Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety

Jusuf Salih

Journal of Ecumenical Studies, Volume 52, Number 3, Summer 2017, pp.

440-458 (Article)

Published by University of Pennsylvania Press

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/ecu.2017.0044

For additional information about this article

https://muse.jhu.edu/article/676100

Access provided at 28 Oct 2019 22:38 GMT from Stockholms universitet

 Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety
Jusuf Salih

precis
Discussing the significance of Mary in Islam in one essay is a very difficult assignment.
Hence, this essay highlights a few important aspects about Mary, reviews a few qur’ānic
verses about her, and briefly discusses her childhood, the miraculous birth of Jesus, her
role as a bridge-​­builder among Christian-​­Muslim traditions, her image in popular Mus-
lim culture, and the probability of her being a prophetess of God according to Islam.

Introduction

M ary’s name in the Qur’ān is “Maryam, the same as that used in Syr-
iac and in Greek in the Bible, [which] is understood by the commen-
tators to mean pious or devoted, as well as servant (a confirmation of her
mother’s dedication of her).” 1 Her name appears in the Qur’ān from early
parts of the Qur’ān in Mecca to the later phase of Muhammad’s preaching
in Medina. 2 Moreover, she is given more attention than many other proph-
ets and is the only woman mentioned by name in the Qur’ān.
The discussions on Mariology in the Qur’ān are found primarily in
Chapter 19, “Maryam”; in Chapter 3, “The Family of ‘Imrān, The ‘Imrāns”; 3

 1
 Jane I. Smith and Yvonne Y. Haddad, “The Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition and
Commentary,” The Muslim World 79 (July/October, 1989): 164.
 2
 Ludwig Hagemann, “ ‘Mary, Allah Has Chosen You’ (Koran 3.42): The Islamic
Conception of Mary,” in Diego Irarrazabal, Susan Ross, and Marie-​­Theres Wacker, eds.,
The Many Faces of Mary (London: SCM Press, 2008), p. 67.
 3
 Ibid.

jour na l of ecumenica l studies

vol . 5 2 , no. 3 (summer 2017) © 2017
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 441

and in Chapter 5, “The Table Spread.” This illustrates the great respect
shown for Mary, since two chapters are given her name or that of her fami-
ly. 4 “[O]nly the names of Moses, Abraham, and Noah appear more fre-
quently in the” Qur’ān than hers. “The two lengthiest Qur’an passages
concerning Mary are found at 3:37–47 and 19:16–33, each of which contains
an account of events related to Jesus’ conception and birth. In this way the
Qur’an is similar to the New Testament, which contains two infancy narra-
tives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke.” 5
There is no question that Mary is the only female figure to whom great
attention is given in the Qur’ān. Some scholars say that seventy verses refer
to her, 6 and thirty-​­four of those verses identify her particularly. 7 However,
“[t]he complete qur’anic Mariology can be found in seven chapters of the
Qur’an . . . ​3, 4, 5, 19, 21, 23, 66.” 8 This displays that “Mary is accorded more
space in the [Qur’ān] than in the New Testament,” 9 and “more details are
offered there about her personal life than the New Testament holds.” 10 This
tells us that Muslims hold Mary in high esteem.
A very good example of Muslim-​­Christian relations is the decision of
the Lebanese government in 2010 to make March 25, the Day of the Annun-
ciation (’īd-​­al-​­bishārah), a national public holiday in Lebanon. The Annun-
ciation commemorates the Angel Gabriel’s message to Mary that she would
bear the child Jesus, the account of which appears in both the Qur’ān and
the New Testament. Among the first architects of the initiative was a Leba-
nese professor, Muhammad Nokkari, who was engaged in dialogue be-
tween Muslims and Christians. He believed that the Holy Virgin was the
core of reconciliation between Muslims and Christians. 11 He shared his
idea with Christian colleagues who also had a vision of seeing Muslims and
 4
 Ibid.
 5
 John Kaltner, “The Muslim Mary,” in Jeremy Corley, ed., New Perspectives on the Na-
tivity (London: T&T Clark International, 2009), p. 165.
 6
 See Smith and Haddad, “Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition,” p. 162.
 7
 Judith Dupré, Full of Grace: Encountering Mary in Faith, Art, and Life (New York:
Random House, 2010), p. 88.
 8
 Bahar Davary, “Mary in Islam: ‘No Man Could Have Been Like This Woman,’ ” New
Theology Review 23 (August, 2010): 27.
 9
 Hagemann, “ ‘Mary, Allah Has Chosen You,’ ” p. 67.
 10
 John Borelli, “The Virgin Mary in the Breadth and Scope of Interreligious Dia-
logue,” Marian Studies 47 (1996): 45.
 11
 See Marialaura Conte, “Lebanon: How the Annunciation Came to Be a Joint M
­ uslim-​
­Christian National Holiday,” Oasis: Christians and Muslims in a Global World, March 29,
442 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

Christians pray together. Once the idea became public, it faced some objec-
tions and some strong opponents, but the government saw it as an opportu-
nity to bring Christians and Muslims together. Since March 25, 2010, this
national holiday, as the Council of Maronite Bishops stated, “helps in bring-
ing hearts together.” 12

Qur’ānic Descriptions about Mary

“Muslim Mariology does not begin with the conception of Jesus, but rather
with attention to [her genealogy] and the line of the prophets from which
she comes, her Immaculate Conception, her birth, her early years spent in
the service of the synagogue, and finally the virgin birth.” 13 Mary’s father’s
name is ‘Imrān, and her genealogy goes back to the Prophet Moses. 14
The Qur’ān’s discussion of Mary starts before her birth, beginning with
her mother’s saying: “(Remember) when the wife of ‘Imrān said: ‘My Lord!
I have vowed unto Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering).
Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower!’ ”
(Qur’ān 3:35). 15 Likewise, in two other places:
Allah citeth an example for those who disbelieve: the wife of Noah and the
wife of Lot, who were under two of Our righteous slaves . . . ​a nd Allah cited
an example (mathal) for those who believe: the wife of Pharaoh . . . ​a nd
Mary, daughter of ‘Imran, whose body was chaste, therefore We breathed
therein something of Our Spirit. And she put faith in the words of her Lord
and His scriptures, and was of the obedient. (Qur’ān 66:10–12)

2010; available at http://www.oasiscenter.eu/articles/interreligious-​­dialogue/2010/03/29

/lebanon-​­how-​­the-​­annunciation-​­came-​­to-​­be-​­a-​­joint-​­muslim-​­christian-​­national-​­holiday.
 12
 See “Lebanese Christians and Muslims Celebrate the Annunciation Together in the
Name of Mary,” March 25, 2010, at http://www.asianews.it/news-​­en/Lebanese-​­Christians
-​­a nd-​­Muslims-​­celebrate-​­t he-​­A nnunciation-​­together-​­i n-​­t he-​­name-​­of-​­M ary-​­17985.html;
and Doreen Abi Raad, “Lebanese Sheik Helped Get Annunciation Recognized as National
Holiday,” Catholic News Service, March 24, 2010, at http://www.catholicnews.com/services
/englishnews/2010/lebanese-​­s heik-​­helped-​­get-​­a nnunciation-​­recognized-​­a s-​­n ational
-​­holiday.cfm.
 13
 Davary, “Mary in Islam,” p. 27.
 14
 See Ömer Faruk Harman, Meryem, vol. 29 in Turkiye Diyanet Vakfi (Ankara: TDV
Yayinlari, 2004), p. 240; translations are by the present author.
 15
 Qur’ānic verses are taken from translations by Yusuf Ali or Muhammad Marma­
duke Pickthall.
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 443

Behold! The angels said: “O Mary! Allah hath chosen thee and purified
(tahhara) thee;—​­chosen thee above the women of all nations.” (Qur’ān
3:42)

When discussing Mary, the Qur’ān uses various attributes that show her
high level of piety and devotion, such as: (1) Siddīka: meaning “just,” “pious,”
and “truthful”—​­qualities also assigned in the Qur’ān to Abraham, Idrīs
(biblical Enoch), and Joseph. It is attached to Mary in 5:75 and 66:12. 16 (2)
Qānitīn: meaning “obedient” and “worshiper with devotion.” She is called
this in 66:12. (3) Mathal: meaning “example” and “a paradigm”; this refer-
ence can be found in 66:11–12. (4) Tahhara: meaning “to purify” and “she
who was purified”; it is mentioned in 3:42. (5) Mustafia: 17 meaning “she who
was chosen,” which can be found in 3:42. In popular Muslim culture, Mary
is also regarded as Batūl, a symbolic title of pure, chaste, and virtuous
virgins. 18
Apart from these qur’ānic titles, she also was mentioned in several pro-
phetic traditions (Hadīth), which “have led some Muslim scholars to pro-
claim Mary as the most perfect woman who has ever lived.” 19 One such
Hadīth, narrated by Abū Mūsā Al-​­Ash‘ārī 20 (d. 672), states: “The Prophet
said, . . . ​‘Many men reached the level of perfection, but no woman reached
such a level except Mary, the daughter of Imran, and Asia, the wife of
Pharaoh.’ ” 21
In another Hadīth of the Prophet Muhammad reported by al-​­Tabarī (d.
923), a prominent exegete of the Qur’ān, recounted by Smith as the result of
the wish of Anna, 22 Mary’s mother’s “wish for protection is confirmed in

 16
 Hagemann, “ ‘Mary, Allah Has Chosen You,’ ” p. 72.
 17
 Egyptian Copts also refer to her as Mustafiyya. For more, see Otto F. A. Meinardus,
“The Virgin Mary as Mediatrix between Christians and Muslims in the Middle East,”
Marian Studies 47 (1996): 90–91.
 18
 See Harman, Meryem, p. 241.
 19
 Kaltner, “The Muslim Mary,” p. 166.
 20
 A companion of the Prophet Muhammad.
 21
 Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 4, Volume 55, Hadith 643; available at https://muflihun
.com/bukhari/55/643.
 22
 Mary’s mother “is not mentioned by name in the Qur’ān but is referred to only as
the wife of ‘Imrān. Islamic tradition, however, has accorded her the name of Ḥanna
(Anna). She is considered to be a sister to Elizabeth (Zakariah’s wife and the mother of
John the Baptist)” (Smith and Haddad, “Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition,” p. 163). Also
see Harman, Meryem, p. 237.
444 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

a . . . ​Hadīth, with a variety of versions: ‘Every descendant of Adam experi-

ences the touch of Satan except Mary, the daughter of ‘Imrān, and her
son.’ ” 23 Thus, Mary was born pure and far from evil, without any sin or
depravity.

Mary’s Childhood
Even before her birth, Mary was dedicated to God by her mother, described
as ‘Imrān’s wife, but “Muslim commentators note that there is no confusion
here between” this ‘Imrān and “Amran the father of Moses, Aaron, and Mir-
iam.” 24 The Qur’ān states:
(Remember) when the wife of ‘Imrān said: My Lord! I have vowed unto
Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from
me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower! And when she was
delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female—​­Allah knew
best of what she was delivered—​­t he male is not as the female; and lo! I have
named her Mary, and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring
from Satan the outcast. (Qur’ān 3:35–36)

Hagemann noted: “This prayer of Imran’s wife, with her vow to dedicate the
child to God, is very reminiscent of a passage in the Book of James, which
tells us that after the announcement by the angel, Anna, Mary’s mother,
said: ‘As the Lord my God lives, if I bring forth either male or female, I will
bring it for a gift unto the Lord my God, and it shall be ministering unto him
all the days of its life.’ ” 25 Dominic Ashkar stated: “Having given birth to a
girl [while hoping to have a boy], Anna wonders if her child could serve the
Lord as do men. The Qur’ān responds: ‘And her Lord accepted her with full
acceptance and vouchsafed to her a goodly growth’ (S. 3:37).” 26
There is not much information about Mary’s childhood in the Qur’ān
except that she is named by her mother. 27 Muslim historians, however, dis-
cussed her childhood, saying that her father died when she was very young
 23
 Smith and Haddad, “Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition,” p. 164.
 24
 Davary, “Mary in Islam,” p. 27.
 25
 Hagemann, “ ‘Mary, Allah Has Chosen You,’ ” pp. 69–70.
 26
 Dominic F. Ashkar, “The Sources for the Marian References in the Qur’ān,” Mar-
ian Studies 47 (1996): 74.
 27
 See Harman, Meryem, p. 236.
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 445

(as probably did her mother, according to some reports). After she became
an orphan at an early age, it was necessary according to the custom of her
time to have someone as a protector. Her Aunt Elizabeth’s husband, Zecha-
riah, was chosen to take care of her, and the two of them took the little Mary
into their home. 28
As Mary grew and reached the age of puberty, 29 Zechariah built a cell
for her in the temple (often referred to by the Muslim commentators as a
mihrāb to which there was access only by stairs). This special room appar-
ently was considered a way of separating her physically from the place of
worship, but it also emphasized that her life was spent in devotions. Her stay
in “this room also verifies that she had no access to men,” and “Zakariah was
the only one to see her in this special place.” Mary’s life in this separate place
was one of seclusion, living in her temple mihrāb and refraining from mar-
riage and all other worldly distractions so that she could concentrate and
meditate on God. 30
In Qur’ān 3:37, 3:42–44, and 19:16–17, we see that, while in the temple or
sanctuary, Mary received food miraculously from God. 31 In 3:37, Zechariah
was astonished to see that Mary “has been provided ample abundance of
food that he himself has not given her.” According to al-​­Tabarī, this provision
is usually understood “as the fruits of winter in the summer and the fruits of
summer in the winter, further indication of their special character.” 32
Because the Qur’ān in “23:50 tells that God made Mary and Jesus a sign
to humankind,” Muslims understand the story of Mary in the Qur’ān as one
of divine interventions.
Care for Mary and care for humankind are intermingled throughout [the
Qur’ān], as is illustrated in the depiction of the virgin birth. She cries out in
anguish and is given miraculous dates for sustenance and a spring at her
feet to quench her thirst. Through these events, we come to know a God
who uses immense power to effect a miraculous birth . . . ​a nd who is . . . ​
­attentive to the immediate, physical needs of this one faithful servant. 33
 28
 See ibid., p. 240.
 29
 See ibid.
 30
 Smith and Haddad, “Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition,” p. 165.
 31
 See ibid., p. 164.
 32
 Ibid., p. 165.
 33
 Maura Hearden, “Ambassador for the Word: Mary as a Bridge for Dialogue be-
tween Catholicism and Islam,” J.E.S. 41 (Winter, 2004): 30.
446 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

Mary and the Miraculous Birth of Jesus

According to Islamic theology, Mary’s “child was created by the grace of God
and without mortal paternity.” 34 This parallels “the creation of Adam, sug-
gesting that the miracle of the virgin birth introduces an event of cosmic sig-
nificance.” 35 For al-​­Baydawī (d. 1286), a prominent Muslim theologian, “The
often-​­occurring Qur’ānic description of Jesus as ‘son of Mary’ is . . . ​a clear
sign that Jesus was born of a woman who had no relations with a man, since
the common reference to a man is as ‘son of his father,’ not his mother.” 36 As
such, Muslim scholars emphasize that Jesus was born without a father. Schol-
ars do note some instances when other men were called after their mother;
this was because their mothers had become very well known. In the case of
Mary, she is described as being “above the women of the worlds”; therefore,
Son of Mary was an appropriate title. 37 Accordingly, in general, when speak-
ing about Jesus, “Muslims always prefer the title ‘Son of Mary’ (Ibn
Maryam),” 38 the way her name in the Qur’ān often appears, in a “combina-
tion . . . ​very unusual in the linguistic and cultural world of the time.” 39
After Mary gave birth to Jesus, people condemned and judged her for
having a child without a husband, but then the baby spoke up to defend his
mother’s virtue in relation to God’s miracle. Muslims believe that his infant
speech was similar to his birth without a father, both being “signs” of his
messianic purpose. 40 When Mary showed the newborn child to her people,
they were very surprised and also very confused: “Then she brought him to
her own folk, carrying him. They said: O Mary! Thou hast come with an
amazing thing. O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a wicked man nor was
thy mother a harlot” (Qur’ān 19:27–28). Being in such a difficult situation
and facing accusation from her people, Mary simply pointed to Jesus to
explain:

 34
 Brian Arthur Brown, Noah’s Other Son: Bridging the Gap between the Bible and the
Qur’an (New York and London: Continuum International Publishing, 2007), p. 163.
 35
 Ibid., p. 193.
 36
 Ashkar, “Sources for the Marian References,” p. 84.
 37
 Geoffrey Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’ān (London: Sheldon Press, 1976; Oneworld
Publications, 2013; orig., 1965), p. 23.
 38
 Brown, Noah’s Other Son, p. 198.
 39
 Hagemann, “ ‘Mary, Allah Has Chosen You,’ ” p. 68.
 40
 Brown, Noah’s Other Son, p. 193.
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 447

Then she pointed to him. They said: How can we talk to one who is in the
cradle, a young boy? He spake: Lo! I am the slave of Allah. He hath given
me the Scripture and hath appointed me a Prophet. And hath made me
blessed wheresoever I may be, and hath enjoined upon me prayer and
almsgiving so long as I remain alive. And (hath made me) dutiful toward
her who bore me, and hath not made me arrogant, unblest. (Qur’ān
19:29–32)

According to the Qur’ān, Mary

does not speak because she is under oath. Instead, her newborn child
comes to her defense. In effect, the presentation of Q 19:26–34 may be the
result of a harmonization of this account to uphold Mary’s vow. The ratio-
nale for this may have been to demonstrate that Mary’s defense of her sex-
ual purity, which her pregnancy had called into question, came from God
alone. . . . ​Mary avoids speaking to her family to explain what has hap-
pened. In fact, she has no need, as her child Jesus himself explains his mis-
sion rather eloquently in Qur’an 19:30–33. The Qur’an stresses Mary’s
purity through her vow of silence. 41

Defending Mary’s purity, Qur’ān 4:156 also clearly says that those who slan-
der against her are being cursed. 42
“Since the Qur’ān does not give a complete explanation of the Annunci-
ation, Islamic tradition has provided a fuller explanation. One such area is
Mary’s age at the Annunciation and at the conception of Jesus. Opinions
vary, ranging between the ages of thirteen and twenty. The Gospel accounts
do not provide such information.” 43 Further, some accounts of the duration
of Mary’s pregnancy report “that she gave birth immediately or just a few
hours after the Annunciation; others state that the pregnancy lasted six to
eight months.” 44 As for the time of Jesus’s rise to heaven, historical accounts
reveal that Mary was forty-​­nine or fifty years old; after this miraculous event

 41
 Cornelia B. Horn, “Mary between Bible and Qur’an: Soundings into the Transmis-
sion and Reception History of the Protoevangelium of James on the Basis of Selected Liter-
ary Sources in Coptic and Copto-​­Arabic and of Art-​­Historical Evidence pertaining to
Egypt,” Islam and Christian-​­Muslim Relations 18, no. 4 (2007): 527.
 42
 See Harman, Meryem, p. 241.
 43
 Ashkar, “Sources for the Marian References,” p. 80.
 44
 Ibid., p. 82.
448 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

she lived another ten or thirteen years and died when she was between sixty-​
t­ hree and seventy-​­t wo years old. 45

Mary as the Bridge-​­Builder

“One of Mary’s most profound . . . ​roles has been as a bridge builder . . . ​be-
tween Christianity and Islam.” She brings together two religions—​­cultures
and people who perhaps have no more important bond between them. 46
According to one historical report, news of Mary’s wonderful conception
came to King Negus, a Christian ruler of Ethiopia, from Muslim refugees
who had escaped persecution from Mecca since the early days of Islam. 47
He was impressed and did not allow the Muslim group to be given to the
polytheists of Mecca. Likewise, Nostra aetate, the Second Vatican Council’s
Declaration on the Relation of the Church with Non-​­Christian Religions,
“referred to Islam” with “explicit emphasis on Mary.” It is recognized that in
the Qur’ān, “Mary enjoys a privileged position” compatible with biblical
tradition. 48
As highlighted above, the Qur’ān contains three chapters with “titles re-
calling various aspects” of Christian tradition associated with Mary: “Sura
3, ‘The Family of ‘Imrān’; Sura 5, ‘The Table Spread’ (imagery recalling Jesus’
miracles); and Sura 19, ‘Mary.’ ” 49 Nevertheless, the qur’ānic story differen-
tiates from Christian claims and “refute[s] any possibility of divine pater-
nity in Maryam’s pregnancy.” According to the Qur’ān, Jesus “is commanded
into existence through God’s utterance, ‘Be!’ ” This is analogous with Adam,
who did not have two parents. 50
Mary’s life and actions in Christianity and Islam are interpreted as
a general call to piety and peaceful cohabitation. . . . ​[T]he figure of Mary
carrying the child, Jesus, was significant for both Christians and Muslims.
To Christians, such a sight would be likely to recall the tender vulnerability

 45
 See Harman, Meryem, p. 237.
 46
 Dupré, Full of Grace, p. 88.
 47
 Meinardus, “Virgin Mary as Mediatrix,” p. 92.
 48
 Hagemann, “ ‘Mary, Allah Has Chosen You,’ ” p. 66.
 49
 Ashkar, “Sources for the Marian References,” p. 71.
 50
 Loren D. Lybarger, “Gender and Prophetic Authority in the Qur’anic Story of
Maryam: A Literary Approach,” The Journal of Religion 80 (April, 2000): 257.
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 449

of Christ’s humanity and a flood of associated doctrines about God’s solic-

itous love for the world. To Muslims, the same image would be likely to re-
call Sura 19 in which the Blessed Virgin of Islam showed her newborn child
to a hostile crowd. The child dispelled the crowd’s hostilities and intro-
duced himself as a great prophet . . . ​Mary’s gesture of bowing to the crosses
atop the church was also open to noble interpretations from each tradition.
While Christians might have understood the gesture as a validation of
Christ’s crucifixion and its theological significance, Muslims could have
understood it as a call to respect the “people of the book.” 51

Either way, each association contains a call for peace and devotion.
Mary’s noble work was not limited to her own actions of piety and giving
birth to Jesus. Some Muslim commentators of the Qur’ān say it was Mary’s
response that inspired Zechariah’s renewed faith and hope, and his longing
for a child would not be for naught (in spite of its improbability, as both he
and his wife were elderly). It was shortly after this exchange that the “bar-
ren” Elizabeth—​­taunted for this reason by the women of the community—​
­conceived Ya ḥyā (John the Baptist). As such, Mary was not only
instrumental in the virgin birth of Jesus but also played a role in the birth of
another prophet, John the Baptist.
In fact, throughout the Qur’an, the story of Mary is intertwined with the
birth of Ya ḥya to Elizabeth and Zechariah (see Q 3, 19, and 21). In fact the
qur’anic announcement of the angel regarding the birth of John [the Bap-
tist] (3:39) is almost identical with that of the birth of Jesus (3:35). The
words of Zechariah and Mary in questioning the possibility of such ex-
traordinary birth situations are also very similar (Q 3:40 and 3:47). 52

“The clearest and perhaps best-​­known parallels of Marian material are

those between [the Qur’ānic chapters, Maryam and The Family of ‘Imrān],
and the Protoevangelium of James” (a book popular particularly among the
Coptic Christians of Egypt). To examine the possibilities for interaction
between these two traditions effectively, we “need to study the transmis-
sion and reception history of the Protoevangelium of James carefully.”
However, such comparative studies on Mariology should be “[a]n approach
 51
 Maura Hearden, “Lessons from Zeitoun: A Marian Proposal for Christian-​­Muslim
Dialogue,” J.E.S. 47 (Summer, 2012): 416–417.
 52
 Davary, “Mary in Islam,” p. 29.
450 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

to ­Muslim-​­Christian relations that is grounded, not in the realm of specula-

tive dogmatic and theological claims . . . , but rather in the realm of investi-
gating both religious traditions as part of a larger framework of the history”
the two religions share. 53

Mary in Islamic Mysticism and Popular Culture

The Sūfīs (Muslim mystics) see Mary as a model of piety, paying particular
attention to her fasting. The meaning of fasting is not seen as abstaining
from food and drink but being far away from the sight of men. She stayed
away from people through her sublime goal to focus and meditate and be
deepened with the light of divine mystery without letting anything distract
her from God. 54 This is evident when Mary says, “Verily, I have vowed to
the merciful One a fast, and I will not speak today with a human being”
(Qur’ān 19:26).
In Sūfī’ works, Mary is the ideal of purity and honesty to whom many
other virtuous women are compared. For example, celebrated mystic Sham-
suddin Tabrizi’s (d. 1248) wife, Kira Khatun, described as “by her beauty
and perfection was the gracious lady of her days, a second arah, and the
Mary of her times.” Also, “Rabia al-​­’Adawiyya [d. 801], a woman mystic of
early Islam, . . . ​was described [as] that woman who lost herself in union
with the Divine, that one accepted by men as a second spotless Mary.” 55
Mary was also a figure in mystical poetry. A famous poet, Jalālud-​­dīn
Rūmī (1207–73) in Mathnawī—​­his masterpiece, a series of books on
­poetry—​­discusses Mary’s extraordinary ethical qualities. 56 Rūmī wrote
“that Mary became selfless, and in this selflessness she said, ‘I will leap into
God’s protection,’ because that pure-​­bosomed one could take herself to the
Unseen.” 57
In an article on rituals in modern Turkey surrounding the birth of the

 53
 Horn, “Mary between Bible and Qur’an,” pp. 511–512.
 54
 See V. Courtois, Mary in Islam (Calcutta: The Oriental Institute, 1954), pp. 49–59.
 55
 Ibid., p. 51.
 56
 See ibid.
 57
 Hearden, “Ambassador,” pp. 31–32, quoting Mevlâna Jalâluddin Rumi, “Expansion
and Contraction,” in Kabir Helminski, ed. and sel., The Rumi Collection: An Anthology of
Translations of Mevlâna Jalâluddin Rumi (Boston, MA, and London: Shambhala Publica-
tions, 1999), p. 190.
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 451

Prophet Muhammad is an interesting account in which the Prophet’s

mother, Emine (Amina), is said to have had the miraculous experience of
being visited by three hoūrīs (maidens of Paradise). These supernatural
creatures describe to Emine the qualities that her son, who is about to be
born, will have. Tradition identifies these three hoūrīs as Eve, Asiya, 58 and
Mary. Annemarie Schimmel 59 also cites well-​­known Turkish poet Suley-
man Chelebi’s (d. 1429) popular mevlüt (poetry describing the celebration
of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad). In this mevlüt, Emine expresses
her astonishment when she delivers her son, Muhammad:
Suddenly the walls were split apart and three houri entered my room. Some
have said that of these charming three one was Āsiya of moonlike face, one
was Lady Mary without doubt, and the third a houri beautiful. Then these
moonfaced three drew gently near and they greeted me with kindness
here; then they sat around me, and they gave the good tidings of Mu ḥam-
mad’s birth. 60

In the Sūfī’s mystical use of Marian imagery, “[t]he most obvious Mar-
ian manifestations of God’s presence in creation can be seen in his extraor-
dinary interventions in Mary’s life . . . ​[T]he fact that Mary was born” of
parents who were aged “is considered miraculous. God heard the prayers of
these barren servants and granted them a child.” Additionally, God an-
swered Mary’s mother’s “prayer for Mary’s spiritual protection, so that she
and her son would be the only people in the history of humankind to escape
Satan’s touch at birth and remain free from sin.” This reflects “an attentive
God, present to human need in a most generous way.” It shows “that God
provides for whom God wishes without measure and hears all prayers.” 61
Apart from Islamic mysticism, Mary’s name is linked with many folk-
loric customs around the Muslim world. “Her name, Maryam, is given to
many [Muslim] girls” and is one of the most popular female names. Giving
“a new mother three dates to eat” is a popular practice “because tradition

 58
 Pharaoh’s wife during the time of Moses.
 59
 A prominent German scholar of Islamic studies, who died in 2003 and whose leg-
acy is still influential, particularly in Islamic mysticism.
 60
 Smith and Haddad, “Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition,” pp. 174–175, quoting
Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammed Is His Messenger (Chapel Hill, NC: University of
North Carolina Press, 1985), p. 154.
 61
 Hearden, “Ambassador,” p. 30.
452 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

says that Mary gave birth to Jesus under a date-​­tree and that she ate three
dates from that tree.” 62 “There is also a gate honoring Mary at the famous
Ummayad mosque in Damascus, Syria.” 63
“Among the textual evidence that cites and celebrates Mary are . . . ​Mus-
lim prayers, hymns, ballads, and poems coming from such diverse places as
Spain, the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and the United States. Among the most
interesting are medieval poems from Spain known as Cantigas de Santa
Maria, which suggest the high level of interaction between Muslims and
Christians” of Andalusia. 64 Moreover, it was the figure of Mary that the
Moriscos (Muslims from Andalusia) hoped “would mediate between them
and their Catholic compatriots who were intent on expelling them from
[Andalusia]. Unfortunately, the Virgin [Mary] . . . ​d id not prevent the ex-
pulsion . . . ​[but] despite bitterness and despair, carried with them into their
diaspora their devotion to the virgin.” 65
Another important aspect practiced in the Muslim culture involves
inscribing words uttered by Mary in the Qur’an on one of the central archi-
tectural features of a mosque. Muslims everywhere pray facing Mecca . . .,
and the mihrab is a niche in the wall of every mosque that helps orient the
worshipper toward the holy city. These niches are normally decorated with
elaborate geometric designs and inscriptions, the latter often taken from
the Qur’an. One of the most popular inscriptions is Qur’an 3:37, which re-
ports Mary’s words as a young woman living in the temple under the care of
Zachariah. 66

This verse reads: “Right graciously did her Lord accept her: He made her
grow in purity and beauty; to the care of Zakariya was she assigned. Every
time that he entered (her) chamber to see her, he found her supplied with
sustenance.”
In the Muslim literature, there is also a parallel between Mary and
Fāṭ ima, the Prophet Muhammad’s daughter who has been part of popular

 62
 Courtois, Mary in Islam, pp. 55 and 56.
 63
 Kaltner, “The Muslim Mary,” pp. 166–167.
 64
 Ibid.
 65
 Tina P. Christodouleas and Nabil Matar, “The Mary of the Sacromonte,” The Mus-
lim World 95 (April, 2005): 201.
 66
 Kaltner, “The Muslim Mary,” p. 169.
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 453

Muslim piety. Seyyed “Hossein Nasr 67 noted that in Syria, many Arab
women pray through both Mary and Fāṭ ima at such occasions as the illness
of a child to the point that ‘the sanctity of Mary and Fāṭ ima are related and
even identified.’ ” 68 “Fāṭ ima and Mary are also manifestations of the holy
sufferer. Shī’a hagiography draws the parallel between Ḥussain (the son of
Fāṭ ima and grandson of the Prophet) and Jesus, in that they both suffered
great persecution and hardship.” In the seventh century, “Ḥussain was killed
along with seventy-​­two of his family members and companions as he re-
sisted the tyrant Caliph Yazid” (680–683). The righteous prophet ’Īsā
(Jesus) suffered bitterly “under an unjust military occupation as well as the
pressures . . . ​of the authoritarian religious figures of the society of his time.”
Therefore, both Mary’s and Fāṭ ima’s sons went through deep suffering and
grief against the injustices. 69
The sharing of shrines related to Mary in the Middle East, North Africa,
and the Balkans 70 has started to attract people’s attention and recently have
been studied by academics. 71 Moreover, in modern times, the city of
“Fátima in central Portugal became a famous pilgrimage destination after
three shepherd children had visions of the Virgin over the summer of 1917.
In 2006, an estimated 5 million people visited the shrine. . . . ​A lthough the
majority of pilgrims to Fátima are . . . ​Christians,” Muslims also visit. Since
“[t]he Muslim migrant population in Portugal is” small, it is assumed that
those Muslim visitors come from both the Middle East and other European
countries. 72
Many sites in the Middle East also attract Marian pilgrims, “especially
in Egypt, where Christians and Muslims pray to receive divine grace. To
this day, the Egyptian maẉâlid [birthday anniversaries] play a significant
role in the religious life of Christians and Muslims.” 73 “[G]rottoes, caves,
springs and isolated trees have served as pilgrimage sites where both Chris-
 67
 Professor of Islamic Studies at George Washington University.
 68
 Smith and Haddad, “Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition,” p. 181, quoting Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, Traditional Islam in the Modern World (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1987), p. 262.
 69
 Davary, “Mary in Islam,” p. 32.
 70
 E.g., Medjugorje, in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 71
 See Willy Jansen and Meike Kühl, “Shared Symbols: Muslims, Marian Pilgrim-
ages, and Gender,” European Journal of Women’s Studies 15 (August, 2008): 297.
 72
 Ibid., pp. 299–300.
 73
 Meinardus, “Virgin Mary as Mediatrix,” p. 89.
454 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

tians and Muslims have venerated the Virgin Mary.” 74 “The House of
Mother Mary (Meryem Ana Evi in Turkish), near . . . ​the famous ruins of
Ephesus in Turkey, has been an official Catholic pilgrimage site since
1892,” 75 and many Muslims and Christians visit. While Christian women
pray the rosary, Muslims recite al-​­Fātiha. 76 They “offer a candle, and . . . ​
drink from the therapeutic water of the spring . . . ​I n Upper Egypt, in Octo-
ber 1963, three Muslims built a grotto above a spring next to the Franciscan
Church in Bensi Suef. They dedicated the grotto to the Virgin Mary, and
pilgrims, both Muslims and Christians, . . . ​gather there to pray and to be
healed through the intercession of the Virgin Mary.” 77
“During the fifteenth century, Christians and Muslims offered prayers
in the Church of the Nativity of Our Lord in Bethlehem. The Egyptian Ma-
meluke Sultan Abȗ Said Gaqmaq (1438–1453) ordered that, in the process of
repairs, a mihrab be installed in the basilica.” 78 Also, in many “occasions
that include representatives of Christian and Islamic communities,” Mus-
lim recitation of the Qur’ān includes reading the chapter on Mary “as a sign
of mutual respect.” In some Arab countries such as Egypt, “[a]t legal pro-
ceedings and lawsuits, the Virgin Mary is often called upon by Christians
and Muslims. She is the ballât al-​­hadîd, the ‘one who liberates from
chains.’ ” 79
The popular religious observances are seen differently among Muslim
scholars. These observances have a strong gender aspect because mostly
women participate in the activities of visiting such places. Because many
scholars discourage this participation, women’s religious practices are criti-
cized. Nancy “Tapper 80 reported how men in the Turkish town she studied
viewed the visits of women to saintly shrines ‘as verging on heresy’ . . . ​
Women, by contrast, give different interpretations of their behaviour and
resist the dominant, male-​­controlled, interpretation of what constitutes a
proper religious act. . . . ​I n general, more women than men visit religious

 74
 Ibid., p. 93; see pp. 93–94.
 75
 Jansen and Kühl, “Shared Symbols,” p. 301.
 76
 The first chapter of the Qur’ān.
 77
 Meinardus, “Virgin Mary as Mediatrix,” p. 97.
 78
 Ibid., p. 96.
 79
 Ibid., p. 100.
 80
 A lecturer of anthropology in the Arab world at the University of London School of
Oriental and African Studies.
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 455

shrines,” which made some scholars see such pilgrimages “as a gendered re-
ligious practice.” 81
In the Muslim Mary’s story, we find miraculous events that have a sym-
bolic significance for humankind, and . . . ​Mary proclaims a saving mes-
sage. However, once she brings her child to her people and he proclaims his
mission, her involvement with the other characters ceases, and she returns
to her solitary worship of the Almighty.
The import of the Muslim Mary’s life of purity, prayer, and virtue is
that it enables her to carry out God’s will, and it serves as an example for
others to follow. 82

The male-​­centered image is interpreted as affirming this interpretation

because Mary was silent after she had to defend her pregnancy; Jesus spoke
from the crib and defended her. Therefore, although Mary is glorified in the
Qur’ān, her sublimity derives from her link with Jesus. 83 As in the Gospel,
the main significance of Mary for the Qur’ān is that she is the mother of
Jesus. Apart from that, some argue that she has a minimal role to play, citing
that, in both scriptures, Mary’s outlook is one of humble recognition of the
part God allocated to her: “Prostrate thyself ” (3:38/43), and “Behold the ser-
vant of the Lord” (Lk. 1:38). 84

The Question about Mary’s Prophecy

Two important inquiries about Mary attracted the attention of Muslim
scholars: Mary’s sinless nature and her role as a “sign.” These inquiries led to
the problem of understanding the questions of where Mary ranks among
other women and whether she was a prophetess. In Qur’ān 3:42, the angels
tell Mary that God has chosen her above all women; this led to the discus-
sion of whether she is the best woman of all time or just the time when she
lived. Many Muslim scholars argue that Mary, together with Khadījah, 85
Fāṭ ima, and Asiya, were the four greatest women in history. 86 In addition to
 81
 Jansen and Kühl, “Shared Symbols,” p. 296.
 82
 Hearden, “Ambassador,” p. 35.
 83
 See Lybarger, “Gender and Prophetic Authority,” p. 241.
 84
 See Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an, pp. 62–63.
 85
 The Prophet Muhammad’s wife.
 86
 See Kaltner, “The Muslim Mary,” p. 177.
456 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

exploring Mary with the other three women in Islam, it might also be inter-
esting to compare Mary with four other important women in the biblical
account: Tamar, Rahab, Ruth, and Bathsheba. 87
On the subject of Mary as a prophetess, many Muslim scholars argue
that prophets were only men. They support their claims citing two qur’ānic
verses, 12:109 and 16:43, the first of which says, “We sent not before thee (any
messengers) save men.” However, some scholars believe that Mary was in
fact a prophetess, saying that “Chapter 21 mentions eighteen individuals . . . ​
(including Mary).” All are acknowledged as prophets in Islamic tradition.
Since Mary appears in this group, therefore, she had to be a prophetess.
Likewise, scholars argue that the word “man” used in the Qur’ān to describe
the prophets does not in fact mean just males but humans in general. 88
Among those who believe in Mary’s prophecy is Imām Abū Ḥasan al-​
’­Ash’ārī (d. 936.), 89 one of the most influential Muslim theologians.
Nevertheless, the majority of scholars, based on the qur’ānic verses in
12:109 and 16:43, say that Mary was not a prophetess; she was given a child in
a miraculous way, but not a message, as given to other prophets. 90 Although
“[t]he majority of Muslim scholars have rejected counting Mary among the
prophets, . . . ​the qur’anic story . . . ​strikes at the foundations of a patriarchal
understanding of prophecy, and . . . ​contributes to prophetic authority that
is shared by a woman (Maryam) and a man (Isa).” 91
Mary’s story challenges a patriarchal understanding of prophecy 92 and
enables the discussion of different interpretations. This can be also under-
stood as a shift from male-​­centered profiles of the qur’ānic prophecy toward
a more nongendered image. 93 Regardless of whether Mary can be consid-
ered a prophetess, she has a unique place in the Islamic tradition as she re-
lates to the first woman, Eve, and by way of her identification with “Fāṭ ima
in the context of the controversy over the hierarchy of holy women in
Islam.” 94

 87
 See Borelli, “Virgin Mary in the Breadth and Scope,” p. 45.
 88
 See Kaltner, “The Muslim Mary,” pp. 176–177.
 89
 See Harman, Meryem, p. 241.
 90
 See Lybarger, “Gender and Prophetic Authority,” pp. 246–247.
 91
 Davary, “Mary in Islam,” p. 33.
 92
 See Lybarger, “Gender and Prophetic Authority,” p. 250.
 93
 See ibid., p. 241.
 94
 Smith and Haddad, “Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition,” p. 172.
 Salih  •  Mary as a Paradigm of Muslim Piety 457

Conclusion
We can say, “Just as Catholicism has and continues to interpret Mary in
varying ways, the Islamic perception of Mary also has a rich history of inter-
pretation.” 95 Islamic tradition has often used Mary as a good example for
understanding “human behavior and individual response to God. . . . ​Mary
has proved quite useful for contemporary commentators as they prescribe
the proper task and role for women.” 96 Also, “in spite of the abuses she en-
dured from her community, Mary remained selflessly concerned for them.
This concern stemmed from a great faith in God.” 97 Therefore, “Mary is an
ideal and . . . ​model for Muslims engaged in dialogue,” both as a part of their
discussions “and as a way of addressing human need” for conversation and
understanding. 98
“Christians and Muslims revere Mary as grace-​­filled and blessed, cho-
sen of all women, pure and saintly, and the mother of the Messiah.” At the
same time, she also “is a symbol of what divides Christians and Muslims . . . ​
Christians confess that Mary is the God-​­bearer, the mother of God, while
Muslims speak of her as the mother of Jesus, who was no more than God’s
apostle.” But, “[w]hile this radical difference in faith forever separates
[them], it paradoxically also holds [them] forever in conversation with one
another.” 99
Devotion to Mary by religious people in both traditions signifies a
broader religious context in which dedication to Mary can be raised in dia-
logue. “Incompatibilities . . . ​w ill be discerned.” However, these differences
do not need to close the channel of communication. Rather, they can “chal-
lenge us to honest and sincere dialogue.” 100 Dialogue leads to peace, under-
standing, collaboration, and acceptance.
Mary’s attitudes of submission to God and prayer within the dialogue
process are a paradigm to today’s necessity for mutual understanding, re-
spect, and humility. “If we are to be God’s instruments in the pursuit of di-
vine truth, we must submit and open our hearts to God” as Mary did.
 95
 Davary, “Mary in Islam,” p. 33.
 96
 Smith and Haddad, “Virgin Mary in Islamic Tradition,” p. 186.
 97
 Hearden, “Lessons,” p. 425.
 98
 Ibid., p. 426.
 99
 Borelli, “Virgin Mary in the Breadth and Scope,” p. 46.
 100
 Ibid., p. 49.
458 Journal of Ecumenical Studies  •  52:3

Therefore, preparing for Muslim-​­Christian dialogue—​­whether academic,

social, political, or economic—​­requires sensible awareness of people’s ac-
tions and motivations to serve God. “[A]s human beings . . . ​universally vul-
nerable to sin, we require some kind of concrete, recognized symbol of our
holy intentions. The person and character of the Blessed Virgin can fill this
need in a uniquely powerful way.” 101 Let us share the hope of Professor Nok-
kari that a shared holiday to remember Mary will introduce to other parts of
the world what Pope John Paul II called for in 1989 as “a message of pluralism
for the East and the West.” 102

Jusuf Salih is an assistant professor in the Department of Religious Studies of the Uni-
versity of Dayton (OH), where he has taught since 2012. He was a visiting professor at
the Institute for Islamic Theology at the University of Osnabruck (Germany) in 2013
(Summer), and has been a visiting instructor at the University of Saskatchewan (Can-
ada), 2010–12, and a visiting fellow at St. Lawrence University, Canton, NY (2008–10).
He has a B.A., an M.A., and an A.B.D. from Marmara University, Faculty of Religious
Studies, Istanbul, Turkey; and an M.A. and a Ph.D. (2011) in religious studies from the
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, where he was a teaching assistant, 2004–08. He
has delivered lectures at several conferences in the U.S. and in Switzerland and Spain.
His five articles have appeared in religious journals and as a book chapter. A member of
the interfaith Committee of the Pastoral Ministry at the University of Dayton, he also
was on a committee for the twenty-​­year anniversary of the Dayton Peace Accords and
on its educators’ list.

 101
 Hearden, “Lessons,” p. 420.
 102
 See Raad, “Lebanese Sheik.”