Structural

My Notes
Engineers Design of Steel Structures

CE 511
Design of Steel Structures

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILOs)

At the end of the course, the students are expected to:

1. Distinguish the various structural steel components such as beams, slabs and columns.
2. Analyze structural steel design problems and its application in the field.
3. Design steel beam, floor systems and column structural components.
4. Design and analyze a steel building, truss and bridge system.
5. Generate a structural plan and design of a steel structure and a case study in providing
solutions to problems which pertains to structural engineering such as earthquake damages.

Course Syllabus
I. Concepts in Structural Steel Design 7. Deflection
A. Structural Steel Shapes and Properties 8. Design Samples for Beam
1. Properties H. Beam-Column Design
2. Steel Shapes 1. Interaction Formula
B. Design Philosophies 2. Method of Analysis
C. Codes and Specifications 3. Moment Magnification Method
D. Loads 4. Braced and Unbraced Frame
1. LRFD 5. Design Samples for Beam-Column
a. Load Factors I. Connections
b. Resistance Factors 1. Bolted Connection
c. Load Combinations 2. Welded Connection
2. ASD J. Special Topic: Plate Girders
a. Safety Factors
b. Load Combinations References:
E. Design for Tension Members Association of Structural Engineers of the
1. Slenderness Limitations Philippines, “National Structural Code of the
th
2. Tensile Strength Philippines C101-01, Vol. 1, 7 Ed,” Association
3. Steel Area of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.,
2015
a. Gross Area
b. Net Area AISC Commission on Specifications, “Specification
c. Effective Net Area for Structural Steel Building,” American Institute
4. Design Samples Tension Members of Steel Construction, 2005
F. Design of Compression Members Salmon, C. G., J. E. Johnson, “Steel Structures,
th
1. Ideal Columns Design and Behaviour, 4 Ed”, Harper Collins
2. Effective Lengths College Publisher,1996
3. Code Requirements Blodgett, W. O., Funderbark, R. S., Miller, D.K., M.
4. Local Stability Quintana, “Fabricators’ and Erectors’ Guide to
5. Design Samples for Compression Welded Steel Construction”, The James F.
Members Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1999
G. Flexural Members (Beams) th
Segui, William T., “Steel Design 5 Ed.”, Cengage
1. Bending Stress and Plastic
Moment Limbrunner, G. F., L. Spiegel, “Applied Structural
rd
2. Stability Steel Design 3 Ed.”, Prentice Hall
3. Classification of Shapes Tamboli, A. R., “Handbook of Structural Steel Design
4. Compact and Non-compact nd
and Details 2 Ed.”, Neww York, McGraw Hill
Shapes
5. Summary of Moment Strength
6. Shear Strength

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CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
Introduction

The structural design of buildings, whether of structural steel or reinforced concrete, requires the
determination of the overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework and the
selection of the cross-sections of individual members. The engineer and architect will collaborate
throughout the design process to complete the project in an efficient manner. The architect
decides how the building should look; the engineer must make sure that it doesn’t fall down. The
first priority of the structural engineer is safety; which follows the serviceability and economy. An
economical structure requires an efficient use of materials and construction labor.

A good design requires the evaluation of several framing plans which consists of different
arrangements of members and their connections.

Structural Design may be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the experienced
engineer’s intuitive feeling for the behavior of structure with a sound knowledge of the principles
of statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe,
economical structure that will serve its intended purpose.

Design is a process by which an optimum solution is obtained.

Purpose of Structural Analysis

Structural analysis is the process of determining the internal forces and deformations of structural
elements in a structure due to specified loads so that each member can be designed rationally or
the state of safety of existing structures can be checked. It is the foundation of structural
engineering works that the strength of whole structure depends. Without proper structural
analysis, the structure might experience deformations even in the small degree of loads or
uneconomical due to over sizing of members.

In the design of structures, it is necessary to start with a concept leading to a configuration which
can be analyzed. This is done so members can be sized and the needed reinforcement
determined, in order to: (a) carry the design loads without excessive deformations (serviceability
or working condition); and (b) prevent collapse before a specified overload has been placed on
the structure (safety or ultimate condition).

Stages of Structural Engineering

Most of structural engineering projects are consists of repetitive stages namely modeling,
analysis/design, and interpretation of the result of analysis and design.
Modeling involves the creation of a structural model that exhibits the characteristics of actual
structure. As much as possible, the model shall consists of all structural components of the actual
structure, from frame element (beam and column) to plate and shell (wall, floor and folded plates),
diaphragms and all rigid links shall be provided if necessary and all none-structural elements shall
be regarded as loads.
It is proper for the structure to assume the actual condition of support. The support might be
pinned, roller, fixed or other conditions necessary to simulate the actual behavior of the structure.
Due to improper application of support conditions, structure are experiencing deformations that
leads usually to unprecedented damage if not total collapse.

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Sectional properties (Ax, Ix, Iy and Iz) and material constants (E, density, Poisson’s Ratio, etc)
are also important for analysis of the structure. Thus, assumed properties shall be established
prior to the analysis of the structure. This will involve experience on the part of the analyst to
minimize time and effort.
All loads from simple joint, member and element loads to complex such as seismic, wind or
moving loads shall be carefully incorporated to simulate the actual behavior of the structure.
Special treatment shall be emphasized on live loads for pattern and/or checkered loading.
Consider the analysis of a simple beam. Usually, we are encountering a simple problem as such.
In order to visualize the problem, we are usually having simple sketch to represent the actual
condition. The sketch includes the length of the member, loading (whether uniform or
concentrated force) and support condition. The sectional properties of this beam are first
assumed in order to compute for the weight of the structure and also for the analysis to be
performed. Thus, a simple model has been established!
As soon as the model is completed, analysis comes next. The behavior of the structure under
loading condition shall be investigated. Analysis might be linear static or dynamic depending on
code or structural requirement.
Under this analysis, a force or moment envelope will be created for design purposes. The
structural components shall be design for different loading conditions. A designer cannot pick the
maximum value in each loading condition and altogether use it for design. Such situation will not
occur.
After the design is completed, a final analysis shall be made and the actual behavior is observed.
If the behavior does not conform to the existing code requirements such as deflection, some
adjustment shall be made until its behavior becomes acceptable.

Criteria for optimum design:

 Minimum cost,
 Minimum weight,
 Minimum construction time,
 Minimum labor,
 Minimum cost of manufacture of owner’s product, and
 Maximum efficiency of operation of owner

Design Procedure

The design procedure may be considered to be composed of two parts – functional design and
structural framework design.

Functional Design Structural Framework Design

Ensures that the intended results are achieves The selection of the arrangement and sizes of
such as (a) adequate working areas and structural elements so that the service loads
clearances; (b) proper ventilation and/or air may be safely carried, and displacements are
conditioning; (c) adequate transportation within acceptable limits.
facilities, such as elevators, stairways, and
cranes or material handling equipment; (d)
adequate lighting; and (e) aesthetics.

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Outline of Iterative Design Procedure

1. Planning. Establishment of the functions which the structure must serve. Set criteria
against which to measure the resulting design for being an optimum.
2. Preliminary structural configuration. Arrangement of the elements to serve the functions
in step 1.
3. Establishment of the loads to be carried.
4. Preliminary member selection. Based on the decisions of step 1, 2, and 3, selection of
member sizes to satisfy an objective criterion, such as least weight or cost.
5. Analysis. Structural analysis involving modeling the loads and the structural framework to
obtain internal forces and any desired deflections.
6. Evaluation. Are all strength and serviceability requirements satisfied and is the result
optimal? Compared the result with predetermined criteria.
7. Redesign. Repetition of any part of the sequence 1 through 6 found necessary or
desirable as a result of evaluation.
8. Final decision. The determination of whether or not an optimum design has been
achieved.

Loads

The determination of the loads on structure or structural elements will be subjected is an

estimate. Even if the loads are well known at one location of structure, the distribution of load
from element to element throughout the structure usually requires assumptions and
approximations.

 Dead loads – a fixed-position gravity load. The weight of the structure is considered dead
load, are as attachments to the structure.

 Live loads – gravity loads acting during the service of the structure, but varying in
magnitude and location. Examples are human occupants, furniture, movable equipment,
vehicles, and stored goods.

 Wind loads – exerts as a pressure or suction on the exterior surfaces of a building.

Because of the relative complexity of determining wind loads, wind is usually considered
a separate category of loading. Because lateral loads are most detrimental to tall
structures, wind loads are usually not as important for low buildings, but uplift on light roof
systems can be critical.

 Earthquake loads – another special category and need to be considered only in those
geographic locations where there is a reasonable probability of occurrence. A structural
analysis of the effects of an earthquake requires an analysis of the structure’s response
to the ground motion produced by the earthquake. Similar methods are sometimes used
in which the effects of the earthquake are simulated by a system of horizontal loads,
similar to those resulting from wind pressure, acting at each floor level of the building.

Design of Steel Structures

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Engineers Design of Steel Structures

STRUCTURAL STEEL PROPERTIES

Steel Shapes

In the design process outline above, one of the objectives is the selection of the appropriate cross
sections for the individual members of the structure being designed. Most often, this selection will
involve choosing a standard cross-sections shape that is widely available rather than requiring
fabrication of a shape with unique dimensions and properties.

Figure 1.1 – Hot Rolled Shapes

It is almost always economical to choose rolled shape sections. In this manufacturing process
(hot-rolling) molten steel is taken from an electric furnace and poured into a continuous casting
system and allowed to pass through a series of rollers that squeeze the material into a desired
cross-sectional shape. Figure 1.1 shows commonly used cross sections.

The W-shape (also called wide-flange shape) consists of two parallel flanges separated by a
single web. It has two axes of symmetry. A typical designation would be “W18x50”, where W
indicates the type of shape, 18 is the nominal depth parallel to the web, and 50 is the weight in
pounds per foot of length.

S-shape like W-shape has two parallel flanges, a single web and two axes of symmetry. The
flange of the S-shape is narrow compared with W-shape. Its inside face of the flanges slope with
respect to the outside faces. An example of its designation is “S18x70”, with the S indicating the

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type of shape, and the two numbers giving the depth in inches and the weight in pounds per foot.
This shape was formerly called an I-beam.

The angle shapes are available in either equal-leg or unequal-leg. A typical designation would be
“L6x6x¾” being the L indicating the type of shape, the next two numbers are the length of the two
legs measured from the corner, or heel, to the toe at the other end of the leg, and the thickness
which is the same for both legs. For unequal-leg angle, the longer leg dimension is always given
first.

C-shape has two flanges and a web, with one axis of symmetry. It carries a designation such as
“C9x20”. Similar with W- and S- shapes, the first number is the total depth in inches parallels to
the web and the second number the weight in pounds per linear foot. Like the S- shape, the
inside face of the flanges are sloping.

The Structural Tee is produced by splitting an I-shaped members at middepth (sometimes called
Split-tee). The prefix of the designation is either WT, ST, or MT, depending on which shape is the
“parent”. For example, WT18x105 has a nominal depth of 18 inches and a weight of 105 pounds
per foot, and is cut from a W36x210.

The M-shape (miscellaneous shapes) has two parallel flanges and a web, but it does not fit
exactly into either the W or S categories. The HP shape, used for bearing piles, has parallel
flange surfaces, approximately the same width and depth and equal flange and web thicknesses.

Figure 1.2 Other Shapes

Other frequently used cross-sectional shapes are shown in Figure 1.2. Bars can have circular,
square, or rectangular cross sections. If the width of a rectangular shape is 8 inches (200 mm) or
less, it is classified as a bar. If the width is more than 8 inches, the shape is classified as plate.
The usual designation for both is the abbreviation PL followed by the thickness in inches, the
width in inches, and the length in feet and inches; ex. PL 3/8 x 5 x 3’-2 ½ “. Plates and bars are
available in increments of 1/16 inch.

Hollow shapes are produced either by bending plate material into desired shape and welding the
seam or by hot-working to produce a seamless shape. The shapes are categorized as steel pipe,
round HSS, and square HSS (Hollow Structural Sections).

Round HSS are designated by outer diameter and wall thickness, expressed to three decimal
places; ex. HSS 8.625 x 0.250. Square and rectangular HSS are designated by nominal outside
dimensions and wall thickness, expressed in rational numbers; ex. HSS 7 x 5 x 3/8.

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Steel pipe is available as standard, extra-strong, or double-extra-strong, with designation such as
Pipe 5 Std., Pipe 5 x-strong, or Pipe 5 xx-strong, where 5 is the nominal outer diameter in inches.
The different strengths correspond to different wall thickness for the same outer diameter. For
pipes whose pipes whose thicknesses do not match those in the standard, extra-strong, or
double-extra-strong categories, the designation is the outer diameter and wall thickness in inches,
expressed to three decimal places; ex., Pipe 5.563 x 0.500.

Figure 1.3 Built-up Shapes

Sometimes a standard shape is augmented by additional cross-sectional elements, as when a

cover plate is welded to one or both flanges of a W-shape (see Figure 1.3). Building up sections
is an effective way of strengthening an existing structure that is rehabilitated or modified for some
use other than the one for which it was designed. Sometimes a built-up shape must be used
because none of the standard rolled shapes are large enough. These can be I-shaped sections,
with two flanges and a web, or box sections, with two flanges and two webs. The components
can be welded together and can be designed to have exactly the properties needed. Built-up
shapes can also be created by attaching two or more standard rolled shapes to each other, such
as a pair of angles placed back-to-back and connected at intervals along their length. This is
called double-angle shape.

Strength of Various Steel

Property A36 A572 Gr. 50 A992

Yield Point (Fy), min. 36 ksi 50 ksi 50 ksi

(250 MPa) (340 MPa) (340 MPa)

Tensile Strength (Fu), min. 58 to 80 ksi 65 ksi 65 ksi

(400 – 550 MPa) (450 MPa) (450 MPa)

Yield to tensile ratio, max. --- --- 0.85

Elongation in 8 in., min. 20% 18% 18%

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Engineers Design of Steel Structures
Design Philosophies

The design of structural members involves the selection of a cross section that will safely and
economically resist the applied loads.

The fundamental requirement of structural design is that the required strength not exceeds the
available strength.

Required strength ≤ available strength

In allowable strength design (ASD) (NSCP 2015 Section 502.3.4), a member is selected that has
cross-sectional properties such as area and moment of inertia that are large enough to prevent
the maximum applied axial force, shear or bending moment from exceeding an allowable, or
permissible value. This value is obtained by dividing the nominal, or theoretical, strength by a
factor of safety. This can be expressed as

Required strength ≤ allowable strength Eq. 1

where
𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

If stresses are used instead of forces or moments the relationship of Equation 1 becomes

Maximum applied stress ≤ allowable stress Eq. 2

This approach is called allowable stress design or elastic design or working stress design. The
allowable stress will be in elastic range of material. Working stresses are those resulting from the
working or service loads.

Plastic design is based on a consideration of failure conditions rather than working load
conditions. A member is selected by using the criterion that the structure will fail at a load
substantially higher than the working load. The term plastic is used because, at failure, parts of
the member will be subjected to very large strains – large enough to put the member into the
plastic range. When the entire cross section becomes plastic at enough locations, “plastic hinges”
will form at those locations, creating collapse mechanism. As the actual loads will be less than the
failure loads by a factor of safety known as the load factor, member designed this way are safe
despite being designed based on what happens at failure. This procedure is roughly as follows:

1. Multiply the working loads (service loads) by the load factor to obtain the failure load.
2. Determine the cross-sectional properties needed to resist failure under these loads.
3. Select the lightest cross-sectional shape that has these properties.

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) (NSCP 2015 Section 502.3.3) is similar to plastic
design in that strength, or the failure condition, is considered. Load factors are applied to the
service loads, and a member is selected that will have enough strength to resist the factored
loads. In addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of a
resistance factor. The criterion that must be satisfied in the selection of a member is

Factored load ≤ factored strength Eq. 3

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Why LRFD?
By Lynn S. Beedle
th
Modern Steel Construction, AISC, 26, 4(4 Quarter 1986), 30-31

 LRFD is another “tool” for structural engineers to use in steel design. Why not
have the same tools (variable overload factors and resistance factors) available for
steel design as are available for concrete design?
 Adoption of LRFD is not mandatory but provides a flexibility of options to the
designer. The marketplace will dictate whether or not LRFD will become the sole
method.
 ASD is an approximate way to account for what LRFD does in a more rational way.
The use of plastic design concepts in ASD has made ASD such that it no longer may
be called an "elastic design" method.
 The rationality of LRFD has always been attractive, and becomes an incentive
permitting the better and more economical use of material for some load
combinations and structural configurations. It will also likely lead to having safer
structures in view of the arbitrary practice under ASD of combining dead and live
loads and treating them the same.
 Using multiple load factor combinations should lead to economy.
 LRFD will facilitate the input of new information on loads and load variations as
such information becomes available. Considerable knowledge of the resistance of
steel structures is available. On the other hand, our knowledge of loads and their
variation is much less. Separating the loading from the resistance allows one to
be changed without the other if that should be desired.
 Changes in overload factors and resistance factors φ are much easier to make
than to change the allowable stress in ASD.
 LRFD makes design in all materials more compatible. The variability of loads is
actually unrelated to the material used in the design. Future specifications not in
the limit states format for any material will put that material at a disadvantage in
design.
 LRFD provides the framework to handle unusual loads that may not be covered
by the Specification. The design may have uncertainty relating to the resistance of
the structure, in which case the resistance factors may be modified. On the other
hand, the uncertainty may relate to the loads and different overload factors may
be used.
 Future adjustments in the calibration of the method can be made without much
complication. Calibration for LRFD was done for an average situation but might be
adjusted in the future.
 Economy is likely to result for low live load to dead load ratios. For high live load
to dead load ratios there will be slightly greater costs.
 Safer structures may result under LRFD because the method should lead to a
better awareness of structural behavior.
 Design practice is still at the beginning with regard to serviceability limit states;
however, at least LRFD provides the approach.

Design of Steel Structures

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Engineers Design of Steel Structures
Design of Tension Members

Tension Members
 Structural members subjected to axial tensile forces.

 Proportioning of tension members is among the simpler problems that face the structural
engineer but requires great care in the design and detailing of their connections.
 It does not have the inherent stability problems of beams and columns. Thus, do not
generally require bracing.
 The resulting tension member structures are less redundant, and the potential for sudden
failure exists if any inadequacy is present, such as weakness in a connection.

Examples of Tension Members:

 Hangers for catwalks and storage bins,
 Truss web and chord members,
 Cables for direct support of roofs and canopies,
 Sag rods,
 Tie rods and
 Various type of braces

In the determination of the available strength of a tension member the following are needed:

Gross Area Ag – needed for tensile yielding limit state. It is the original, unaltered cross-
sectional area of the member.

Effective Net Area, Ae – needed for tensile rupture limit state. It is the cross-sectional area
available to be stressed in tension (An) multiplied by reduction coefficient U.

Slenderness Limitation

There is no maximum slenderness limit for design of member in tension.

For members designed on the basis of tension, the slenderness ratio

L/r preferably should not exceed 300. This suggestion does not apply
to rods or hangers in tension.

Tension Member Analysis

 The direct stress formula is the basis for tension members analysis (and design).

𝑃
𝑓𝑡 =
𝐴

Or for tensile capacity

𝑃𝑡 = 𝐹𝑡 𝐴

Design of Steel Structures

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Engineers Design of Steel Structures
Where
ft computed tensile stress
P applied axial load
Pt axial tensile load capacity (or maximum allowable axial tensile load)
Ft allowable axial tensile stress
A cross-sectional area of axially loaded tension members

Tensile Strength

Mode of Failure of Tension Members:

Prevention

 Excessive deformation (initiated by Load on GROSS SECTION must be small enough

yielding) that the stress in gross section is less than the
yield strength Fy.

Pn = FyAg

 Fracture The stress on the NET SECTION must be less

than the tensile strength Fu.

Pn = FuAe

The design tensile strength, ΦtPn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn/Ωt tension members, shall
be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of tensile yielding in the gross section and
tensile rupture in the net section.

LRFD ASD
(Load and Resistance Factor Design) (Allowable Strength Design)

Factored Tensile strength is compared to Total service load is compared to the

the design strength allowable strength

For Tension
Members 𝑃𝑢 = ∅𝑡 𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑎 ≤
Ω𝑡
Where:
For yielding ∅𝑡 = 0.9 Ω𝑡 = 1.67
For fracture ∅𝑡 = 0.75 Ω𝑡 = 2.0

Thus:
𝑃𝑢 = 0.9𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑔 𝑃𝑛 = 0.6𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑔
𝑃𝑢 = 0.75𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑒 𝑃𝑛 = 0.5𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑒
th
Sect 510.4.1 NSCP C101-15, 7 Ed.

where
2
Ae = effective net area, mm
2
Ag = gross section area of member, mm
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, MPa
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the type of steel being used, MPa

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When members without holes are fully connected by welds, the effective net area used in
equation 1-2 shall be as defined in section 504.3. When holes are present in a member, with
welded end connections, or at the welded connection in the case of plug or slot welds, the
effective net area through the holes shall be used in equation 1-2

Area Determination

Gross Area, Ag, of a member is the total cross sectional area.

Net Area, An, of a member is the sum of the products of the thickness and the net width of each
element computed as follows:

In computing net area for tension and shear, the width of a bolt hole shall be taken as 1/16 in.
(1.6 mm) greater than the nominal dimension of the hole.

Comment:
The exact amount of area to be deducted from the gross area to
account for presence of bolt holes depends on the fabrication
procedure. The usual practice is to drill or punch standard holes (not
oversized) with a diameter 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) larger than the fastener
diameter. To account for possible roughness around the edges of the
hole, Section B4.3 of the AISC Specification requires the addition of
1/16 inch (1.6 mm) to the actual hole diameter. This amounts to using
an effective hole diameter 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) larger than the fastener
diameter.

For a chain of holes extending across a part in any diagonal or zigzag line, the net width of
the part shall be obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters or slot
dimensions as provided in Section 510.3.2 (Section J3.2 of AISC), of all holes in the chain,
2
and adding, for each gage space in the chain, quantity s /4g

where

s longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of any consecutive holes, mm.

g transverse center-to-center spacing (gage) between fastener gage lines, mm.

For angles, the gage for holes in opposite adjacent legs shall be the sum of gages from the
back of the angles less the thickness.

For slotted HSS welded to a gusset plate, the net area, An, is the gross area minus the
product of the thickness and the total width of material that is removed to form the slot. In
determining the net area across plug or slot welds, the weld metal shall not be considered as
adding to the net area.

Section 510.4.1(b) limits An to a maximum of 0.85Ag for splice plates

with holes.

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Nominal Hole Dimensions, mm (Sect 510.3.2)

Design of Steel Structures