CHE426: Process Instrumentation

Batch: FA16-CHE Section: A

Name: Ahmed Mustafa

Roll No.: FA16-CHE-032

Date Assigned: November 08, 2019

Due Date: November 11, 2019

Instructor: Dr. Fahad Rehman

 ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT

1- Describe the application and limitation of Bernoulli’s theorem and Equation of

Continuity for compressible and incompressible Fluids.

a. Bernoulli’s Theorem:

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the
speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's
potential energy.

Bernoulli's principle is named after the Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli who
published his principle in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Bernoulli's principle can be applied
to various types of fluid flow, resulting in what is loosely denoted as Bernoulli's equation. In
fact, there are different forms of the Bernoulli equation for different types of flow. The simple
form of Bernoulli's principle is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid flows) and also
for compressible flows (e.g. gases) moving at low Mach numbers. More advanced forms may in
some cases be applied to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the
Bernoulli equation). Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of
energy. This states that in a steady flow the sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid
along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of
kinetic energy and potential energy remain constant. If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir the
sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a reservoir the energy per
unit mass (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere.

Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing
horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can only be because
the fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower
pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower
pressure to a region of higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the
highest speed occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the
pressure is highest.
 Applications:

In modern everyday life there are many observations that can be successfully explained by
application of Bernoulli's principle.

i. Bernoulli's Principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an airfoil if you know
the behavior of the fluid flow in the vicinity of the foil. For example, if the air
flowing past the top surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing
past the bottom surface then Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the
surfaces of the wing will be lower above than below. This pressure difference results
in an upwards lift force. Whenever the distribution of speed past the top and bottom
surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces can be calculated (to a good
approximation) using Bernoulli's equation established by Bernoulli over a century
before the first man-made wings were used for the purpose of flight. Bernoulli's
principle does not explain why the air flows faster past the top of the wing and slower
past the underside. To understand why, it is helpful to understand circulation, the
Kutta condition, and the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.

ii. The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a
region of low pressure to draw fuel into the carburetor and mix it thoroughly with the
incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by
Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and
therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
iii. The Pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the airspeed of the
aircraft. These two devices are connected to the airspeed indicator which determines
the dynamic pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the
difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is
used to calibrate the airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed
appropriate to the dynamic pressure.

iv. The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or
an orifice plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the
flow. For a horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for an
incompressible fluid, the reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow
speed. Subsequently Bernoulli's principle then shows that there must be a decrease in
the pressure in the reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the
Venturi effect.

v. The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be
calculated directly from Bernoulli's equation, and is found to be proportional to the
square root of the height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing that
Torricelli's law is compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers this drain
rate. This is reflected in the discharge coefficient which is a function of the Reynold's
number and the shape of the orifice.

vi. In open-channel hydraulics, a detailed analysis of the Bernoulli theorem and its
extension were recently developed. It was proved that the depth-averaged specific
energy reaches a minimum in converging accelerating free-surface flow over weirs
and flumes . Further, in general, a channel control with minimum specific energy in
curvilinear flow is not isolated from water waves, as customary state in open-channel
hydraulics.
vii. The principle also makes it possible for sail-powered craft to travel faster than the
wind that propels them (if friction can be sufficiently reduced). If the wind passing in
front of the sail is fast enough to experience a significant reduction in pressure, the
sail is pulled forward, in addition to being pushed from behind. Although boats in
water must contend with the friction of the water along the hull, ice sailing and land
sailing vehicles can travel faster than the wind.

Limitations:

i. The equation has been derived by assuming that the velocity of every element of the
liquid across any cross-section of the peipeis uniform. Practically,it is not true. The
elements of the liquid in the innermost layer have the maximum velocity. The
velocity of the liquid decreases towards the walls of the pipe. Therefore, we should
take into account the mean velocity of the liquid.

ii. While deriving Bernoulli's equation, the visous drag of the liquid has not been taken
into consideration. The viscous drag comes into play, when a liquid is in motion.

iii. Bernoulli's equation has been derived on the assumption that there appears no loss of
energy, when a liquid is in motion. In fsct, some kinetic energy is converted into heat
energy and a part of it is lost due to shear force.

iv. If the liquid is flowing along a curved path, the energy due to centrifugal force should
also be taken into consideration.
 b. Equation of Continuity:

The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass can be neither created or destroyed. Using the
Mass Conservation Law on a steady flow process - flow where the flow rate do not change over
time - through a control volume where the stored mass in the control volume do not change -
implements that

 Inflow equals Outflow

This statement is called the Equation of Continuity. Common application where the Equation of
Continuity are used are pipes, tubes and ducts with flowing fluids or gases, rivers, overall
processes as power plants, diaries, logistics in general, roads, computer networks and
semiconductor technology and more

Application:
i. Hydrodynamics
ii. Aerodynamics
iii. Electromagnesim
iv. Quatumn Mechanics
v. In flights at speeds much lower than the speed of sound in air, the flow of the
air over the wings is nearly in-compressible.
vi. Viscosity in fluid motion is the analogue of friction in the motion of solids.
vii. Lubrication problems: viscosity is extremely important for motor oils.
viii. If an element of the moving fluid does not rotate about an axis through the
center of mass of the element, the flow is said to be irrotational.

Limitation:

i. The ideal fluid moves without turbulence. This implies that each element of
the fluid has zero angular velocity about its center.
ii. Variability in acquiring and measuring 3 components of equation
2- Describe working principle, configuration, application and limitation of variable area
meter and variable head meter.

a. VARIABLE AREA METER

Variable area flowmeters are also called “rotameters”. They are simple flowmeters but
effective for measuring the flow of liquids, gases or steam.

Working principle:

This type of flowmeters consists of a float inside a conical tube. The fluid flows up through
the tapered tube forcing the float to a position with sufficient free area to enable the flow to
pass. This free area is related to the flow rate, the weight of the float and the density and
viscosity of the fluid.

The pressure drop across the flowmeter remains constant over the entire flow range, since it
is related to the fluid density and the float weight and dimensions. Flow indication is
achieved since the area of flow increases as the flow rate increases.

Configruation:

i. Tapered tube:

The tapered tube is placed vertically in the flow channel with a conical shape inside. The
quantity measured is defined by the height of float going up. Glass tubes are used for both
liquid and gas measurement. Metallic tubes are used where the process fluid with high
temperature and pressure.

ii. Float:

Stainless steal floats are commonly used, there are different types of metals from lead to
aluminium used as floats. A float material, shapes are also varied according to applications
considering density.
Advantages:

i. We can use them for both liquid and gas or steam applications.

ii. Their design is simple and therefore economical.

iii. They are light (this point depends on the measuring tube).

iv. They do not require power supplies.

v. The flow reading can be easily performed at installation.

vi. Low pressure drops.

Disadvantages:

i. Their accuracy is not very high.

ii. Require a specific calibration for each fluid.

iii. Usually they do not have totalization function (although with different electronic
converters this function is already available in Tecfluid instruments).

iv. The flowmeter must be installed in a vertical pipe with flow upstream, although in the
option of metal measuring tube there are also options for vertical pipe with
downwards and horizontal flow
Applications

i. Because of their low cost, variable area flowmeters are one of the most widely used
types in the industry, often proving to be one of the most valid solutions for low flow
applications.
ii. They are also widely used as simple flow regulators by adding a manual regulating
valve integrated in the body of the flowmeter. In this way it is quite simple to regulate
non-automated processes.
iii. So different sectors such as treatment and purification of water, gas processes, control
and measurement in machinery, control and research laboratories, industrial and
process refrigeration, chemical pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries… all of them
use variable area flowmeters even as emergency control in case of power failures.

Discharge Co-efficient:

The range of discharge Co-efficient of rotameter is 0.94 - 1.

b. VARIABLE HEAD METER

Working Principle:

The liquid or gas whose flow rate id to be dteremined is passed through the orifice
plate. This creates a pressure drop across the orifice plate which varies with the flow rate,
resulting in a differential pressure between the outlet and inlet segments. Theis pressure drop
is measured and is used to calculate the flow rate of the liquid.

Configruation:

i. Inlet Section: a linear segment extending from the device and acts as an end
connection for the fluid flowing inside.
 ii. Outlet Section: similar to inlet section where the pressure of the gas or fluid discharge
is determined.

iii. Orifice Plate: present between the inlet and outlet segments and used to generate a
pressure drop which enables the meaurement of the flow rate.

iv. Flow Conditioner: installed in the inlet section of the meter tube and is used to
enhance linear flow in the inlet section of the meter tube.

Advantages

i. Low initial cost.

ii. Easy to install.
iii. Simple and less expensive maintenance as compared with venturimeter.
iv. Requires less spaces as compared to a venturimeter.
v. Can be used in wide range of pipe sizes(1.25-1.50cm)

Disadvantages:-

i. Low coefficient of discharge.

ii. Poor pressure recovery.
iii. Susceptible to inaccuracies resulting from erosion, corrosion and sealing.
iv. Lower physical strength orifices are likely to be damaged by pressure transients.
Application:

i. Water treatment plants

ii. Natural gas industries
iii. Refineries
iv. Petrochemical plants

Limitation:

i. Requires homogeneous fluid.

ii. Requires single phase liquid
iii. It requires the flow of axial velocity vectors.
iv. It causes a pressure drop in the fluid.
v. Its accuracy is affected by the density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid.
vi. The range of measurement of viscosity limits of fluids.
vii. It requires straight conduits to ensure accuracy is maintained.
viii. The pipe must be totally special for the measurement of the flow of liquids.
ix. They have low range capacity.

Discharge Co-efficient:

The discharge co-efficient of Orifice meter is 0.67.

Refernce:

 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/115c/baf6f1e5263d58019efd47e02171bb16a563.pdf
 https://learnmechanical.com/limitation-of-bernoullis-equation/

 https://automationforum.in/t/working-of-rotameter-variable-area-flowmeter/2978
 https://www.polytechnichub.com/advantages-disadvantages-applications-rotameter/
 https://www.crimtech.com/orifice-meter/
 https://automationforum.co/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-orifice-and-venturi-meter/

THE END