes release of LH, inhibits release of FSH

Progesterone:

 Thickens and maintains endomitrium

 Prevents menstruation
 Inhibits LH, so no ovulation
 Prevents follicle development
 Stimulates mammary glands

UNIT 3- PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Investigate photosynthesis by testing for the production of starch in a leaf

Context:

 Glucose, a form of a sacharide (simple sugar); a carbohydrate is formed in

photosynthesis, which is stored in plant leaves as starch, where chlorophyll is present
 Meaning that photosynthesis enables the production of starch in leaves

Procedure: Testing starch in leaf

1. Remove leaf from plant and dewax plant leaf by

putting it in boiling water so iodine solution can
dissolve into it
2. To decolorize the leaf, place the leaf in boiling
ethanol and drain the leaf with cold water
3. Put the leaf on Petri dish and add iodine
solution for testing starch, if parts of leaf turns
blue-black, the test is positive
Investigate the need for light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll for photosynthesis

Three important factors for starch production:

 Carbon dioxide
 Light
 Chlorophyll in leaves

Investigating the need for light, carbon dioxide, and chlorophyll:

1. De-starch the leaf by leaving it in the dark approx. 48 hours

2. One factor at a time is being changed:

Testing for chlorophyll:

3. Using a variegated plant (having both green and white areas in leaf); leave it the sun for
6 hours
4. Test for starch (only green parts for blue-black)

Testing for carbon dioxide:

3. Enclose plant in bag with soda lime

4. Soda lime absorbs carbon dioxide gas in the container
5. Leave for a while then test for starch (negative)

Light:

3. Cover part of leaf

4. Leave for a while then test for starch (only uncovered parts turn blue-black)

Understand the process of photosynthesis and its importance in the conversion of light
energy to chemical energy

 Plants use inorganic molecules: carbon dioxide and water, in the

presence of chlorophyll and light to make glucose and oxygen
 Chlorophyll absorbs light energy needed for the reaction to take
place, the products of the reaction has more energy than its
reactants (because light is absorbed)
 This means photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical
energy
 Know the word equation and the balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis

Describe the structure of the leaf and explain how it is adapted for photosynthesis

upper epidermis

mesophyll xylem

phloem

lower epidermis

Parts of the leaf:

 Cuticle- thin layer of waxy material covering the epidermis cells of plant which reduces
water loss by evaporation and is a barrier of disease causing pathogens
 Upper epidermis- contain little to no chloroplast and is covered by cuticle; is
transparent, allowing light to enter
 Mesophyll- is the middle part of the leaf; containing palisade cells, the vascular bundle
and the spongy layer
o Palisade cells- are long narrow cells containing lots of chloroplasts; the main site
of photosynthesis and is close to the source of light
o Vein (vascular bundle)- contain bundles of vessles (xylem and phloem)
 Xylem- are larger vessles, which transport water and mineral ions to the
leaf (absorbs water and minerals from roots and passes through the
transpiration stream transporting it to leaf)
 Phloem- supplies the sugars from photosynthesis to all of the other parts
of the plant
o Spongy cells- also photosynthesise, have fewer chloroplasts than palisade cells;
form main gas exchange from the leaf, absorbing carbon dioxide and release
oxygen and water vapour, where the air in the gaps allow gasses to diffuse in
and out of the mesophyll
 Lower epidermis- has many holes or pores (stomata)
o Guard cell- changes shape to close or open the stomata by expanding or
contracting its vacuole (changing shape)
o Stomata (pore)- allows oxygen and water vapour to diffuse out and allow carbon
dioxide to diffuse in

Understand how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the
rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity:

 Chlorophyll uses light energy for photosynthesis

 As light intensity increases, so does the rate of
photosynthesis steadily until a certain point
 This is because other factors needed for photosynthesis
are in shorter supply

Carbon dioxide:

 As the level of CO2 increases, so does the rate of

photosynthesis until a certain point.

Temperature:
Affects enzymes involved in photosynthesis

If the temperature is too high, enzymes denature, if the

temperature is too low, the reaction is too low, at optimum
temperature, photosynthesis rate increases
Investigate photosynthesis using the evolution of oxygen from a water plant

METHOD:

1. Set up the Apparatus as in the Diagram

2. Change Variable
3. Leave for 5 Minutes to allow the Pond Weed to adapt to environment
4. Count number of Bubbles Given Off in One Minute
5. Increase or Decrease the Variable (E.g, distance of lamp)
6. Repeat
7. Experiment Other variables

VARIABLES:

LIGHT
Use a Lamp and Vary the Distance of the Lamp to the Pondweed to Control the Light Intensity

CARBON DIOXIDE
Add Sodium Hydroxide to Absorb and Remove all Carbon Dioxide
Add Sodium Bicarbonate to Increase Carbon Dioxide

CHLOROPHYLL
Use Variegated Plant (White Plant and Green Plant)
Understand that plants require mineral ions for growth, and that magnesium ions are needed
to make chlorophyll and nitrate ions are needed to make amino acids

Mineral Ion Use Deficiency symptoms

Nitrate Making amino acids, proteins,
chlorophyll, DNA and many
other compounds
Phosphate Making DNA and many other
compounds; part of cell
membranes
Potassium Needed for enzymes of
respiration and photosynthesis
to work
Magnesium Part of chlorophyll molecule
Limited plant growth; older
leaves turn yellow
Poor root growth; younger
leaves turn purple
Leaves turn yellow with dead
spots
Leaves turn yellow

Understand how water can move in or out of plant cells by osmosis

Keywords:

 Osmosis- diffusion of water molecules through partially permeable membrane via high
to low concentration
 Cellulose cell wall- resists pressure changes in cell and maintains cell structure
 Vacuole- contain dissolved solutes (i.e. sugars, ions, ...)
 Turgid- description of a plant cell with a high internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm
pushes against the cell wall (full of water)
 Flaccid- condition in a plant cell which has lost internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm
no longer pushes against the cell wall (cells no longer firm)
 Plasmolysed- condition of a plant cell that has lost water by osmosis, resulting in the cell
components shrinking and the cell membrane and cytoplasm pulling away from the cell
wall
 Turgor- condition of a plant when its cells are turgid
 Wilt- changes taking place in a plant when its cells lose too much water and become
flaccid; leaves droop and collapse
Single cell:

 If plant cell is in pure water or dilute solution:

o Contents of cell have lower water potential than the external solution, so the cell
will absorb water by osmosis
o Causes cell to swell up and cytoplasm pushes against cell wall (turgid)
 If plant cell is in concentrated sucrose solution:
o Contents of cell have higher water potential than the external solution, so the
cell loses water by osmosis
o Cell decreases in volume and the cytoplasm no longer pushes against the cell
wall (flaccid)
o Eventually the cell contents shrink so much that the membrane and cytoplasm
split away from the cell wall and gaps appear between the wall and membrane
(plasmolysed)

Multiples of cells:

Plants:

 Turgor: state of plant when its cells are turgid

o Pressure inside the cells pushes neighbouring cells against each other, like a box
full of inflated balloons
o Supports non-woody parts of plants (i.e. young stems, leaves, ...)
o Important in functioning of stomata (pores)
  Wilt: plant losing too much water from its cells (cells become flaccid)
o Leaves droop and collapse
o Is a protective action: cuts down water loss by reducing exposed surface area of
the leaves and closing stomata

Investigate osmosis and non-living systems (plant cells and Visking tubing)

EXPLANATION

1. Visking Tube filled with Sucrose Solution is placed into a beaker of Water
2. Concentration of Water Particles are Higher Outside than Inside of the Visking Tube
3. Water Particles will move through the Partially Permeable Membrane of the Visking
Tube, Down the Concentration Gradient until Water Equilibrium is met
4. Overtime, Size of Visking Tube will Increase as more Water Particles will Move in by
Osmosis to dilute the Sucrose Solution so Water Concentration inside and outside are
the same

Describe the role of the xylem in the transport of water and mineral ions from the roots to
other parts of a plant

XYLEM: Consists of Elongated Dead cells, Arranged

as a Continuous vessel Where the Dead Cells are
Arranged End to End

 Contains No Cytoplasm so is Impermeable to

water
 Has Tough Walls containing a Lignin
 Transports Water and Mineral Ions from the
Roots to Other Parts of the Plants by
Transpiration
Describe the role of phloem in the transport of sucrose and amino acids from the leaves to
other parts of a plant

PHLOEM: Consists of Living Cells that are arranged from End to End
 They Contain Cytoplasms that goes through each Cell, One Cell to the Next
 Transports Sucrose and Amino Acids Up and Down the Plant (Sources to Sinks),
Commonly Known as Translocation
Keywords:

 Sieve plate- specialised end cell wall of sieve tube, with holes allowing connections
between one cell and the next
 Sieve tube- cell found in phloem, consisting of tube transporting the products of
photosynthesis
 Companion cells-specialised cell lying next to a sieve tube in the phloem and controlling
its activities

Structure of the Stem:

 In young stem, xylem and phloem are grouped together in areas called
vascular bundles
 Vascular bundles are arranged in a circle around the outer part of the stem
 In older stems, the vascular tissue grows to form complete rings around
the stem
 The inner xylem forms the woody central core of a stem, with the living
layer of phloem outside this

Understand the origin of carbon dioxide and oxygen as waste products of metabolism and
their loss from the stomata or a leaf

The metabolic processes are respiration and photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis:

 CO2 + H2O > C6H12O6 + O2 : that’s carbon dioxide plus water becomes glucose and
oxygen- the glucose is used for energy and oxygen is a waste product, it leaves the leaf
through the stomata

Respiration:

 C6H12O6 + O2 > H2O + CO2 + ATP that’s glucose + oxygen > water + carbon dioxide +
energy- carbon dioxide is a waste product and is excreted from the leaf through the
stomata.
Understand that plants respond to stimuli

Keywords:

 Tropism- growth of a plant in response to a directional stimulus

o Positive- growth response is towards the direction of stimulus
o Negative- growth response is away from direction of stimulus
 Phototropism- growth movement of a plant in response to a directional light stimulus
 Geotropism- growth movement of a plant in response to the directional stimulus of
gravity

Stimulus Name of response Response of shoots Response of roots

Light Phototropism Grow towards light source Most species show no response; some
(positive phototropism) grow away from light (negative
phototropism)
Gravity Geotropism Grow away from direction of Grow towards direction of gravity
gravity (negative geotropism) (positive geotropism)
Describe the phototrophic response of roots and stems

Stems Roots

Describe the geotropic responses of roots and stems

Stems Roots
Understand the role of auxin in the phototropic response of stems

Keywords:

 Auxin- plant hormone involved in tropisms and other growth responses

 Coleoptiles- protective sheath that covers the first leaves of a cereal seedling and
protects delicate leaves as the shoot emerges through the soil

Darwin’s Experiment:
Describe the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction in plants

Feature of the process Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

Gametes produced Yes No
(pollen (sperm) ova (egg cell))
Fertilisation takes place Yes No
(pollination)
Genetic variation in yes No
offspring
Has survival value in: Changing environment Stable environment
Sexual Reproduction:

Keywords:

 Anthers-
 Stamens-
 Pollen grains-
 Ovules-
 Ovaries-
 Ova-
 Stigma-
 Pollination-
 Self-pollination-
 Cross-pollination-

Process:

 Gametes are produced in structures in flowers: pollen grains are produced in anthers
of stamens where ova are produced in ovules in ovaries
 In pollination, pollen grains are transferred from the anthers to the stigma; this is self-
pollination
 If the pollen grains are transferred to a different flower; this is cross-pollination which
can occur via wind or insects
 After pollination, fertilisation takes place and the zygote develops into a seed
 The seed then becomes enclosed into a fruit
Understand that plants can reproduce asexually by natural methods (illustrated by runners)
and by artificial methods (illustrated by cuttings)

RUNNER (NATURAL) CUTTINGS (ARTIFICIAL)

Diagram showing Runners (Branches) in a Spider Diagram showing the Process of Cuttings
Plant

 Some Plants Grow Side Branches that
Contain Plantlets which Specialise into
Forming Root Hair Cells when they Touch
the Ground
 These Plantlets will Grow Roots and Plants
will Grow, Allowing Asexual Reproduction
 Tissue Sample is Scraped from Parent Plant
 Tissue Samples are Placed in Agar Growth
Medium Containing Nutrients and Auxins
 Samples Develop into Tiny Plantlets
 Plantlets are Planted into Compost

Describe the structures of an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and explain how
each is adapted for pollination

Feature of Type of Flower

Flower Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated
Position of Enclosed within flower so that insect Exposed so that wind can easily blow
stamens must make contact pollen away
Position of Enclosed within flower so that insect Exposed to catch pollen blowing in
stigma must make contact the wind
Type of stigma Sticky so pollen grains attach from Feathery, to catch pollen blowing in
insects the wind
Size of petals Large to attract insects Small
Colour of petals Brightly coloured to attract insects Not brightly coloured, usually green
Nectaries Present-they produce nectar, a Absent
 sweet liquid containing sugars as a
‘reward’ for insects
Pollen grains Larger, sticky grains or grains with Smaller, smooth, inflated grains to
hooks, to stick to insects’ bodies carry in the wind

Insect-pollinated Flower Wind-pollinated Flower

Understand that the growth of the pollen tube followed by fertilisation leads to seed and
fruit formation

Keywords:

 Pollen tube-
 Style-
 Ridicule-
 Plumule-
 Testa-

Fertilisation:
Seed and fruit formation:

1. The zygote develops into an embryonic plant with small root (radicle) and shoot
(plumule)
2. Other contents of the ovule develop into a food store for the young plant when the seed
germinates
3. The ovule wall becomes the seed coat or testa
4. The ovary wall becomes the fruit coat; this can take many forms depending on the type
of fruit

Understand how germinating seeds utilise food reserves until the seedling can carry out
photosynthesis

Keywords:

 Germentation-
 Cotyledons-
 Dicots-
 Monocots-

Process:

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION

EMBRYO Young Root (Radicle) and Shoot (Plumule) that will

Become the Adult Plant

FOOD For Aerobic Respiration to Release Energy for Growth

STORE of Seed, E.g, Growth of Roots

SEED COAT Optimum Temperature for Enzymes to Increase

Growth Rate and Enzyme Activity
 UTILISATION OF FOOD RESERVES IN SEEDS

Diagram showing Reactions that Take Place in the Cotyledon (Food Store)

EXPLANATION:
 Cotyledon contains Starch which is Used as a Food Store in Seeds
 Amylase will Break Down Starch Into Glucose
 Glucose will be Used in Aerobic Respiration to Release Energy for Growth
 This will Continue until the Seed Germinates and can Photosynthesize Independently

Investigate the conditions needed for seed germination

Conditions needed for seed germination:

FEATURE EXPLANATION

WATER Allows the Seed to Swell with Water and Activates Enzymes to break down the
Food Reserves in Seeds (Starch)

OXYGEN For Aerobic Respiration to Release Energy for Growth of Seed, E.g, Growth of
Roots

WARMTH Optimum Temperature for Enzymes to Increase Growth Rate and Enzyme Activity
INVESTIGATING CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR SEED GERMINATION

Diagram Showing the Different Test Tubes Set Up

METHOD:

1. Set Up 4 Boiling Tubes Each Containing 10 Cress Seeds on Cotton Wool

2. Set Each Test Tube as Shown in Diagram Above
3. Leave Tubes in Set Environment for a Period of Time, A, B and C is Placed in an Incubator
at 20°C, and D is Placed in a Fridge at 4°C
4. Compare Results and See which Seed has Germinated (Grown) the Most

RESULT:
TEST TUBE FACTOR BEING TESTED SEEDS GERMINATED

A Water / Moisture No

B Control (All Factors Present) Yes

C Oxygen No

D Temperature No
UNIT 4- ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIORNMENT

Understand the terms ecosystem, habitat, population and community

 Ecosystem- community of living organisms together with their non-living environment

 Habitat- the place where the organism lives
 Community- all organisms of all species found in a particular area at a certain time

Investigate the population size of an organism in two different areas using quadrats

Quadrats- square sample areas, often marked by a quadrat frame

Used for:

 Studying populations, used to calculate total population of spaces

 Count individuals in quadrats
 Can be used to calculate the percentage cover of a species

Use quadrat data to:

 Compare DIFFERENT species in ONE area

 Compare the SAME species in TWO different areas

QUADRATS MUST BE:

 Random to reduce bias

 Samples have to be
representative, so we
have to take a large
enough sample; at least
5% of habitat

Understand how biotic and abiotic factors affect the population size and distribution of
organisms

Biotic factors- biological factor affecting an ecosystem

  Availability of food and competition for food resources
 Predetation
 Parasitism
 Disease
 Presence of pollinating insects
 Availability of nest sites

Abiotic factors- physical or chemical factor affecting an ecosystem which isn’t biological

 Climate
o Light intensity, temperature, water availability ...
 Hours of daylight
 Soil conditions
o Clay content, nitrate level, particle size, water content, pH ...
 Other factors: salinity, oxygen concentration
 Pollution
 Depth of water
 Flow rate
 Concentration of minerals in water
 pH
 cloudiness of water

Understand the names given to different trophic levels: producers, primary consumers,
secondary consumers...

Key words:

 Trophic levels- defines organism’s food relationship with other organisms

 Producers- they are autotrophs (make their own food) which herbivores feed on
 Primary consumers- they are herbivores, feed on producers
 Secondary consumers- are carnivores or omnivores, feed on primary consumers
 Tertiary consumers- are carnivores or omnivores, feed on secondary consumers
 Apex predator- are at the top of the food chain, their decomposed matter is fed on
decomposers
 Decomposers- they feed on dead organic matter such as bacteria, fungi, etc...

Understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of
biomass and pyramids of energy transfer
 FOOD CHAIN:

 Food chain- flow diagram showing the feeding

relationships in an ecosystem
 The arrow in the food chain depicts energy flow
 Are convenient on showing feeding relationships in
an ecosystem of fewer organisms, but oversimplify
the situation

FOOD WEB:

 Food web- diagram showing how food chains are

linked into more complex feeding relationships
 Shows more complex interactions between species
 Have more than one producer supporting a
community
 Single producer supports number of primary
consumers
 Consumer can be an omnivore

PYRAMIDS OF NUMBER:

 Represent the numbers of organisms in each

trophic level in a food chain, irrespective of their
mass
 Length of each bar represents number of organisms
in each trophic level in specified area
 Compares number of organisms in each trophic
level
 PYRAMIDS OF BIOMASS:

 Shows the total mass of the organisms in each

trophic level, irrespective of their numbers
 Length of each bar represents amount of organic
matter (biomass)
 Compares mass of biological material at each
trophic level
 Always pyramid shaped because of 10% rule

PYRAMIDS OF ENERGY:

 Graphical representation of trophic levels by which

solar energy is transported in an ecosystem
 Shows total energy flow in ecosystem
 NEVER inverted due to 10% rule
 Compares amount of energy passing through each
trophic level over period of time

Understand the transfer of substances and energy along a food chain

  Photosynthesis ‘fixes’ sunlight energy into
chemicals such as glucose and starch
 Respiration releases energy from organic
compounds such as glucose
 Almost other biological processes use the
energy released in respiration
 If the energy released in respiration is used
to produce new cells, then the energy
remains ‘fixed’ in molecules in that
organism, which can be passed to next
trophic level
 If energy released in respiration is used for
other processes, then it will escape as heat
from the organism, which is loss from food
chains and webs at each trophic level

Understand why only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next

 Energy conservation laws = energy is conserved, can’t be created nor destroyed

o Meaning that energy can pass from one trophic level to next
 Respiration releases energy which is used by organisms and radiates as heat which is
lost to space (loss of energy)
o Energy lost by respiration
 Organic material may not be consumed
 Not all parts of consumed matter digested or absorbed by consumer
 Energy lost in faeces and passes to decomposers

Describe the stages in the carbon cycle including respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition
and combustion
Describe how glasshouses and polyethene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain
crops

Key words:

 Glasshouses- glass building for growing plants in protected and controlled environment
 Polyethene tunnels- elongated polyethene covered frame allowing plants to grow in
enclosed environment outdoors

Both used to artificially mimic the optimum conditions for the plant of choice

How?

 Transparent walls- allows natural light for photosynthesis during summer months while
additional lighting gives a ‘longer day’ during winter
 Greenhouse effect- infrared radiation is absorbed and re-radiated as longer wavelength
IR radiation which can’t escape through the glass, causing glasshouse to heat up; this
can decrease convection currents that cause cooling
 Can be heated- to raise temperature if outdoor temperature is too low
 Some heaters in glasshouses use fossils- produces carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
and water vapour to maintain a moist atmosphere, reducing water loss via transpiration
 Hydroponic culture- provides exactly the right balance of mineral ions for the particular
crop
o Minerals are taken up by plants to make proteins and other compounds for
growth
Understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature
in glasshouses

Increased Carbon dioxide, light, and heat:

 May limit rate of photosynthesis and production of organic substances needed for
growth

Carbon dioxide:

 Is a reactant in photosynthesis
 More carbon dioxide, increases the rate of photosynthesis; enabling the increased
production of glucose in plants, increasing plant yield

Heat/Temperature:

 Reactions happen faster (i.e. photosynthesis), causing a higher yield of plants

 If the temperature is too high, enzymes involved in reactions denature

Understand how the use of fertiliser can increase crop yield

Keywords:

 Organic fertilisers- (i.e. farmyard manure) made of faeces of farm animals mixed with
straw
 Inorganic fertilisers- are inorganic compounds such as potassium nitrate or ammonium
nitrate

Organic:

 Returns some nitrogen into the soil but can only replace a portion of the lost nitrogen
o Because is made of livestock faeces and indigestible fodder
 Can improve soil structure because they contain decaying matter which is essential to
soils

Inorganic:

 Can replace the nitrates and other mineral ions lost because it contains inorganic
compounds
 Can lead to pollution problems and doesn’t improve soil structure
Legume Crop:

 Have nitrogen fixing bacteria in nodules on their roots which convert nitrogen gas from
air to soil into ammonium ions where some of it is passed to the plants
 At the end of the season, the crop is ploughed back into soil and decomposers convert
nitrogen in proteins to ammonia which is oxidised to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria

Understand reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using
pesticides and biological control with crop plants

Keywords:

 Pests- any type of animals, plants, bacteria, fungi, protoctists and viruses
 Pesticides- chemical used to kill pests
 Biological control- use of another organism to control the numbers of a pest species

Reasons for pest control:

Pests:

 Lowers amount of crop yields – reduces growth (i.e. damaging leaves: reducing
photosynthesis)
 Affects appearance or quality of crop – makes it unsuitable for sale

Problems with pesticides:

 Pest may develop resistance to the chemical- natural selection

 They may be slow to decompose- persistent in the environment
 Build up in tissues of organisms - bioaccumulation
 Build up and become more concentrated along food chains- biomagnification
 May kill harmless insects- may be helpful species (i.e. bees)

Ideal pesticide:

 Controls pest effectively

 Be biodegradable- no toxic products are left in soil or on crops
 Be specific- a specific pest is killed
 Not accumulate in organisms
 Be safe to transport, store and apply
 Easy to apply

Examples of biological control:

  Introducing natural predator- lady birds to control aphid population in orange groves
 Introducing herbivore- to control populations of weed
 Introducing parasite- wasp used to control whitefly populations in tomato crops
 Introducing pathogenic (disease causing) organism- to decrease population of pests
 Introducing sterile males- mate with females but no offspring are produced, controlling
population
 Pheromones (chemicals produced to attract mate)- used to attract pests to traps which
destroy pests reducing reproductive potential population

Disadvantages:

 Never fully kills/ gets rid of pest – if organism kills all pests, the induced organism will
die out too

Advantages:

 Doesn’t cause damage to the environment

Understand that water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and CFCs are
greenhouse gasses

Understand how human activities contribute to greenhouse gasses

Understand how an increase in greenhouse gasses results in an enhanced greenhouse effect

and that this may lead to global warming and its consequences

Understand biological consequences of pollution of air by sulphur dioxide and carbon

monoxide

Understand the biological consequences of pollution of water by sewage

Keywords:

 Sewage- wet waste from houses, factories and farms (i.e. human waste, waste water,
chemicals ...)

Two major problems:

If sewage is discharged, untreated into waterways, produces two major problems:

 Aerobic bacteria in water polluted by sewage use up dissolved oxygen in water as they
breakdown organic materials
 o Reduction of oxygen kills larger animals (i.e. fish)
 Untreated sewage contains pathogenic bacteria which are dangerous to human health

Understand the biological consequences of eutrophication caused by leached minerals from

fertiliser

Keywords:

 Eutrophication- process where an aquatic habitat receives large amounts of minerals,

either naturally or as a result of pollution by sewage or fertilisers
 Leaching- process where mineral ions (from sewage or fertiliser)are washed out of the
soil by rain
 Algal bloom- rapid increase in numbers of algal cells in an aquatic habitat (caused by
eutrophication)

Process:

UNIT 5- VARIATION AND SELECTION

Understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
Nucleus- part of a cell containing genetic material;
contains chromosomes

Chromosomes- thread like structure found in

nucleus, made of DNA containing genes which is
Understand that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic material that can be inherited

Keyword:

 Mutation- change in the structure of a gene or chromosome

How does this affect protein synthesis?

 When DNA replicates, mistakes are made causing wrong nucleotides to be used in
synthesising proteins
 This will lead to coding the wrong amino acid, coding for a wrong protein

Different ways mutations can occur?

 Duplication- nucleotide is inserted twice instead of once (i.e. double thymine...) causing
alteration of the entire base sequence
 Deletion- nucleotide is missed out, causing alteration of base sequence
 Substitution- different nucleotide is used
 Inversions- sequence of the bases in a triplet is reversed

Causes of mutation:

 Mutagens- factors that increase rate of mutation

 Ionising radiation
 Chemicals including nitrous oxide, and from cigarettes

Know that in human cells, the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number
is 23

Keywords:
  haploid cell- contains one set of chromosomes (23) (chromosomes not in homologous
pairs)
o two gametes (both haploid cells) fuse to create a zygote (diploid cell)
 diploid cell- contains two sets of chromosomes (46) (chromosomes are in homologous
pairs)

Understand that the genome is the entire DNA of an organism

Keyword:

 genome- the entire DNA of an organism (amount present in a diploid cell)

Understand how genes exist in alternative forms called alleles, which give rise to different
inherited characteristics

Allele- different forms of gene

 Some genes have more than one form

 i.e. = genes of earlobe attachment
comes in two forms: attached and free
earlobe

Understand how division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells that contain identical
sets of chromosomes

Prophase

The chromosomes start to condense, and

become more visible and the nuclear membrane
breaks down

Metaphase

Structure called the spindle form which attach

 **both daughter cells have a copy of each chromosome from the parent cell**

When does mitosis occur?

 Growth
 Repair
 Cloning
 Asexual reproduction

Understand how division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number
of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation of genetically different haploid
gametes
During meiosis:

 Must copy each chromosome so that there is enough genetic material to be shared
between the four daughter cells
 Must divide twice in such a way that each daughter cell receives just one chromosome
from each homologous pair

Two main events in meiosis:

 During the first division, one chromosome from each homologous pair goes into each
daughter cell
 During second division, chromosomes separate into two parts, one part goes into each
daughter cell

Note: gametes formed by meiosis are genetically vitiated (different) from each other

Understand how random fertilisation produces genetic variation of offspring

  When Two Sex Cells Combine to Form a New Diploid Cell (Zygote) at Fertilisation, this
Results in Genetic Variation of the Offspring
 This is because the Variation of the Sex Cells (Gametes) are Increased in Variation
themselves as a Result of Meiosis
 Variation is Further Increased as the Fusing of the Egg and Sperm is Random, Causing
Every Human Being to be Genetically Different from Each Other (Except for Twins who
are Formed from the Same Zygote)

Understand that variation within a species can be genetic, environmental or a combination of

both

Some Environmental factors

that influence plant height:

 May not receive the

same amount of light; so
some won’t
photosynthesise as well
as others
 May not all receive same
amount of water and
mineral ions from soil –
could affect manufacture
of a range of substances
in the plant
 They may not receive
same amount of carbon
dioxide, affecting
photosynthesis
Understand the meaning of the terms dominant, recessive, homozygous heterozygous,
phenotype and genotype

 Dominant- allele of a gene that is expressed in the heterozygote

 Recessive- allele that isn’t expressed in the phenotype when a dominant allele of the
gene is present (i.e. un heterozygote)
 Homozygous- genotype with the same alleles of a gene (AA or aa)
 Heterozygous- genotype with different alleles of a gene (Aa)
 Phenotype- how a gene is expressed. The ‘appearance’ of an organism resulting from its
genotype
 Genotype- alleles an organism has for a certain characteristic
Describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance and predict probabilities of outcomes using
genetic diagrams

Understand how to interpret family pedigrees

Understand how the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female
and XY in a male

 Males contain both XY chromosomes (23rd pair) in

which during the production of sperm in meiosis, the
gametes produced will either carry X or Y
 Females contain XX chromosomes in which during
the production of egg cells in meiosis, the gametes
produced will all carry the X chromosome

Males: XY Females: XX
Understand that most phenotypic features are the result of polygenic inheritance rather than
single genes

Keyword:

 Polygenic inheritance- characteristics controlled by two or more genes working

together

Examples:

 Skin colour
 Hair colour
 Eye colour

Darker colours contain multiples of genes which enable the production of more melanin where
each gene has alleles that promote melanin production and alleles which don’t, producing wide
range of phenotypes

Explain Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection

Keywords:

 Evolution- change in form of organisms over the course of time. Process by which
species develop from earlier forms during the history of earth
 Natural selection- process where certain individuals in a population survive because
they are better adapted to their environment, they are more likely to pass on their
genes to their offspring. Is the mechanism of evolution

Darwin’s observations:

 Organisms produce more offspring than needed to replace them

 Despite over-reproduction, stable, established populations of organisms generally
remain the same size
 Members of the same species aren’t identical

Darwin’s deductions:

 Not all individuals survive- many offspring are produced and the population stays the
same due to competition for resources
 There is variation in species: ‘survival of the fittest’ - organisms best suited for the
environment survive and vice versa
Natural selection:

 There is variation within the species

 Changing conditions in the environment (selection pressure) favours one particular form
of species which have selective advantage
 Frequency of the favoured form increases under these conditions (survival of the fittest)
where as the frequency of the less adapted decreases

Understand how resistance to antibiotics can increase in bacterial populations

1. Resistance to antibiotics start when random mutation develops, giving bacterium

resistance to a particular antibiotic
2. The resistant bacteria has advantage over non-resistant bacteria of the same type
3. The resistant bacteria survive and multiply in greater numbers than the non-resistant
bacteria

Note: Bacterial resistance of antibiotics are often caused by the overuse of antibiotics
Understand how selective breeding can be used to produce plants with desired
characteristics

Keyword:

 Selective breeding- process where humans cross-breed individual animals or plants that
have been chosen because they show certain characteristics.
o Used to produce domestic animals and crop plants.
o Also known as artificial selection.

Process:

1. Types of Plants with Desired Characteristics are Chosen

2. They will Cross Pollinate and Reproduce, Passing on Gene to Offspring
3. Best Offspring Plant with Desired Characteristic is Chosen and Selective Breeding
Process is Repeated for Future Generations

Advantages to plants:

 Give higher yields

 Are resistant to certain diseases (which would reduce yields)
 Are resistant to insect pest damage (which would also reduce yield)
 Are hardier (survive in harsher climates or are productive for longer periods of the year)
 Have better balance of nutrients in the crop (i.e. plants that contain more of the types of
amino acids needed)

Understand how selective breeding can be used to produce animals with desirable
characteristics

Keyword:

 Artificial insemination (AI)- method of selective breeding, where semen is used to make
an animal pregnant without sexual intercourse
o i.e. using semen from bulls to inseminate cows

Advantages to animal:

 produce more meat, milk, eggs and more better quality fur
 produce more offspring
 show increased resistance to diseases and parasites
Artificial insemination (bulls and cows):

 Semen is collected from bulls with desirable features where the semen is diluted, frozen
and stored
 The semen is transferred into the cow’s uterus by using a syringe in which the sperm
from the bull can fertilise the cow’s egg cell

UNIT 6- MICROORANISMS AND GENETIC MODIFICATION

Understand the role of yeast in the production of food, including bread

Key words:

 Fermentation- using respiration of microorganisms to produce useful products

Context:

 When yeast is deprived of oxygen, they respire anaerobically, breaking glucose

incompletely to form ethanol and carbon dioxide

Making alcoholic drinks:

Making Wine:

1. Glucose in grape juices and yeast are stored in air tight containers (vats) which prevent
air from reaching the yeast
a. Decreases oxygen concentrations which causes yeast to anaerobically respire
2. The yeast then breaks the glucose in grape juice forming ethanol and carbon dioxide
3. As the reaction progresses, there will be higher concentrations of ethanol which will
later kill the yeast, stopping fermentation

Making Beer:

1. Is made from barely which contain starch instead of sugars so starch needs to be broken
down first
a. Happens by allowing barely seeds to germinate
b. During germination they produce amylase which breaks down starch into
maltose
2. The maltose gets fermented by the yeast in a large vat producing alcohol

Making Bread:
 1. Wheat and flour are mixed together and yeast is added forming dough
2. Enzymes form the original cereal grains break down starch in into sugars which are
respired from yeast
a. Extra sugar may be added
3. The yeast begins to respire anaerobically making ethanol and more carbon dioxide
4. The dough is then baked in the oven where the gas bubbles expand gives a light, cellular
texture
5. Baking also kills yeast and evaporates the ethanol from fermentation

Understand the role of bacteria (lactobacillus) in the production of yoghurt

Key words:

 Lactic acid bacteria-

Process:

1. Milk is first pasteurised at 85 - 95°C for 15 – 30 minutes kill any natural bacteria that it
contains
2. The pasteurised milk is then homogenised to distribute fat globules
3. The milk is then cooled to 40 -45°C and is inoculated with lactobacillus and
streptococcus
4. These bacteria produce lactic acid as well as digesting milk proteins
5. This is kept into the same temperature until the pH lowers to about 4.4 which is the
optimum condition for the bacteria
6. The milk then coagulates (thickens) since the drop of pH causes proteins in milk to
denature to turn into semi solids
7. The yoghurt is then cooled to 5°C
8. Flavourings, colorant, and fruit may be added before packaging

Understand the use of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable
conditions for the growth of microorganisms in fermenter

Key words:

 Fermenter- is any vessel that is used to grow microorganisms used for fermentation
o i.e. glass jar used to make homemade wine

Context:

 Industrial fermenters are large tanks which enable environmental conditions such as:
 o Temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations, pH and nutrient
supply to be carefully controlled so the microorganisms will yield their product
most efficiently
 When fermentation is completed the products are collected through an outlet pipe
 Before the fermenter is filled with new nutrients and culture, the inside of the tank and
all the pipes must be cleaned and sterilised
o Usually done with hot steam under high pressure
 If the new nutrients aren’t sterile in the fermenter, two problems occur:
o Any microorganisms that manage to get in will compete with the organism in the
culture, reducing yield of the product
o The product would be contaminated with waste products of other
microorganisms
 Methods to prevent contamination such as filtering the air and sterilising
fermenter using steam are ‘aseptic precautions’

Understand the term: ‘Transgenic’

 Means the transfer of genetic material from one species to a different species

Process:
  Selection of DNA is cut out of the DNA of one species and inserted into the DNA of
another
 This is known as recombinant DNA
 The organism that receives the gene from a different species is a transgenic organism
 This transgenic organism has an added capability

Understand how restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes
are used to join DNA pieces

Key words:

 Restriction endonucleases (restriction enzymes)- enzymes that cut DNA molecules at

certain points where different restriction enzymes cut DNA at different places.
o can be used to cut specific genes from a DNA molecule
 Ligases- are enzymes that join the cut ends of DNA molecules

Process:

 Restriction enzymes recognises certain base sequence in DNA which then cuts the DNA
molecule when it encounters it
 Some restriction enzymes make a straight cut producing ‘blunt ends’
 Some restriction enzymes make a staggered cut producing ‘sticky ends’
 Sticky ends join easily by ligase enzymes because its bases are more exposed
Understand how plasmids and viruses can act as vectors, which take up pieces of DNA and
then insert this recombinant DNA into other cells

Key words:

 Vector- structure which can be used to transfer genes in genetic engineering (i.e.
plasmids)
 Bacteriophage- virus that infects the bacteria, used as a vector in genetic engineering

PLASMIDS VIRUSES
 The virus (bacteriophage) contains foreign DNA
 The virus then penetrates the bacteria and the DNA
containing foreign gene is injected into bacterium
 The foreign gene is then taken up by bacterial DNA

Understand how genetically modified plants can be used to improve food production

Provides:

 Increased resistance to a range of pests and pathogens

 Increased heat and drought tolerance
 Increased salt tolerance
 Better balance of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, and minerals
Understand how large amounts of human insulin can be manufactured from genetically
modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenter