Lecture Notes 7 – Polynomial and Rational Functions 1

Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

I. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Definition
A function f is a polynomial function if
f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a1x + a0

where the coefficients a0, a1, …, an are real numbers and the exponents are nonnegative integers.
Domain: All real numbers

Range: If the degree of f(x) is odd, then the range is also all real numbers
If the degree of f(x) is even, then the range is an infinite interval of the
form (-, a] or [a, ).

Zeros of f(x)
If f(c) = 0, then c is called a zero of f; also called a solution or root of f(x) = 0.
The zeros of f are called the x-intercepts of the graph of f.

End Behavior of Polynomials

 The end behavior of a polynomial is a description of what happens as x becomes large in the
positive or negative direction.
 For any polynomial, the end behavior is determined by the term that contains the highest power of x, because
when x is large, the other terms are relatively insignificant in size.
 The end behavior of the polynomial P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a1x + a0 is determined by the
degree n and the sign of the leading coefficient an.

P has odd degree P has even degree

Leading coefficient Leading coefficient Leading coefficient Leading coefficient

positive negative positive negative
y  - as x  - y  - as x   y   as x  - y  - as x  -
and and and and
y   as x   y   as x  - y   as x   y  - as x  

Intermediate Value Theorem for Polynomial Functions

y

f(b)

P y=w
w

f(a) f(c)
x
a c b

If f is a polynomial function and f(a)  f(b), where a < b, then f takes on every value between f(a) and f(b)
in the interval [a, b].
 If w is any number between a and b, then there is a number c between a and b such that f(c) = w.
 Lecture Notes 7 – Polynomial and Rational Functions 2
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

 If f is regarded as extending continuously from the point (a, f(a)) to the point (b, f(b)), then for
any number w between f(a) and f(b), it appears that a horizontal line with y-intercept w should
intersect the graph in at least one point P. The x-coordinate c of P is a number such that f(c) = w.

Corollary
If a and b have opposite signs, then there is at least one number between a and b such that f(c) =
0.
y (b, f(b))

f(x) = 0
a
x
c b
(a, f(a))

Guidelines for graphing polynomial functions

1. Zeros. Factor the polynomial to find all its real zeros; these are the x-intercepts of the graph.
2. Test points. Make a table of values for the polynomial. Include test points to determine whether
the graph of the polynomial lies above or below the x-axis on the intervals determined by the
zeros. Include the y-intercept in the table.
3. End behavior. Determine the end behavior of the polynomial.
4. Graph. Plot the intercepts and other points you found in the table. Sketch a smooth curve that
passes through these points and exhibits the required end behavior.

Examples:
1. f(x) = x3 + x2 – 4x – 4
2. f(x) = x4 – 4x3 + 3x2
3. f(x) = -x3 – x2 + 2x

II. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Definition
A function f is a rational function if, for all x in its domain
g( x )
f(x)
h( x )
where g(x) and h(x) are polynomials, and h(x)  0.

Guidelines for sketching the graph of f(x) = g(x)/h(x)

1. Find the real zeros of the numerator g(x) and use them to plot the points corresponding to the x-
intercepts.
2. Find the real zeros of the denominator h(x). For each zero a, the line x = a is a vertical asymptote.
Represent x = a with dashes.
3. Find the sign of f(x) in each of the intervals determined by the zeros of g(x) and h(x). Use this
signs to determine whether the graph lies above or below the x-axis in each interval.
4. If x = a is a vertical asymptote, use the information in step 3 to determine whether f(x)   or
f(x)  - for each case:
a. x  a-
b. x  a+
Make note of this by sketching a portion of the graph on each side of x = a.
5. Use the information in step 3 to determine the manner in which the graph intersects the x-axis.
 Lecture Notes 7 – Polynomial and Rational Functions 3
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

6. Determine the behavior of f(x) as x   or x  -. If f(x)  b, then the line y = b is a horizontal
asymptote. If b  0, represent y = b with dashes.
7. Sketch the graph, using the information found in the preceding steps and plotting points whenever
necessary.

Note: f may cross the horizontal asymptote but not the vertical asymptote.

Definition of oblique asymptote

If f(x) = g(x)/h(x) for polynomials g(x) and h(x), and if the degree of g(x) is one greater than the
degree of h(x), then the graph of f has an oblique asymptote y = ax + b; that is, the graph approaches this
line as x   or x  -. To find the oblique asymptote, we may use division to express f(x) in the form
g( x ) r( x )
f(x)  ax  b  
h( x ) h( x )

Where either r(x) = 0 or the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of h(x). It follows that
r( x )
 0 as x    or x   
h( x )

Rules for Asymtotes

Suppose that the function
p( x ) a n x n    a 0
f(x) 
q( x ) b m x m    b 0

is in lowest terms.
If q(a) = 0, then x = a is a vertical asymptote.
If n < m, then the x axis is the horizontal asymptote.
If n = m, then the horizontal asymptote is the line y = an/bm.
If n > m, then the graph has no horizontal asymptote.

Examples:
Sketch the graph of the given f.
1. x 1 2. x2
f( x) 2 f(x)
x x 6 x2  x  2

3. 2x 4 4. x2  9
f(x) f(x)
x4  1 2x  4