Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Ø BJT structure and I-V characteristics

Ø Physical operation of power BJTs
Ø Switching characteristics
Ø Breakdown voltage
Ø Second breakdown
Ø On-state voltage
Ø Safe operating areas

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 Basic Geometry of Power BJTs
emitter
base
opening
metallization
emitter
metallization

SiO 2

N+ N+ N+ N+
P

-
N

N+

collector

• Multiple narrow emitters - minimize emitter current crowding.

• Multiple parallel base conductors - minimize parasitic resistance in series with the base.

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 BJT Construction Parameters

base emitter
collector
+ 19 -3
10 µ N 10 cm
base NPN
BJT
16 -3
5 −20 P 10 cm
µ emitter

50−200 µ 14
(collector drift N
- 10 cm
-3
collector
region)
250 µ 19
N+ 10 cm
-3
base
PNP
BJT

collector
emitter

Features to Note
• Wide base width - low (<10) beta.
• Lightly doped collector drift region - large breakdown voltage.

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 Darlington-connected BJTs

C B E
i
E,D
I
C
N+ +
N
i
B,D i
I B,M
P
B
B D

N- SiO2
M
D1
Ι + i i
C
β= βDβM+ βD+ βM
= N C,D C,M
ΙB

• Composite device has respectable beta.

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 Power BJT I-V Characteristic
quasi-saturation
hard
saturation -1 / R
d second breakdown Features to Note
• 2nd breakdown - must be
i I B5> I etc
B4 avoided.
C
I
B5

• Quasi-saturation - unique to
I
B4 power BJTs
active region primary
I B3 breakdown
• BVCBO > BVCEO - extended
I
blocking voltage range.
B2

I
B1
I <0
B
I =0
B

BV
CEO v
BV BV
CEO(sus) CBO

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 BJT Internal Current Components

E-B depletion
B C-B depletion
layer
I layer
B • Ine and Ipe flow via diffusion. Inc
I pE
and Ipc flow via drift.
+ I + I
I pC C C
E N-
E + P
N
• Ine >> Ipe because of heavy emitter
- I - I nC
nE doping.

W
base • Ine ≈ Inc because Lnb = {Dnb τnb}1/2
<< Wbase and collector area much
p,n p,n larger than emitter area.
Carrier distributions in
normal active region electrons
p • Ipc << other current components
no
holes because very few holes in b-c space
charge region.
npo
p holes
no

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 Power BJT Current Gain β

Ø IC ≈ Inc since Ipc very small : IB = - IC - IB = - Inc+ Ine + Ipe

Ø IB/ IC = 1/β = (Ine - Inc)/Inc + Ipe/Inc

Ø (Ine - Inc)/Inc represents fraction of electrons injected into base that recombine in the

base. Minimize by having large values of τnb (for long diffusion lengths) and short base

widths Wbase

Ø Ipe proportional to pno = (ni)2/Nde ; Minimize via large Nde

Ø Short base width conflicts with need for larger base width needed in HV BJTs to

accomodate CB depletion region.

Ø Long base lifetime conflicts with need for short lifetime for faster switching speeds.

Ø Trade-offs in these factors limit betas in power BJTs to range of 5 to 20

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 Beta versus Collect Current

log ( h )
FE
β
max
-1
Proportional to I
C

log ( I )
C
I I
C,max C,max
10

• Beta decrease at large collector current due to high level injection effects
(conductivity modulation where δn = δp) in base.
• When δn = δp, base current must increase faster than collector current to provide
extra holes. This constitutes a reduction in beta.
• High level injection conditions aided by emitter current crowding.

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 Emitter Current Crowding
lateral
voltage drop
B B
E

+
N

current crowding
current crowding
C

• IB proportional to exp{qVBE/(kT)}
• Later voltage drops make VBE larger at edge of emitters.
• Base/emitter current and thus carrier densities larger at edge of emitters. So-called emitter
current crowding.
• This emitter current crowding leads to high level injection at relatively modest values of
current.
• Reduce effect of current crowding by breaking emitters into many narrow regions connected
electrically in parallel.

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 Quasi-saturation in Power BJTs
B
E
N + P N - N +
Power BJT
+ V -
BC

stored charge
Active region
VBC < 0

Quasi-saturation
stored charge
VBC > 0 but drift region not
completely filled with excess
carriers. virtual base

Q
2
Q 1

Hard saturation
VBC > 0 and drift region
filled with excess carriers.

virtual base

• Beta decreases in quasi-saturation because effective base width (virtual base) width has increased.

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 Generic BJT Application - Clamped Inductive Load
V dc

D Model of an
F I o inductively-loaded
switching circuit
R
B
+ Q
v
i
-

• Current source Io models an inductive load with an L/R time constant >> than switching period.

• Positive base current turns BJT on (hard saturation). So-called forward bias operation.

• Negative base current/base-emitter voltage turns BJT off. So-called reverse bais operation.

• Free wheeling diode DF prevents large inductive overvoltage from developing across BJT
collector-emitter terminals.

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 Power BJT Turn-on Waveforms

I
B,on
i (t) t
B

t d,on

V
BE,on

v (t) t
BE
V
BE,off
t ri

I o

i (t)
C
t fv1

t
fv2
V dc V
CE,sat

v (t)
CE

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 Excess Carrier Growth During BJT Turn-on

carrier
density time
versus
position

time

x
+
N P N- N+
emitter base collector collector
drift region contact

• Growth of excess carrier distributions begins after td(on) when B-E junction becomes forward biased.
• Entrance into quasi-saturation discernable from voltage or current waveform at start of time tvf2.
• Collector current “tailing” due to reduced beta in quasi-saturation as BJT turns off.
• Hard saturation entered as excess carrier distribution has swept across dirft region.

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 Turn-off Waveforms with Controlled Base Current
I B,off
I
B,on di /dt
B
i (t)
B t

V
BE,on

V BE,off

t s
t fi

I
o

i (t)
C

t rv
1
V CE,sat
V
dc

v (t)
CE t rv
2

• Base current must make a controlled transition (controlled value of -diB/dt) from
positive to negative values in order to minimize turn-off times and switching losses.

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 Controlled Turn-off Excess Carrier Removal
Q2
time

Q1 Q3

time

+ +
N P N- N
emitter base collector collector
drift region contact

• ts = storage time = time required to remove excess charge Q3.

• trv1 = time to remove charge Q2 holding transistor in quasi-saturation.
• trv2 = time required for VCE to complete its growth to Vdc with BJT in active region.
• tfi = time required to remove remaining stored charge Q1 in base and each edge of cut-off.

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 Turn-off Waveforms with Uncontrolled Base Current
I I B,off
B,on

i (t) t
B

V BE,on
t s

v (t)
BE V
BE,off

t fi1 collector current

"tailing"
t fi2
I o

i (t)
C
t rv1

V CE,sat
V
dc

v (t)
CE
t
rv2

• Excessive switching losses with collector current tailing.

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 Uncontrolled Turn-off Excess Carrier Removal
time
carrier time
density
versus
position

time
time

x
+ +
N P N - N
emitter base collector collector
drift region contact

• Uncontrolled base current removes stored charge in base faster than in collector drift region.
• Base-emitter junction reverse biased before collector-base junction.
• Stored charge remaining in drift region now can be only removed by the negative base current
rather than the much larger collector current which was flowing before the B-E junction was
reverse biased.
• Takes longer time to finish removal of drift region stored charge thus leading to collector current
“tailing” and excessive switching losses.

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 Darlington Switching Behavior
V
dc

D
F

R
B
+ Q
D
v
i Q
- M
D
1

• Turn-on waveforms for Darlington very similar to single BJT circuit.

• Turn-on times somewhat shorter in Darlington circuit because of large base drive for main BJT.
• Turn-off waveforms significantly different for Darlington.
• Diode D1 essential for fast turn-off of Darlington. With it, QM would be isolated without any
negative base current once QD was off.
• Open base turn-off of a BJT relies on internal recombination to remove excess carriers and takes
much longe than if carriers are removed by carrier sweepout via a large collector current.

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 Darlington Turn-off Waveforms
I I B,off
B,on di /dtB
i (t)
B t

i (t)
B,D
t

be

i (t)
B,M I B,off

i (t) t
C,D

I o

i C,M
(t) t
V
BE,on

v BE
(t) t
V BE,off
Q & Q on Q off
D M D

V
CE,sat
V dc

v (t) t
CE

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 Power BJT Breakdown Voltage

• Blocking voltage capability of BJT limited by breakdown of CB junction.

• BVCBO = CB junction breakdown with emitter open.
• BVCEO = CB junction breakdown with base open.
• BVCEO = BVCBO/(β)1/n ; n = 4 for npn BJTs and n = 6 for PNP BJTs

• BE junction forward biased even when base current = 0 by reverse current from CB junction.
• Excess carriers injected into base from emitter and increase saturation current of CB junction.
• Extra carriers at CB junction increase likelyhood of impact ionization at lower voltages , thus
decreasing breakdown voltage.

• Wide base width to lower beta and increase BVCEO .

• Typical base widths in high voltage (1000V) BJTs = 5 to 10 and BVCEO = 0.5 BVCBO .

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 Avoidance of Reach-thru

B - V CB +

+ + C
+
E N+ P N- N+
+ +
+

Reach-thru of CB depletion across base to emitter

• Large electric field of depletion region will accelerate electrons from emitter across base and
into collector. Resulting large current flow will create excessive power dissipation.

• Avoidance of reach-thru
• Wide base width so depletion layer width less than base width at CB junction breakdown.
• Heavier doping in base than in collector so that most of CB depletion layer is in drift region
and not in the base.

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 Second Breakdown

• Precipitious drop in C-E voltage and perhaps

rise in collector current.

i (t)
C
t • Simultaneous rise in highly localized regions of
power dissipation and increases in temperature
of same regions.
1. Direct observations via infrared cameras.
v (t)
CE
2. Evidence of crystalline cracking and even
t localized melting.
few microseconds
or less
• Permanent damage to BJT or even device
failure if 2nd breakdown not terminated within
• 2nd breakdown during BJT turn-off in a few µsec.
step-down converter circuit.

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 2nd Breakdown and Current Density Nonuniformities
• Minority carrier devices prone to thermal runaway.
• Minority carrier density proportional to ni(T) which increases exponentially with temperature.
• If constant voltage maintained across a minority carrier device, power dissipation causes
increases in temp. which in turn increases current because of carrier increases and thus better
conduction characteristic.
• Increase in current at constant voltage increases power dissipation which further increases
temperature.
• Positive feedback situation and potentially unstable. If temp. continues to increase, situation
termed thermal runaway.

• Current densities nonuniformities in devices an accenuate

I problems.
• Assume JA > JB and TA > TB
+ J J
V
A B • As time proceeds, differences in J and T between regions A
- and B become greater.
• If temp. on region A gets large enough so that ni > majority
J > J carrier doping density, thermal runaway will occur and
A B
device will be in 2nd breakdown.
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Current Crowding Enhancement of 2nd Breakdown Susceptibility
B lateral voltage
drop E

+
N

P • Emitter current crowding

during either turn-on or turn-off
accenuates propensity of BJTs
N
to 2nd breakdown.
current crowding current crowding
C

lateral voltage drop

• Minimize by dividing emitter
E B into many narrow areas
connected electrically in
+ parallel.
N

current
C crowding

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 Velocity Saturation and Second Breakdown
Electron drift velocity

6
8x10
cm/sec B

E + N- +
C
N P Jc N
Electric field
Ε = 15 kV/cm
sat

B Ε
Ε max
E + N- +
C
N P Jc N

x
• Large current density in drift region - BJT active.
Ε
1
• Jc > qµnNd Esat . Extra electrons needed to carry
extra current.
x
• Negative space density gives rise to nonuniform
• Moderate current in drift region - electric field.
BJT active
• Emax may exceed impact ionization threshold
• Electric field E1 = Jc/(qµnNd) < Esat while total voltage < BVCEO.

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 Contributions to BJT On-State Losses
E

+
N Rc
- V
BE,sat - V BC,sat
V
BE,sat
P
+ +
- V BC,sat
I -
C V
d
-
N + I
C
N+
Re

• VBE,sat - VBC,sat typically 0.1-0.2 V at

C moderate values of collector current.
• Pon = IC VCE,sat
• Rise in VBE,sat - VBC,sat at larger currents
due to emitter current crowding and
• VCE,sat = VBE,sat - VBC,sat + Vd + IC(Rc + Re)
conductivity modulation in base.

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 BJT Safe Operating Areas
Forward bias safe operating area Reverse bias safe operating area
log( i C) switching trajectory of diode-
clamped inductive load circuit
I
CM
i
C
I
10
-5
sec CM

RBSOA
T j,max
-4
10 sec

V
BE,off< 0
2nd -3 V =0
2nd 10 sec BE,off
breakdown
breakdown

dc BV v
BV CBO CE

BV log ( v )
CEO CE

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 Thank You

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o anoopmathew@ieee.org

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