CH2 Machining PDF

Material Removal Process (Metal
Machining Process)
1.1 Theory of Metal Cutting

overview, theory of chip formation, force &
merchant equation, power & energy, cutting
temperature
1.2 Machining Operations and Machine Tools

turning, drilling, milling, machine centers,
cutting tool technology
BDA 3052 Manufacturing

Technology
Material Removal Processes
Introduction
¡ It is shaping operations, it remove material from a

starting workpart so the remaining part has the
desired geometry
¡ Divided into three main groups:
1) Machining – material removal by a sharp
cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
2) Abrasive processes – material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
3) Nontraditional processes - various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material
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Why Machining is Important
¡ Variety of work materials can be machined

l Most frequently used to cut metals
¡ Variety of part shapes and special geometric

features possible, such as:
l Screw threads
l Accurate round holes
l Very straight edges and surfaces
¡ Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

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Disadvantages with Machining
¡ Wasteful of material
l Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
¡ Time consuming
l A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming

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Machining in Manufacturing Sequence
¡ Generally performed after other manufacturing

processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
l Other processes create the general shape of
the starting workpart
l Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create

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Machining
Nomenclature of single point tool

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Seven elements of single-point tool geometry; and
(b) the tool signature convention that defines the
seven elements.

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Orthogonal Cutting Model
Simplified 2-D model of machining that

describes the mechanics of machining
fairly accurately
Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

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Orthogonal and Oblique cutting

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Assumptions in orthogonal cutting
(Merchant theory)
¡ 01.The tool is perfectly sharp and no contact along clearance face.
¡ 02. The shear surface is a plane extending upward from the
cutting edge.
¡ 03.The cutting edge is a straight line, extending perpendicular to
the direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work
moves past it.
¡ 04.The chip does not flow to either side.
¡ 05.The depth of cut is constant.
¡ 06.Width of the tool is greater than the work piece.
¡ 07.The work moves relative to the tool with uniform velocity.
¡ 08.A continuous chip is produced with no built up edge.

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Assumptions in orthogonal cutting
(Merchant theory)
¡ 09. Chip is assume to shear continuously

across plane AB on which the shear stress
reaches the value of shear flow stress.
¡ 10.Width of chip is remains equal to the width
of the work piece. i.e. Plane strain conditions
exist.

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Difference between orthogonal and
oblique cutting
Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting

01.The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the The cutting edge is inclined at angle with the normal
direction of the tool travel. direction of the tool travel.
02. The cutting edge clears the width of the work piece The cutting edge may or may not clear the width of the
on either ends. workpiece.
03. The chip flows over the tool. The chip coils in tight. The chip flows on the tool face making an angle with
the normal cutting edge. The chip flows side ways in a
long curl.
04. Only two components of the cutting force acting on Three components of the forces acting on the tool.
the tool.
05.Maximum chip thickness occurs at the middle. Maximum chip thickness may not occur at middle.
06. For the given feed rate and DOC, the force which It acts on larger area and thus tool life is more.
act or shears the metal acts on a smaller area and
therefore, the heat developed per unit area due to
friction along the tool work interface is less and the tool
life is less.
Machining
¡ Cutting action involves shear deformation of

work material to form a chip
¡ As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
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Cutting Process in Turning

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Cutting Process in Turning

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Relationship between chip thickness,
rake angle and shear plane angle
l s sin f sin f
r= =
ls cos(f - a ) cos(f - a )
Technology
Determining Shear Plane Angle
¡ Based on the geometric parameters of the

orthogonal model, the shear plane angle f can be
determined as:
r cos a
tan f =
1 - r sina
where r = chip ratio, and a = rake angle

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Chip Thickness Ratio
to
r =
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the

chip prior to chip formation; and tc = chip thickness
after separation
¡ Chip thickness after cut always greater than

before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0

Technology
Example of Problem
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal

cutting, the cutting tool has a rake angle = 10°. The chip
Thickness before the cut to = 0.50 mm and the chip
thickness after the cut tc = 1.125 mm. Calculate the shear
plane angle and the shear strain in the operation.
Answer : f = 25.4°
g = 2.386

Technology
Example of Problem 2
In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake

angle = 15°. The chip thickness before the cut = 0.30
mm and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness = 0.65
mm. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the
shear strain for the operation.

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Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a series of
parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the plates isolated
to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain
equation.
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Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed

from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:
AC AD + DC
g = =
BD BD
g = tan(f - a) + cot f
where g = shear strain, f = shear plane angle, and a =

rake angle of cutting tool
Technology
In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake

angle = 15°. The chip thickness before the cut = 0.30
mm and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness = 0.65
mm. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the
shear strain for the operation.

Technology
Chip Formation
More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting
from tool-chip friction.
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Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

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1. Discontinuous Chip
l Brittle work
materials
¡ Low cutting
speeds
¡ Large feed and
depth of cut
¡ High tool-chip
friction

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2. Continuous Chip
¡ Ductile work
materials
¡ High cutting
speeds
¡ Small feeds and
depths
¡ Sharp cutting edge
¡ Low tool-chip
friction
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Continuous with BUE
¡ Ductile materials
¡ Low-to-medium
cutting speeds
¡ Tool-chip friction
causes portions of
chip to adhere to
rake face
¡ BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically

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Serrated Chip
¡ Semicontinuous -
saw-tooth
appearance
¡ Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
¡ Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting Figure 21.9 (d) serrated.
speeds
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Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
¡ Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear

plane which means lower shear force, cutting
forces, power, and temperature
Effect of shear plane angle f : (a) higher f with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller f with a corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
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Forces Acting on Chip
¡ Friction force F and Normal force to friction N

¡ Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn
Forces in metal cutting: (a)

forces acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting

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Resultant Forces
¡ Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

¡ Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
¡ Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
l R‘’ must be equal in magnitude to R
l R’ must be opposite in direction to R
l R’ must be collinear with R

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Cutting Forces

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Cutting Forces

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Cutting Forces

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Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F
µ = -(1)
N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction

as follows:
µ = tan b -(2)

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Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S= -(3)
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As = -(4)
sin f
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during
cutting

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Cutting Force and Thrust Force
¡ F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured

¡ Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
l Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
Forces in metal
cutting: (b) forces
acting on the tool that
can be measured

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Merchant’s circle diagram

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Merchant’s circle diagram

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Forces in Metal Cutting
¡ Equations can be derived to relate the forces that

cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured:
F = Fc sin a + Ft cos a (5)
N = Fc cos a - Ft sin a (6)
Fs = Fc cos f - Ft sin f (7)
Fn = Fc sin f + Ft cos f (8)
¡ Based on th ese calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined

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Cutting force = 1559 N

Thrust force = 1271 N
Width of cutting = 3 mm
Rake angle = 10°
Shear plane angle = 25.4°
Original Thickness = 0.5 mm
Determine the shear strength of the work
material.
shear stress, S / shear strength, t = 247 N/mm2

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Forces in Metal Cutting
¡ From equation 3, the force diagram (Merchant ‘s Circle
Diagram), can be used to derived the following
equations:
St o w cos( b - a ) Fs cos( b - a )
Fc = =
sin f cos(f + b - a ) cos(f + b - a )
St o w sin( b - a ) Fs sin( b - a )
Ft = =
sin f cos(f + b - a ) cos(f + b - a )

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The Merchant Equation
¡ From equation 3, 4 and 7, Merchant Equation for shear
stress can be expressed as,
Fc cos f - Ft sin f
t =
(tow / sin f )

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The Merchant Equation
¡ Of all the possible angles at which shear

deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle f that minimizes
energy, given by
a b
f = 45 + -
2 2
¡ Derived by Eugene Merchant
¡ Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends
to 3-D machining

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What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
a b
f = 45 + -
2 2
¡ To increase shear plane angle
l Increase the rake angle
l Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of

friction)

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Power and Energy Relationships
¡ A machining operation requires power

¡ The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc n
where Pc = cutting power (Nm/s); Fc = cutting force

(N); and n = cutting speed (m/min)

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¡ In U.S. customary units, power is traditional

expressed as horsepower
HPc = Fcn/33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

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¡ Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or

HPg is given by
Pc HPc
Pg = or HPg =
E E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

§ Typical E for machine tools ~ 90%

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Unit Power in Machining
¡ Useful to convert power into power per unit

volume rate of metal cut
¡ Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc or HPc
PU = HPu =
MRR MRR
where MRR = material removal rate (mm3/s)

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Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc Fc v Fc
U = Pu = = =
MRR vt o w to w
Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or

J/mm3

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Cutting Temperature
¡ Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is

converted into heat
¡ This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool-chip
¡ The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as
elastic energy in the chip

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Cutting Temperature is Important
High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to

the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due
to thermal expansion of work material

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Cutting Temperature
¡ Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook

from dimensional analysis using
experimental data for various work materials
0.333
0.4U æ vt o ö
T = ç ÷
rC è K ø
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U =

specific energy; v = cutting speed; to = chip thickness
before cut; rC = volumetric specific heat of work
material; K = thermal diffusivity of work material

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Example Problem 6
Cutting speed = 100 m/min

Chip original thickness = 0.5 mm
Thermal diffusivity = 50 mm2/s
Specific Energy = 1.038
Volumetric specific heat work material = 3 x10-3 J/mm3
Find the mean temperature rise at the tool-chip

Interface.

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Cutting Temperature
¡ Experimental methods can be used to measure

temperatures in machining
l Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip
thermocouple
¡ Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface
temperature, and v = cutting speed
K and m depend on the cutting conditions and
work material

Technology
Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting

tool is used to mechanically cut away material so
that the desired part geometry remains
¡ Most common application: to shape metal parts
¡ Most versatile of all manufacturing processes in
its capability to produce a diversity of part
geometries and geometric features with high
precision and accuracy
l Casting can also produce a variety of shapes,
but it lacks the precision and accuracy of
machining
Classification of Machined Parts
¡ Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape

¡ Nonrotational (also called prismatic) -
block-like or plate-like
Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b) nonrotational,

shown here by block and flat parts.
Machining Operations and Part
Geometry
Each machining operation produces a
characteristic part geometry due to two
factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and workpart
• Generating – part geometry determined

by feed trajectory of cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by

the shape of the cutting tool
Generating Shape
Figure 22.2 Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c)
contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling.
Forming to Create Shape
Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c)
broaching.
Forming and Generating
Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a) thread

cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling.
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to generate a cylinder
¡ Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
¡ Variations of turning performed on a lathe:
l Facing
l Contour turning
l Chamfering
l Cutoff
l Threading
Turning
Turning operation.
Turning Operation
Close-up view of a
turning operation on
steel using a titanium
nitride coated carbide
cutting insert (photo
courtesy of Kennametal
Inc.)
Facing
Tool is fed
radially inward
Contour Turning
¡ Instead of feeding tool

parallel to axis of
rotation, tool follows a
contour that is other
than straight, thus
creating a contoured
shape
Chamfering
¡ Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of

the cylinder, forming a "chamfer"
Cutoff
¡ Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some

location to cut off end of part
Cutoff
¡ Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some

location to cut off end of part
Threading
¡ Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface

of rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation
at a large feed rate, thus creating threads
Cutting Conditions in Turning - 1
The rotational speed in turning related to the desired cutting

speed at the surface of the cylindrical workpiece by the
equation:
n
N =
pDo
N = rotational speed, rev/min; n = cutting speed, m/min,
And Do = original diameter of the part, m.
The change in diameter is determined by the depth of cut,

d:
Do – Df = 2d
Do = original diameter, mm; Df = final diameter, mm

d = depth of cut
The feed in turning is generally expressed in mm/rev. This

feed can be converted to linear travel rate in mm/min by the
formula:
fr = Nf
fr = feed rate, mm/min; f = feed mm/rev

The time to machine from one end of a cylindrical workpart

to the other is given by:
Tm = L/fr
Tm = time of actual machining, minutes; and L = length of

the cylindrical workpart, mm
The volumetric rate of material removal rate can be most

conveniently determined by the following equation:
MRR = vfd
MRR = material removal rate, mm3/min, f = feed, mm

Cutting Conditions in Turning
Problem 1
A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter

and 700 mm long is to be turned in an
engine lathe. Cutting conditions are as
follows: cutting speed is 2.30 m/s, feed is
0.32 mm/rev, and depth of cut is 1.80
mm.
Determine (a) cutting time, and (b)
metal removal rate.
Problem 1
A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter

and 700 mm long is to be turned in an
engine lathe. Cutting conditions are as
follows: cutting speed is 2.30 m/s, feed is
0.32 mm/rev, and depth of cut is 1.80
mm.
Determine (a) cutting time, and (b)
metal removal rate.
Problem 2
A work materials are to be turned to final size of

175 mm length having diameter of 60 mm.
Total length of the work material is 300 mm. A
single point tool having a certain degree of rake
angle is used. The work material rotates at 1400
RPM. The feed is 0.35 mm / revolution.
Final size of the work material is 51 mm.
Calculate:
1. Cutting velocity,
2. Time taken to machine to the length of 55 mm,
3. Total Material removal rate to get 51 mm diameter.
Milling
Machining operation in which work is fed past a
rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
¡ Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
¡ Creates a planar surface
l Other geometries possible either by cutter

path or shape
¡ Other factors and terms:
l Interrupted cutting operation
l Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting

edges called "teeth"
l Machine tool called a milling machine
Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling
¡ Peripheral milling
l Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
l Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
¡ Face milling
l Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being
milled
l Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter
METHODS OF MILLING-1
1) Up milling is also referred to as conventional

milling. The direction of the cutter rotation
opposes the feed motion. For example, if the
cutter rotates clockwise , the workpiece is fed
to the right in up milling.
METHODS OF MILLING-2
2) Down milling is also referred to as climb

milling. The direction of cutter rotation is
same as the feed motion. For example, if the
cutter rotates counterclockwise , the
workpiece is fed to the right in down milling
Slab Milling
¡ Basic form of peripheral milling in which the

cutter width extends beyond the workpiece
on both sides
Slotting
¡ Width of cutter is less than workpiece width,

creating a slot in the work
Conventional Face Milling
Cutter overhangs work

on both sides
Profile Milling
Form of end milling in

which the outside
periphery of a flat
part is cut
Pocket Milling
¡ Another form
of end milling
used to mill
shallow
pockets into
flat parts
Surface Contouring
¡ Ball-nose cutter
fed back and forth
across work along
a curvilinear path
at close intervals
to create a three
dimensional
surface form
End Milling
¡ Cutter diameter is
less than work
width, so a slot is
cut into part
Machining Centers
Highly automated machine tool can perform
multiple machining operations under CNC
control in one setup with minimal human
attention
l Typical operations are milling and drilling
l Three, four, or five axes
¡ Other features:
l Automatic tool-changing
l Pallet shuttles
l Automatic workpart positioning

Milling Operation
High speed face

milling using
indexable inserts
(photo courtesy
of Kennametal
Inc.).
Cutting Conditions in Milling - 1
The cutting speed is determined at the

outside diameter of a milling cutter.
n
N =
pD
N = rotational speed, rev/min; n = cutting speed,
m/min,
And Do = outside diameter of a milling cutter,mm.
The feed, f in milling is usually given as a feed per cutter

tooth; called the chip load, it represents the size of the chip
formed by each cutting edge.
fr = Nnt f
fr = feed rate, mm/min; N = spindle speed, rev/min; nt =

number of teeth on the cutter; f = chip load in mm/tooth
The feed, f in milling is usually given as a feed per cutter

tooth; called the chip load, it represents the size of the chip
formed by each cutting edge.
fr = Nnt f
fr = feed rate, mm/min; N = spindle speed, rev/min; nt =

number of teeth on the cutter; f = chip load in mm/tooth
The material removal rate,
MRR = wdfr
w = width; d = depth of cut; fr = feed rate, mm/min;

Peripheral Milling
Approach distance A, to reach full cutter depth given by:
A= d (D - d )
d = depth of cut, mm, and D = diameter of the milling cutter,

mm
The time to mill the workiece Tm is

therefore;
L+ A
Tm =
fr
Face Milling – cutter is centered
Where A and O are each to half the cutter

diameter;
A = O = D/2
D= cutter diameter, mm
Face Milling – cutter is offset
Where A and O are each to half the cutter

diameter;
A = O = w( D - w)
w= width of the cut, mm
The time to mill the workiece in face

milling,Tm is therefore;
L + 2A
Tm =
fr
Cutting Conditions in Milling
Problem 1
A peripheral milling operation is performed
on the top surface of a rectangular
workpart which is 400 mm long by 60 mm
wide. The milling cutter, which is 80 mm in
diameter and has five teeth, overhangs the
width of the part on both sides. The cutting
speed is 70 m/min, the chip load is 0.25
mm/tooth, and the depth of cut is 5.0 mm.
Determine (a) the time to make one pass
across the surface, and (b) the maximum
material removal rate during the cut.
Cutting Conditions in Milling
Problem 2
A face milling operation is performed to finish
the top surface of a steel rectangular work
piece 350 mm long by 55 mm wide. The milling
cutter has four teeth (cemented carbide inserts)
and a 85 mm diameter. Cutting conditions are:
v = 600 m/min, f = 0.35 mm / tooth, and d =
3.5 mm.
Determine:
a) the time to make one pass across the surface.
b) the metal removal rate during the cut.
Drilling
¡ Creates a round
hole in a workpart
¡ Compare to boring
which can only
enlarge an existing
hole
¡ Cutting tool called
a drill or drill bit
¡ Machine tool: drill
press
Through Holes vs. Blind Holes
Through-holes - drill exits opposite side of work

Blind-holes – does not exit work opposite side
Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole.

Reaming
¡ Used to slightly
enlarge a hole,
provide better
tolerance on
diameter, and
improve surface
finish
Tapping
¡ Used to provide
internal screw
threads on an
existing hole
¡ Tool called a tap
Counterboring
¡ Provides a stepped
hole, in which a
larger diameter
follows smaller
diameter partially
into the hole
Cutting Conditions in Drilling - 1
Letting N represent the spindle rev/min,
n
N =
pD
n = cutting speed, m/min; D = the drill
diameter,mm.
Feed can be converted to feed rate using the the same

equation as for turning:
fr = Nf
fr = feed rate, mm/min; N = spindle speed, rev/min; f = feed

in drilling, mm/rev
The time to drill through holes;
t+A
Tm =
fr
Tm= machining time, min; t = work thickness,
mm; fr = feed rate, mm/min
The allowance is given by;
æ qö
A = 0.5 D tan ç 90 - ÷
è 2ø
A = approach allowance, mm; q = drill point angle

The time to drill blind holes;
d
Tm =
fr
Tm= machining time, min; d = hole depth,
mm; fr = feed rate, mm/min
Cutting Conditions in Drilling
Problem 1
A drilling operation is to be performed with a
12.7 mm diameter twist drill in a steel
workpart. The hole is a blind hole at a depth of
60 mm and the point angle is 118°. The cutting
speed is 25 m/min and the feed is 0.30
mm/rev.
Determine
(a) the cutting time to complete the drilling
operation, and
(b) metal removal rate during the operation,
after the drill bit reaches full diameter.
CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY
1. Tool Life
2. Tool Materials
3. Tool Geometry
4. Cutting Fluids
Cutting Tool Technology
Two principal aspects:

1. Tool material
2. Tool geometry
Three Modes of Tool Failure
1. Fracture failure
l Cutting force becomes excessive and/or
dynamic, leading to brittle fracture
2. Temperature failure
l Cutting temperature is too high for the tool
material
3. Gradual wear
l Gradual wearing of the cutting tool
Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
¡ Fracture and temperature failures are premature

failures
¡ Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the
longest possible use of the tool
¡ Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
l Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
l Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)

Tool Wear
Figure 23.1 Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal

locations and types of wear that occur.
Figure 23.2 Crater wear,
(above), and flank wear (right) on
a cemented carbide tool, as seen
through a toolmaker's
microscope (photos by K. C.
Keefe, Manufacturing Technology
Lab, Lehigh University).
FLANK WEAR and BUE
CRATER WEAR
BUILT UP EDE
Taylor Tool Life Equation
Relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor
vT n = C
where v = cutting speed; T = tool life; and n and C

are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut,
work material, tooling material, and the tool life
criterion used
§ n is the slope of the plot
§ C is the intercept on the speed axis at one minute
tool life
Tool Life Criteria in Production
1. Complete failure of cutting edge

2. Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater
wear) by the machine operator
3. Fingernail test across cutting edge
4. Changes in sound emitted from operation
5. Chips become ribbon-like, stringy, and
difficult to dispose of
6. Degradation of surface finish
7. Increased power
8. Workpiece count
9. Cumulative cutting time
Tool Materials
¡ Tool failure modes identify the important

properties that a tool material should possess:
l Toughness - to avoid fracture failure
l Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness at

high temperatures
l Wear resistance - hardness is the most
important property to resist abrasive wear

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Material Removal Process (Metal

1.1 Theory of Metal Cutting

1.2 Machining Operations and Machine Tools

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¡ It is shaping operations, it remove material from a

¡ Variety of work materials can be machined

¡ Variety of part shapes and special geometric

l Accurate round holes

l Very straight edges and surfaces

¡ Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

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BDA 3052 Manufacturing

¡ Generally performed after other manufacturing

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BDA 3052 Manufacturing

BDA 3052 Manufacturing

Simplified 2-D model of machining that

Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

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BDA 3052 Manufacturing

¡ 09. Chip is assume to shear continuously

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Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting

¡ Cutting action involves shear deformation of

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

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BDA 3052 Manufacturing

¡ Based on the geometric parameters of the

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where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the

¡ Chip thickness after cut always greater than

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In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal

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In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake

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Shear strain in machining can be computed

where g = shear strain, f = shear plane angle, and a =

In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake

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More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

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BDA 3052 Manufacturing

BDA 3052 Manufacturing

¡ Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear

¡ Friction force F and Normal force to friction N

Forces in metal cutting: (a)

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¡ Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

l R’ must be opposite in direction to R

l R’ must be collinear with R

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BDA 3052 Manufacturing

BDA 3052 Manufacturing

BDA 3052 Manufacturing

Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction

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Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

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¡ F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured

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BDA 3052 Manufacturing