· T

Q kA
L

L · 0.3 m
A Q (180 W) 0.04663 m2 466.3 cm2
k T (386 W/m °C)(3°C)

1
A D2 D 4 A/ 4(466.3 cm2)/ 24.4 cm
4
m V AL (8590 kg/m3)(0.04663 m2)(0.3 m) 125.2 kg

Boiling occurs when a liquid is in contact with a surface main- The rate of evaporation and the rate of heat transfer in nucleate
tained at a temperature Ts sufficiently above the saturation tem- boiling increase with increasing Texcess and reach a maximum
perature Tsat of the liquid. Boiling is classified as pool boiling at some point. The heat flux at this point is called the critical
or flow boiling depending on the presence of bulk fluid motion. (or maximum) heat flux, q·max. The rate of heat transfer in nu-
Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of bulk fluid flow cleate pool boiling is determined from
and flow boiling (or forced convection boiling) in its presence.
g( ) 1/2 Cpl (Ts Tsat) 3
Pool and flow boiling are further classified as subcooled boil- q·nucleate
l
l hfg
ing and saturated boiling depending on the bulk liquid temper- Csf hfg Prln
ature. Boiling is said to be subcooled (or local) when the
temperature of the main body of the liquid is below the satura- The maximum (or critical) heat flux in nucleate pool boiling is
tion temperature Tsat and saturated (or bulk) when the temper- determined from
ature of the liquid is equal to Tsat. Boiling exhibits different
regimes depending on the value of the excess temperature q·max Ccr hfg[ g 2
( l )]1/4
Texcess. Four different boiling regimes are observed: natural
convection boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling, and where the value of the constant Ccr is about 0.15. The minimum
film boiling. These regimes are illustrated on the boiling curve. heat flux is given by
 1/4
g( ) and fully turbulent for Re 1800. Heat transfer coefficients in
q·min
l
0.09 hfg 2
the wavy-laminar and turbulent flow regions are determined
( l )
from
The heat flux for stable film boiling on the outside of a hori- Re kl 1/3
g 30 Re 1800
zontal cylinder or sphere of diameter D is given by hvert, wavy ,
1.08 Re1.22 5.2 2
l l
gk3 ( l )[hfg 0.4Cp (Ts Tsat) 1/4
Re kl g 1/3
q·film Cfilm hvert, turbulent ,
D(Ts Tsat) 8750 58 Pr 0.5 (Re0.75 253) 2
l
(Ts Tsat) Re 1800
l
where the constant Cfilm 0.62 for horizontal cylinders and
0.67 for spheres, and k is the thermal conductivity of the Equations for vertical plates can also be used for laminar
vapor. The vapor properties are to be evaluated at the film tem- film condensation on the upper surfaces of the plates that are
perature Tf (Tsat Ts)/2, which is the average temperature inclined by an angle from the vertical, by replacing g in that
of the vapor film. The liquid properties and hfg are to be evalu- equation by g cos . Vertical plate equations can also be used to
ated at the saturation temperature at the specified pressure. calculate the average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film
Two distinct forms of condensation are observed in nature: condensation on the outer surfaces of vertical tubes provided
film condensation and dropwise condensation. In film conden- that the tube diameter is large relative to the thickness of the
sation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a liquid film liquid film.
on the surface that slides down under the influence of gravity. The average heat transfer coefficient for film condensation
In dropwise condensation, the condensed vapor forms count- on the outer surfaces of a horizontal tube is determined to be
less droplets of varying diameters on the surface instead of a
continuous film. g l( l ) h*fg k3l 1/4

The Reynolds number for the condensate flow is defined as hhoriz 0.729 (W/m2 · °C)
l (Ts Tsat)D
Dh l l 4A l l 4m
Re p p l where D is the diameter of the horizontal tube. This relation
l l
can easily be modified for a sphere by replacing the constant
0.729 by 0.815. It can also be used for N horizontal tubes
and
stacked on top of each other by replacing D in the denominator
4Q conden 4 As h(Tsat Ts) by ND.
Re For low vapor velocities, film condensation heat transfer
p l h*fg p l h*fg inside horizontal tubes can be determined from

where h*fg is the modified latent heat of vaporization, defined as g l( l ) k3l 3

1/4
hinternal 0.555 h C (T Ts )
h*fg hfg 0.68Cpl (Tsat Ts ) l (Tsat Ts) fg 8 pl sat

and represents heat transfer during condensation per unit and

mass of condensate. Here Cpl is the specific heat of the liquid in D
J/kg · °C. Revapor 35,000
inlet
Using some simplifying assumptions, the average heat
transfer coefficient for film condensation on a vertical plate of
where the Reynolds number of the vapor is to be evaluated at
height L is determined to be
the tube inlet conditions using the internal tube diameter as the
g l( ) h*fg k3l 1/4 characteristic length. Finally, the heat transfer coefficient for
l
hvert 0.943 (W/m2 · °C) dropwise condensation of steam on copper surfaces is given by
l (Ts Tsat)L
51,104 2044Tsat 22°C Tsat 100°C
All properties of the liquid are to be evaluated at the film tem- hdropwise ,
255,310 Tsat 100°C
perature Tf (Tsat Ts)/2. The hfg and are to be evaluated at
Tsat. Condensate flow is smooth and wave-free laminar for where Tsat is in °C and the heat transfer coefficient hdropwise is in
about Re 30, wavy-laminar in the range of 30 Re 1800, W/m2 · °C.