TETRA Engineered Solutions Guide

TETRA Technologies, Inc.
25025 Interstate 45 North, Suite 600

The Woodlands, Texas 77380
281.367.1983
www.tetratec.com
Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids and
Filtration, Second Edition
© 2004 and 2007 by TETRA Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval sys-
tem, or transmitted by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise—without written permission from TETRA Technologies, Inc.
First edition published 2004. Second edition published 2007.
Printed in the United States of America.
Trademarks
ActiVis, AdvanceClean, BioPol, CORSAF, CV-Pro, DIS-Pro, FerroBan, MatchWell, OxBan,
PseudoPol, SafeDEflo, TDSP, TETRAClean, TETRAHib, TETRAFlex, TETRAVis, and TP-Pro are
trademarks of TETRA Technologies, Inc. TETRA, the TETRA logo, EXPRESS, and PayZone
are registered trademarks of TETRA Technologies, Inc.
Celatom is a registered trademark of EaglePicher, Inc. Hydril is a registered trademark of
Hydril Company.
Warning and Disclaimer

The information presented herein is believed by TETRA Technologies, Inc. to be accurate.
However, no representations are made concerning this information to any user and none
shall be implied. Under no circumstances shall TETRA Technologies, Inc. or its responsible
personnel be liable for any damages, including without limitation any special, incidental,
or consequential damages, which may be claimed to have resulted from the use of any
information contained herein.
Contributors
The following team members participated in the creation of this guide and we want to
acknowledge their contributions and thank them for their efforts.
Chris Atkinson Dennis L. Howe Michael Shaw
Charlie Barton Don Kehlenbeck Larry Sims
Thomas S. Carter Kurt Landry Roosevelt Smith
Joey Detiveaux Jeffrey McKennis Edward D. Stegall
Weyman Dunaway Suren Mishra Mike Stephens
Russell Fisher Aaron Morse Stephen W. Stroh
Judy Franklin Joe Murphey Duane Sutherland
Joe Free David Odum Rosa Swartwout
Cheryl Frey Wayne Peddy Ray Talabi
Judy Guy-Caffey Richard Perkins Ric Termine
Steve Hardwick Hank Reeves Don Walters
Allen Hayes, Jr. Rob Richie Loren E. Worley
Bernard Hester Ashley Saltzer
Production Editor: Stephanie Wiegand

Technical Editor: Russell Fisher, Strategic Market Management
I
Contents
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
Why We Wrote this Guide ......................................................................2
Use of Icons ............................................................................................2
Contact Information .................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2 Fluid Planning: Fluid Selection

Safety and the Environment .....................................................................5
The Planning Process ........................................................................... 8
Design Rationale .....................................................................................8
Planning for Wells Requiring Corrosion Resistant Alloys .............................9
Fluid Categories ................................................................................... 10
Fluid Density ........................................................................................ 11
General Fluid Density Ranges ................................................................14
Density Ranges .....................................................................................15
Crystallization Temperature ................................................................... 15
Temperature Considerations ...................................................................16
Seasonal Effects and Brine Selection .......................................................17
Pressure Considerations—Pressurized Crystallization Temperature ............17
Temperature and Pressure Effects ........................................................... 18
Estimating Required Fluid Volume .......................................................... 22
Calculating Volume Requirements ...........................................................22
Permeability and Pressure Conditions in a Producing Zone ......................26
Distance to the Supply Point ...................................................................27
Volume Calculation Worksheet ...............................................................27
Fluid Compatibility ............................................................................ 28
Mineralogy ..........................................................................................28
Reservoir Fluid Chemistry ......................................................................28
Metallurgy and Elastomers .....................................................................28
Specialty Formulated Brines and Engineered Fluid Systems ......................29
Reasons to Consider a Specialty Fluid ....................................................29
CHAPTER 3 Fluid Planning: Processes and Systems

Maintenance of Clear Brine Fluid Properties .......................................... 35
Corrosion Control ................................................................................ 40
Displacement ..................................................................................... 46
Fluid Loss Control ................................................................................. 50
Filtration and Brine Clarity .................................................................... 53
CHAPTER 4 Field Applications and Brine Maintenance

General Density Equations .................................................................... 59
Mixing Two Known Fluids—Unknown Final Density ................................60
Mixing Two Known Fluids—Known Final Density ....................................61
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II
Kill Weight Fluids ................................................................................. 63

Weight Up of Working Fluid with Spike Fluid ......................................... 63
Surface Density Correction .................................................................... 65
Brine Volume Calculations ..................................................................... 67
Maximum Volume of a Specific Density ................................................. 67
Weight Up of Single Salt Brine with Dry Chemicals ................................ 68
Weight Up Tables ................................................................................. 69
Dry Salt Weight Up Volume Increase ..................................................... 70
Cutback Calculations ............................................................................ 71
Cutback Tables .................................................................................... 72
Mixing Viscosified Pills .......................................................................... 74
Determining Product Type ..................................................................... 75
Brine Type ........................................................................................... 75
TETRAVis L Plus Curves ......................................................................... 78
Blending Equipment ............................................................................. 88
Spotting Balanced Pills .......................................................................... 88
Slug Calculations ................................................................................. 91
CHAPTER 5 Product Quick Reference

Clear Brine Fluids ................................................................................. 98
Single Salt Fluids .................................................................................. 98
Multisalt Fluids ..................................................................................... 99
Stock, Custom, and Specialty Fluids ....................................................... 99
Fluids Specially Blended to Control Fluid Loss ....................................... 100
Breaker Technology ............................................................................ 101
Bridging Agents .................................................................................101
Microfiber Bridging Agents ................................................................. 101
Calcium Carbonate Bridging Agents ...................................................102
Sized Salt Bridging Agents ................................................................. 102
Corrosion Control Additives ................................................................103
Dry Salt Weight Material ....................................................................104
Formation Protection Additives ............................................................105
pH Control and Buffering Agents .........................................................106
Rheological and Filtrate Control Products ............................................. 107
Filtration Products ............................................................................... 109
Filtration Equipment ............................................................................ 109
Filtration Consumables ........................................................................ 110
Chemical Displacement Products .........................................................111
Specialized Rental Equipment .............................................................112
Specialty Wellbore Cleanup Tools ....................................................... 113
CHAPTER 6 Tables, Formulas, and Planning Support

Units of Measurement .........................................................................119
Common Minerals and Metals ............................................................120
Useful Conversion Factors ...................................................................121
Useful Formulas .................................................................................. 124
Capacity Tables .................................................................................129
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III
Annular Velocity ................................................................................. 144

Single Salt Fluid Composition and Blending Tables ............................... 145
CHAPTER 7 U.S. Safety and Environmental Information

CBF Chemical Constituents ................................................................. 167
Brine Handling and Personal Safety .................................................... 168
Handling of Clear Brine Fluids ............................................................ 169
Safety Equipment ............................................................................... 170
Recommendations for Immediate Treatment ......................................... 171
Environmental Considerations: Brine Handling and Disposal ................. 171
Hazardous Substances ....................................................................... 171
Discharges ........................................................................................ 172
Permitted Discharges .......................................................................... 172
Releases ............................................................................................ 173
Reportable Quantities (RQs) ................................................................ 173
Releases to the Environment and Notification Requirements ................... 175
Agency Contact Information ............................................................... 176
CHAPTER 8 Special Topics

Crystallization Temperature ................................................................. 181
Formulation and Specification of Crystallization Temperature ................ 183
Pressurized Crystallization Temperature ............................................... 184
Corrosion Control .............................................................................. 185
Corrosion Overview ........................................................................... 185
Major Types of Corrosion ................................................................... 187
Displacement ..................................................................................... 193
Displacement Methods ....................................................................... 194
Chemical Displacement Systems ......................................................... 195
Displacement Modeling Software ........................................................ 198
Condition of Surface Equipment .......................................................... 198
Predisplacement Condition of Mud ...................................................... 199
Condition of Flowpath ........................................................................ 199
Pressure Differentials ........................................................................... 200
Factors Influencing Displacement Efficiency .......................................... 200
Reduction of Fluid Loss ........................................................................ 203
Fluid Loss Strategies ............................................................................ 204
Filtration ............................................................................................ 205
Filtration Equipment Sizing .................................................................. 206
Filtration Theory ................................................................................. 209
Brine Filtration .................................................................................... 212
Rig Practices and Filtration Performance .............................................. 215
Clarity ............................................................................................... 216
Clarity Problems—Contaminants and the Formation of Solids ................ 217
Miscellaneous Contaminants ............................................................... 217
Formation of Solids ............................................................................ 219
Conclusion ........................................................................................ 219
Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids and Filtration Volume 2
IV
CHAPTER 9 References
References ......................................................................................... 223
CHAPTER 10 Useful Lists

List of Tables .......................................................................................225
List of Figures .....................................................................................226
List of Symbols Used in Equations ........................................................ 227

1
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
TETRA Technologies, Inc. was a pioneer in the use of clear brine fluids
for well completions, workovers, and drilling operations, and the Com-
pany has continued to be an innovator in the industry. For more than
two decades, TETRA has worked to develop new and more technically
advanced products to meet the ever-changing needs of our customers.
All segments of our fluids operation—from manufacturing the base
products to technical planning and support—work in concert to provide
an integrated solution for our energy industry customers.
Engineering Services Filtration
TETRA’s Integrated
Package of Fluids Wellbore Cleanup
Technical Support
Products and Products and Services
Services
Clear Brine Fluids

Engineered Fluid Systems
and Products
Brominated Products Calcium Chloride

Manufacturing Manufacturing
Our 26,000-square-foot technology center has state-of-the-art research

and testing equipment and is manned by technologists and Ph.D. chem-
ists who have developed and supported many new innovations in oilfield
well completions. Focused on solving industry-related issues, TETRA
keeps abreast of oilfield trends and strives to design products and tech-
niques aimed at solving emerging problems such as environmentally
assisted cracking (EAC) of chrome production tubing in high pressure,
high temperature (HPHT) wells. Extensive and innovative research in this
www.tetratec.com
2
INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1
area, as well as that related to other production challenges such as fluid

loss and production impairment, is ongoing.
In addition to innovative product development, the technology center

personnel support our field engineers and provide quality assurance
control and best practices guidance to our domestic and international
operations.
Why We Wrote this Guide

The Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids and Filtration has
been developed by TETRA in an effort to assist our customers in planning
for and engineering well completions designed to maximize well perfor-
mance and profitability. We hope that this publication provides useful
information and tools that facilitate the application of products and tech-
nologies designed to enhance our customers’ producing formations.
We have provided useful lists and a comprehensive index to help you

access information that is of interest to you. In addition, the interactive
CD version includes full search capabilities.
Use of Icons

There are several icons used throughout the guide to provide the reader
with visual clues. A brief explanation of each follows.
; This icon signifies a Recommendation.
This icon signifies a Note to highlight information that may be important

to readers.
Ì
! This icon signifies a Warning or Caution.
This icon signifies that the associated text refers to Single Salt Fluids.
1 SALT
This icon signifies that the associated text refers to Two Salt Fluids.
2 SALT
This icon signifies that the associated text refers to Three Salt Fluids.
3 SALT

INTRODUCTION 3
INTRODUCTION
This icon appears next to product names in Chapter 5, “Product Quick
RQ Reference,” to indicate that a product contains at least one ingredient
with an established EPA Reportable Quantity (RQ).
Contact Information
Requesting a Copy of this Guide

To receive a copy of this guide, please include your name, company
name, address information, and phone number in your request and
send it to TETRA via e-mail or by mail as outlined below:
E-mail Your Request to:

solutions-guide@tetratec.com
Mail Your Request to:

Attn: Engineered Solutions Guide
The Woodlands, TX 77380
Accessing this Guide Online

An online version of the TETRA Engineered Solutions Guide is accessible
at www.solutionsguide.tetratec.com. We will post any updates to the
guide on this site and will include links to useful related information and
tools. A CD version is also included at the end of this guide for your con-
venience.
Suggestions, Corrections, or Updates

Please send any editorial suggestions, corrections, or updates to the fol-
lowing address:
The Woodlands, TX 77380
or e-mail them to: solutions-guide@tetratec.com
We hope that you find this guide useful. TETRA’s service representatives
are available to assist with project planning and to answer any questions
that you may have.
Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids and Filtration Second Edition
4 CHAPTER 1
Notes:

5
CHAPTER 2 Fluid Planning: Fluid

Selection
This chapter and Chapter 3 of the Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear
Brine Fluids and Filtration are designed to take you through the decision
making process and assist with the planning and development of a well
completion project.
This chapter will cover:

1. Safety and the Environment
2. The Planning Process
3. Fluid Categories
4. Fluid Density
5. Crystallization Temperature
6. Temperature and Pressure Effects
7. Estimating Required Fluid Volume
8. Fluid Compatibility
Safety and the Environment

We begin with a brief reminder about the importance of safety and the
environment when working with clear brine fluids and chemical addi-
tives. The field of safety and environmental protection is broad, con-
stantly evolving, and is outside the realm of this document, which should
only be viewed as a brief introduction. You have two primary resources
in these areas. Your main resource should be the safety and environmen-
tal professionals within your company. The regulatory agencies them-
selves are a second valuable resource. There are many regulatory
agencies in the oil and gas producing regions of the world. Information
provided in this guide is applicable to the United States and associated
offshore areas.
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6
ENVIRONMENT CHAPTER 2
An overview of these topics is provided in Chapter 7, “U.S. Safety and

Environmental Information,” which should be read in its entirety before
bringing a clear brine fluid (CBF) to any well location.
AND THE
Personal Safety
An understanding of the nature of CBFs will reduce the risk of personal
SAFETY
injury to those using these materials while conducting completion and

workover operations.
Clear brine fluids are highly concentrated mixtures of inorganic salts,

usually chlorides and bromides. These fluids have an affinity for water
and will even absorb water from the air. Should concentrated brines
come into contact with a person’s skin, this same strong tendency to
absorb water will cause drying of the skin and, in extreme cases, can
even cause a burn-like reddening and blistering.
All precautions should be taken to prevent direct contact between clear

Ì
! brine fluids and the body, especially the eyes and mucous membranes.

Safe work practices should be implemented to reduce worker exposure
to CBFs. When engineering controls are not feasible to prevent expo-
sure, a risk assessment should be conducted and administrative controls
should be initiated that will reduce employee exposure to an acceptable
level.
A properly completed Job Safety/Environmental Analysis (JSEA) will help

to establish these conditions.
Employees who work with or around clear brine fluids should participate
in a safety meeting before any work begins. As previously noted, a more
detailed discussion of safety precautions and appropriate equipment is
provided in Chapter 7, “U.S. Safety and Environmental Information,”
later in the guide.
Environmental Considerations
The constituents of clear brine fluids are common salts and, except for
those containing zinc bromide, can be rendered harmless to the environ-
ment with the addition of sufficient water. Offshore discharges of CBFs to
the environment fall under the regulations of the National Pollutant Dis-
charge Elimination System (NPDES). Zinc bromide is considered a prior-
ity pollutant under NPDES and cannot be legally discharged.
All precautions should be taken to ensure that fluids and additives are
not lost to the environment in an uncontrolled manner. In the event that

FLUID PLANNING: FLUID SELECTION 7
SAFETY
this does happen, immediate notification to the National Response Cen-
ter and other regulatory authorities is required if the released fluid con-
AND THE
tains zinc bromide, ammonium chloride, or one of the TETRA additives
listed in Table 49 on page 175 in an amount greater than the estab-
lished EPA reportable quantity (RQ). Because environmental regulations
ENVIRONMENT
can change, always involve your company’s environmental professionals
when planning any completion or workover project.
Under EPA regulations, spills of completion fluids containing zinc bromide

Ì
! or ammonium chloride must be immediately reported to the National
Response Center at 1.800.424.8802 if:
• the quantity of zinc bromide in the spill exceeds the 1,000 lb RQ for zinc
bromide, or
• the quantity of ammonium chloride in the spill exceeds the 5,000 lb RQ
for ammonium chloride.
See Chapter 7, “U.S. Safety and Environmental Information,” for more

information on this subject.
8
THE PLANNING PROCESS CHAPTER 2
The Planning Process
Design Rationale
The planning process steps are organized in such a way as to assist you
in using basic pieces of information to develop a coherent project plan
that encompasses all aspects of selecting the correct clear brine fluid,
additives, and associated equipment. Many calculations have been for-
matted as tables or charts in order to help you quickly narrow your
choices. There will also be circumstances that are unconventional or non-
routine. In these cases, equations and appropriate units of measurement
have been provided to facilitate the use of a handheld calculator.
The planning process steps are arranged to enable you to:

1. determine appropriate fluid density using true vertical depth (TVD), bot-
tomhole pressure (BHP), and bottomhole temperature (BHT);
2. select the correct true crystallization temperature (TCT);
3. estimate the volume of clear brine fluid for the job;
4. select the proper clear brine fluid family (single, two, or three salt); or
5. where compatibility issues, corrosion concerns, or sensitive formations
exist, select an engineered fluid system such as a MatchWell™ com-
patibility selected fluid system or a specialty fluid with a PayZone® for-
mation protection additive package.
Figure 1 provides a conceptual flow of the fluid selection process in nor-

mal or non-high pressure, high temperature (HPHT) wells where the use
of carbon steel tubing is planned. Required information or inputs are
shown as arrows entering from the left. The flow steps run from top to
bottom on the right.

THE PLANNING PROCESS

FIGURE 1. Fluid Selection Process
Necessary Inputs Steps
TVD
Determine Equivalent
Fluid Density
BHP + Overbalance
BHT
Make Any
Mudline Temperature Temperature
Corrections
Ambient Temperature
Casing Specifications
Determine Volume
Requirements
Surface Equipment
Select Fluid
If fluid compatibility is not an issue, choose a single, two, or three salt fluid.
If it is, select an engineered fluid system.
Single Salt Fluids Two Salt Fluids Three Salt Fluids

CaCl2, CaBr2, NaBr, CaCl2/CaBr2 & ZnBr2/CaBr2/CaCl2
NaCl, KCl, & NH4Cl NaCl/NaBr
Engineered Fluid Systems

(Compatibility Issues/Corrosion Concerns/Sensitive Formations)
Planning for Wells Requiring Corrosion

Resistant Alloys
Given the potential for environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) in wells
where corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) tubing will be used, especially in
HPHT wells, the fluid selection process is different than that outlined
above for traditional well completions. Rather than selecting the fluid at
the end of the process, as is done in traditional completions, metallurgy
and fluids should be selected concurrently for wells where a CRA will be
used with a packer fluid. In these wells, it is important to take steps to
decrease the probability of EAC by selecting the best combination of
metallurgy and clear brine fluid for the specific well conditions. In an
effort to better understand EAC, TETRA has participated in extensive test-
10
FLUID CATEGORIES CHAPTER 2
ing and, through this testing, has developed the MatchWell fluid compat-
ibility selector. This specialty software is designed to provide customer
recommendation reports that identify compatible and cost effective met-
allurgy/fluid combinations.
Fluid Categories
In reality, planning any completion is an iterative process and will most
likely require more than one pass as you gather more information and
refine your selection. Using basic design information, true vertical depth,
bottomhole pressure, and environmental temperature considerations as
outlined in the following sections, you can determine which clear brine
fluids are a good match for the conditions.
Low density systems usually consist of single salt fluids, which can range
in density from slightly above the density of water, such as 3% potassium
chloride (KCl), to as high as 11.6 lb/gal calcium chloride (CaCl2).
Unique formation properties or concerns about the compatibility of con-
ventional brines with formation water may suggest the use of sodium
bromide (NaBr), calcium bromide (CaBr2), sodium formate (NaO2CH),
potassium formate (KO2CH), or cesium formate (CsO2CH)—the latter
three of which are halide free, containing no chloride or bromide.
Midrange density fluids, 11.7 lb/gal to 15.1 lb/gal, are typically two
salt mixtures of calcium chloride (CaCl2) and calcium bromide (CaBr2).
The boundary between two and three salt fluids in Figure 2 is influenced
by the lower of the expected atmospheric temperature or mudline tem-
perature. In many cases, the lowest temperature in the entire fluid col-
umn is at the ocean floor (mudline) where temperatures can routinely be
less than 40°F. This temperature will often dictate the CBF category that is
available to you.

FLUID DENSITY
FIGURE 2. Fluid Categories
(Density vs. True Crystallization Temperature)
8.0
9.0
Single Salt Fluids
10.0
Fluid Density (lb/gal)
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0 Two Salt Fluids
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
Three Salt Fluids
19.0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
True Crystallization Temperature (°F)
Fluid Density
Expected bottomhole conditions are the basic criteria that influence the
selection of a clear brine completion fluid. The fluid density required for
a job is largely determined by the true vertical depth (TVD) planned for
the well and the expected bottomhole pressure (BHP). True vertical depth
is normally given in feet (ft), and bottomhole pressure is given in pounds
per square inch (psi or lb/in2). These two values are used to determine
the pressure gradient in pounds per square inch per foot of depth (psi/
ft). An additional margin of safety should be added to the BHP to ensure
that control of the well is achieved, usually 200 to 400 psi. The safe bot-
tomhole pressure (noted as BHPs) and TVD are both used in Equation 1
to find the pressure gradient.
12
FLUID DENSITY CHAPTER 2
EQUATION 1.
BHPs
grads =
TVD
grads = safe pressure gradient, psi/ft

BHPs = safe bottomhole pressure, psi or lb/in2
TVD = true vertical depth, ft
The pressure gradient can be converted to density in pounds per gallon

(lb/gal) by a change of units, shown in Equation 2.
EQUATION 2.
grad
du =
0.052
du = fluid density, uncorrected for T and P, lb/gal

grad = pressure gradient, psi/ft
0.052 = units conversion factor, gal/in2-ft
As an alternative, the values for TVD and BHPs can be used to find the
required fluid density using Figure 3. This density value is the effective
fluid density that will be required to balance the pressure exerted by the
fluids in the formation. The colored regions in Figure 3 correspond to the
fluid families: single salt, two salt, and three salt.

FLUID DENSITY
Open this foldout page to view Figure 3,
which shows fluid density in lb/gal based on
true vertical depth in feet and safe bottomhole
pressure in psi.
4000 9.6 12.0 14.5 16.9 19.3
4500 8.6 10.7 12.8 15.0 17.1 19.3
5000 9.6 11.6 13.5 15.4 17.3 19.3
5500 8.8 10.5 12.3 14.0 15.8 17.5 19.3
6000 9.6 11.2 12.8 14.5 16.1 17.7 19.3
6500 8.9 10.4 11.9 13.3 14.8 16.3 17.8 19.3
7000 8.3 9.6 11.0 12.4 13.8 15.1 16.5 17.9 19.3
7500 9.0 10.3 11.6 12.8 14.1 15.4 16.7 18.0 19.3
8000 8.4 9.6 10.8 12.0 13.2 14.5 15.7 16.9 18.1 19.3
8500 9.1 10.2 11.3 12.5 13.6 14.7 15.9 17.0 18.1 19.3
9000 8.6 9.6 10.7 11.8 12.8 13.9 15.0 16.1 17.1 18.2 19.3
9500 9.1 10.1 11.2 12.2 13.2 14.2 15.2 16.2 17.2 18.3 19.3
10000 8.7 9.6 10.6 11.6 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.4 16.4 17.3 18.3 19.3
10500 8.3 9.2 10.1 11.0 11.9 12.8 13.8 14.7 15.6 16.5 17.4 18.4 19.3
11000 8.8 9.6 10.5 11.4 12.3 13.1 14.0 14.9 15.8 16.6 17.5 18.4 19.3
11500 8.4 9.2 10.1 10.9 11.7 12.6 13.4 14.2 15.1 15.9 16.8 17.6 18.4 19.3
12000 8.8 9.6 10.4 11.2 12.0 12.8 13.6 14.5 15.3 16.1 16.9 17.7 18.5 19.3
12500 8.5 9.2 10.0 10.8 11.6 12.3 13.1 13.9 14.6 15.4 16.2 17.0 17.7 18.5 19.3
13000 8.9 9.6 10.4 11.1 11.9 12.6 13.3 14.1 14.8 15.6 16.3 17.0 17.8 18.5 19.3
13500 8.6 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.4 12.1 12.8 13.6 14.3 15.0 15.7 16.4 17.1 17.8 18.6 19.3
14000 8.3 8.9 9.6 10.3 11.0 11.7 12.4 13.1 13.8 14.5 15.1 15.8 16.5 17.2 17.9 18.6 19.3
14500 8.6 9.3 10.0 10.6 11.3 12.0 12.6 13.3 14.0 14.6 15.3 15.9 16.6 17.3 17.9 18.6 19.3
15000 8.3 9.0 9.6 10.3 10.9 11.6 12.2 12.8 13.5 14.1 14.8 15.4 16.1 16.7 17.3 18.0 18.6 19.3
15500 8.7 9.3 9.9 10.6 11.2 11.8 12.4 13.1 13.7 14.3 14.9 15.5 16.2 16.8 17.4 18.0 18.6
16000 8.4 9.0 9.6 10.2 10.8 11.4 12.0 12.6 13.2 13.8 14.5 15.1 15.7 16.3 16.9 17.5 18.1
16500 8.8 9.3 9.9 10.5 11.1 11.7 12.3 12.8 13.4 14.0 14.6 15.2 15.8 16.3 16.9 17.5
17000 8.5 9.1 9.6 10.2 10.8 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.0 13.6 14.2 14.7 15.3 15.9 16.4 17.0
17500 8.3 8.8 9.4 9.9 10.5 11.0 11.6 12.1 12.7 13.2 13.8 14.3 14.9 15.4 16.0 16.5
18000 8.6 9.1 9.6 10.2 10.7 11.2 11.8 12.3 12.8 13.4 13.9 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.1
True Vertical Depth (ft)

18500 8.3 8.9 9.4 9.9 10.4 10.9 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.1 14.6 15.1 15.6
19000 8.6 9.1 9.6 10.1 10.6 11.2 11.7 12.2 12.7 13.2 13.7 14.2 14.7 15.2
19500 8.4 8.9 9.4 9.9 10.4 10.9 11.4 11.9 12.4 12.8 13.3 13.8 14.3 14.8
20000 8.7 9.2 9.6 10.1 10.6 11.1 11.6 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5
20500 8.5 8.9 9.4 9.9 10.3 10.8 11.3 11.7 12.2 12.7 13.2 13.6 14.1
21000 8.3 8.7 9.2 9.6 10.1 10.6 11.0 11.5 11.9 12.4 12.8 13.3 13.8
21500 8.5 9.0 9.4 9.9 10.3 10.8 11.2 11.7 12.1 12.5 13.0 13.4
22000 8.3 8.8 9.2 9.6 10.1 10.5 10.9 11.4 11.8 12.3 12.7 13.1
22500 8.6 9.0 9.4 9.8 10.3 10.7 11.1 11.6 12.0 12.4 12.8
23000 8.4 8.8 9.2 9.6 10.1 10.5 10.9 11.3 11.7 12.1 12.6
23500 8.6 9.0 9.4 9.8 10.2 10.7 11.1 11.5 11.9 12.3
24000 8.4 8.8 9.2 9.6 10.0 10.4 10.8 11.2 11.6 12.0
Three Salt Fluids
24500 8.3 8.7 9.0 9.4 9.8 10.2 10.6 11.0 11.4 11.8
25000 8.5 8.9 9.2 9.6 10.0 10.4 10.8 11.2 11.6
Two Salt Fluids
25500 8.3 8.7 9.1 9.4 9.8 10.2 10.6 11.0 11.3
26000 8.5 8.9 9.3 9.6 10.0 10.4 10.7 11.1
14
FLUID DENSITY CHAPTER 2
General Fluid Density Ranges

Table 1 below provides an extensive list of conventional and specialty
clear brine fluids and their working density ranges.
TABLE 1. General Density Ranges for Clear Brine Fluids
Clear Brine Fluid Density Range

lb/gal
Ammonium Chloride, NH4Cl 8.4 - 8.9
Potassium Chloride, KCl 8.4 - 9.7
Potassium-Sodium Chloride, KCl/NaCl 8.4 - 10.0
Sodium Chloride, NaCl 8.4 - 10.0
Sodium Formate, NaO2CH 8.4 - 11.1
Potassium-Calcium Chloride, KCl/CaCl2 8.4 - 11.6
Calcium Chloride, CaCl2 8.4 - 11.6
Sodium Bromide, NaBr 8.4 - 12.7
Sodium Bromide-Chloride, NaBr/NaCl 8.4 - 12.7
Potassium Formate, KO2CH 8.4 - 13.1
Calcium Bromide, CaBr2 8.4 - 15.1
Calcium Chloride-Bromide, CaCl2/CaBr2 11.6 - 15.1
Potassium-Cesium Formate, KO2CH/CsO2CH 13.1 - 19.2
Cesium Formate, CsO2CH 13.1 - 19.2
Zinc Bromide, ZnBr2 15.2 - 20.5
Zinc-Calcium Bromide, ZnBr2/CaBr2 15.0 - 20.5
Zinc-Calcium Bromide-Chloride, ZnBr2/CaBr2/CaCl2 15.0 - 19.2

C R Y S T A L L I Z A T I O N TE M P E R A T U R E
Density Ranges
There are many fluid options at the lower ranges of density, up to about
10.0 lb/gal. The choice of one brine over another may be based on
unique formation properties. Bromide-chloride two salt fluids and for-
mates reach densities up to 13.0 lb/gal. When the density requirement
is more than 14.0 lb/gal, your selection is limited to two and three salt
halides, zinc bromide (ZnBr2), and cesium formate (CsO2CH).
FIGURE 4. Clear Brine Fluid Density Ranges
Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)
0.42 0.62 0.83 1.04
ZnBr2
CsO2CH
Zn/CaBr2
CaCI2 /Br2
KO2CH
NaO2CH
NaBr
CaCI2
NaCI
KCI
NH4CI
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Fluid Density (lb/gal)
Crystallization Temperature
The presence of high concentrations of soluble salts drastically changes
the temperature at which, when cooled, crystalline solids begin to form.
That temperature is known as the true crystallization temperature. For a
16
C R Y S T A L L I Z A T I O N TE M P E R A T U R E CHAPTER 2
more in depth discussion of the relationship between salt concentrations

and crystallization temperature and factors influencing the measurement
of crystallization temperature, see “Crystallization Temperature” on
page 181 in Chapter 8 of this guide.
Temperature Considerations
Except for low density single salt fluids, most CBFs are near their crystal-
lization temperature or saturation point with respect to one or more of
the dissolved salts. Temperature conditions that are likely to be encoun-
tered over the length of the fluid column may cause heating or cooling of
the brine. Rapid or unanticipated changes in weather conditions may
also cause cooling of a fluid as it travels through surface piping and
equipment. It is important to anticipate, as closely as possible, the
weather conditions that may occur during the entire course of the com-
pletion project.
Critical points in the flow path are:

1. ocean water surface temperature,
2. water temperature at the ocean floor (mudline),
3. atmospheric conditions—temperature changes in surface tankage and
distribution piping due to weather,
4. filtration equipment, and
5. pill tanks and storage/transfer tanks.
If the temperature of a completion fluid is allowed to cool below its stated

TCT, solid salts will begin to form. The formation of solids will greatly
increase demands placed on pumping equipment due to increased resis-
tance to flow. The solids formed may impede filtration two ways—
through a cake buildup in the plate and frame diatomaceous earth (DE)
filters and/or by plugging cartridges. Additionally, the formation of sol-
ids can result in stuck pipe.
The loss of soluble salts, either by settling out or filtration, will drastically
Ì
! reduce the density of the completion fluid. Loss of density could result in
a dangerous underbalanced situation.
It is vital to make a temperature profile for the entire flow system

expected for the completion fluids. The lowest temperature likely to be
encountered will determine the safe crystallization temperature.
To provide an adequate safety margin, the TCT for the fluid should be
; set 10°F (5.5°C) below the lowest temperature expected to be
encountered at any point along the flow path.

Seasonal Effects and Brine Selection
Crystallization temperature is controlled by the relative proportions of
different brine constituents and is affected by environmental factors. A
single salt fluid may work during the heat of the summer, whereas at
cooler times of the year, a two salt fluid may be required. In other situa-
tions, ambient temperatures may dictate the use of a three salt fluid in the
winter months, when a two salt fluid might be all that is necessary in the
warmer summer months. An 11.6 blend of calcium bromide (CaBr2) and
calcium chloride (CaCl2) has a lower TCT than that of a pure calcium
chloride (CaCl2) brine of the same density. Adding water can lower TCT,
but doing so will result in a loss of density. Along those same lines, zinc
bromide (ZnBr2) can be used to reduce the TCT of a two salt calcium
chloride-calcium bromide (CaCl2/CaBr2) blend, but the introduction of
zinc bromide (ZnBr2) will change the nature of the working brine and
will impact the environmental regulations regarding conducting disposal
activities and reporting and reacting to spills.
Midrange density fluids, 11.7 lb/gal to 15.1 lb/gal, are typical two salt
mixtures of calcium chloride (CaCl2) and calcium bromide (CaBr2). The
boundary between two and three salt fluids is influenced by seasonal
effects and ocean water temperature at depth. Figure 2 on page 11
shows, in a generalized way, the relationship between a brine family
and TCT. Values along the vertical axis are density in lb/gal. Colored
areas are consistent with those in Figure 3, “TVD-BHP Fluid Density
Chart,” on page 13.
Pressure Considerations—Pressurized
Deepwater and subsea completions require a greater attention to detail,
especially in terms of TCT. At ocean water depths greater than approxi-
mately 1,500 feet, an additional adjustment must be made to the fluid
formulation. Experience has shown that, at the low temperatures likely to
occur in deepwater wells, pressure becomes a factor, and there can be
an increase in the measured TCT due to the increase in pressure. At
pressures likely to be attained—during the testing of a blowout preventor
(BOP) for example—a fluid which functions correctly under normal
hydrostatic pressure may begin to crystallize with the increased testing
pressure.
TETRA has developed a unique Pressurized Crystallization Temperature

(PCT) test designed to measure TCT at various pressures.
It is strongly recommended that the PCT be determined for fluids

; where low temperature and high pressure conditions may coexist.
18
PRESSURE EFFECTS CHAPTER 2
If you are contemplating a deepwater completion, ask your TETRA rep-

resentative to have this unique test performed on your fluid.
AND
Temperature and Pressure Effects

TE M P E R A T U R E
When a brine is put into service, the downhole temperature profile will
cause the brine to expand, lowering the average density of the fluid col-
umn. Pressure has the opposite effect and causes an increase in density.
Adjustments will need to be made to the fluid density to compensate for
the combination of bottomhole pressure and bottomhole temperature.
For fluids with densities less than approximately 12.0 lb/gal, thermal
expansion will typically be in the range of 0.26 lb/gal to 0.38 lb/gal
per 100°F (lb/gal/100°F) increase in temperature. From 12.0 lb/gal to
19.0 lb/gal, the expansion ranges from 0.33 lb/gal to 0.53 lb/gal per
100°F increase. Typically, the density correction is made for the average
temperature of the fluid column. Pressure effects are much smaller and
range from 0.019 lb/gal per thousand psi to 0.024 lb/gal per thousand
psi. Table 2 shows some representative values for thermal expansion (A)
and hydrostatic compression (B) based on data reported in literature
(Bridges, 2000).
TABLE 2. Density Corrections for Temperature and Pressure
Thermal Hydrostatic
Selected
Fluid Type Expansion Compression
Densities (A) (B)
lb/gal1 lb/gal/100°F1 lb/gal/1000 psi1

NaCl 9.0 0.314 0.0189
NaCl 9.5 0.386 0.0188
NaBr 12.0 0.336 0.0190
CaCl2 9.5 0.285 0.0188
CaCl2 10.0 0.289 0.0187
CaCl2 10.5 0.273 0.0186
CaCl2 11.0 0.264 0.0187
CaCl2/CaBr2 12.0 0.325 0.0190
CaCl2/CaBr2 12.5 0.330 0.0193
CaCl2/CaBr2 13.5 0.343 0.0201
CaCl2/CaBr2 14.5 0.362 0.0212
CaCl2/Zn-CaBr2 15.5 0.387 0.0226
CaCl2/Zn-CaBr2 16.5 0.416 0.0244
CaCl2/Zn-CaBr2 17.5 0.453 0.0264
CaCl2/Zn-CaBr2 18.0 0.475 0.0276
1Values in Table 2 are adapted from data in Bridges (2000), Completion and Workover
Fluids, SPE Monograph 19, p 47.

TABLE 2. Density Corrections for Temperature and Pressure
Thermal Hydrostatic
Selected
Fluid Type Expansion Compression
Densities
AND
(A) (B)
PRESSURE EFFECTS
lb/gal1 lb/gal/100°F1 lb/gal/1000 psi1
CaCl2/Zn-CaBr2 18.5 0.501 0.0288
CaCl2/Zn-CaBr2 19.0 0.528 0.0301
1Values in Table 2 are adapted from data in Bridges (2000), Completion and Workover
Fluids, SPE Monograph 19, p 47.
The fluid density corrected for temperature and pressure (dc) is calcu-
lated using Equation 5 with input values from Equation 3 and Equation 4
and values for A and B from Table 2.
Temperature Correction
EQUATION 3.
A (BHT – surf)
CT =
200
CT = averaged temperature correction, lb/gal

BHT = bottomhole temperature, °F
surf = surface temperature, °F
A = thermal expansion factor, lb/gal/100°F
Pressure Correction
EQUATION 4.
B (BHPs )
CP =
2000
CP = averaged pressure correction, lb/gal
BHPs = safe bottomhole pressure, psi
B = hydrostatic compression factor, lb/gal/1000 psi
The results of Equation 3 and Equation 4 are used in Equation 5 to

obtain the corrected density (dc).
20
PRESSURE EFFECTS CHAPTER 2
Corrected Density
EQUATION 5.
dc = du + CT – CP
AND
dc = density corrected for T and P, lb/gal

du = uncorrected density from equation 2, lb/gal
CT = averaged temperature correction, lb/gal
CP = averaged pressure correction, lb/gal
The actual corrected density (dc) of the fluid mixed and delivered to loca-
tion will be slightly greater than determined, based solely on TVD and
BHP in Equation 2 on page 12.
CBF Temperature and Pressure Profile Software (TP-Pro)

A TETRA fluids specialist is equipped to make a more accurate analysis
of the temperature, pressure, and density profile for the entire fluid col-
umn. Using TETRA’s TP-Pro™ program, fluids specialists can analyze the
temperature and pressure conditions along the entire length of the flow
path to ensure that an accurate and reliable prediction of corrected den-
sity is made for your particular application.
TETRA’s TP-Pro program calculates the thermal expansion and pressure

compressibility behavior of clear brine fluids in a wellbore. The program
can be used to model onshore and offshore wells. Solid free brines are
especially susceptible to thermal expansion and pressure compressibility,
which can significantly alter the effective density of the brine in a down-
hole application. Because of this susceptibility, a TP-Pro simulation is rec-
ommended for every solid free brine application to determine the
required surface density of the brine for the necessary effective density.
TABLE 3. TP-Pro Example of Input Variables
TP-Pro Input Variables

Surface Temperature 70°F
Mudline Temperature 39°F
Rig Floor Elevation 82 feet
Water Depth 3,440 feet
Water Depth + Elevation 3,522 feet
Bottomhole Temperature (BHT) 275°F
True Vertical Depth (TVD) of Zone of Interest 17,880 feet
Bottomhole Pressure (BHP) 13,200 psi
Overbalance 250 psi

TABLE 3. TP-Pro Example of Input Variables
TP-Pro Input Variables
AND
Required Effective Density 14.47 lb/gal
Selected Surface Density 14.60 lb/gal
PRESSURE EFFECTS
Pressurized Crystallization Temperature (PCT) 0°F
Fluid Composition (One, Two, or Three Salt) One Salt
Actual Overbalance 305 psi
Effective Density at 17,880 feet (TVD) 14.53 lb/gal
TABLE 4. TP-Pro Example of Output Variables
Vertical Depth Actual Density Effective Density Temperature

Feet lb/gal lb/gal psi °F
0 14.60 14.60 0 70
41 14.60 14.60 31 70
82 14.60 14.60 62 70
Water Surface
770 14.63 14.62 585 64
1,458 14.67 14.63 1,109 58
2,146 14.70 14.65 1,635 51
2,834 14.73 14.66 2,161 45
3,522 14.76 14.68 2,689 39
Mudline
4,240 14.74 14.69 3,239 51
4,958 14.71 14.70 3,789 63
5,676 14.68 14.70 4,337 74
6,394 14.65 14.69 4,885 86
7,112 14.63 14.69 5,431 98
7,829 14.60 14.68 5,977 110
8,547 14.57 14.67 6,521 122
9,265 14.54 14.66 7,065 133
9,983 14.52 14.65 7,607 145
10,701 14.49 14.64 8,148 157
11,419 14.46 14.63 8,689 169
12,137 14.43 14.62 9,228 181
12,855 14.40 14.61 9,766 192
13,573 14.38 14.60 10,304 204
14,291 14.35 14.59 10,840 216
15,008 14.32 14.57 11,375 228
15,726 14.29 14.56 11,909 240
16,444 14.27 14.55 12,442 251
17,162 14.24 14.54 12,974 263
17,880 14.21 14.53 13,505 275
The results of a TP-Pro simulation are based on best available informa-

tion and assume equilibrium and static well conditions.
22
E S T I M A T I N G R E Q U I R E D F L U I D VO L U M E CHAPTER 2
Estimating Required Fluid Volume

Objectives
• Maintain well control—ensure a full column of clear brine fluid of an
adequate density
• Respond to pressure changes
• Plan for fluid contingency needs
Factors Affecting
• Well design and surface equipment
• Formation permeability
• Distance to the supply point
Discussion
Carefully estimating the required fluid volume will allow you to maintain
an adequate volume of completion fluid to ensure smooth, uninterrupted
completion operations.
Determination of the appropriate quantity of completion fluid should be

based primarily on the capacity of the casing and tubing used during
completion operations. The quantity of fluid circulating at any time is the
total of the well volume, less the tubing displacement, plus all surface
equipment, piping, pumps, tanks, and filtration equipment. Contingency
planning for additional fluid needs will include potential fluid loss and
density control. Finally, the distance to the supply point may suggest
additional volume to ensure a timely response. As a general rule, the ini-
tial fluid order should be at least two to three times the circulating volume
of the well.
Calculating Volume Requirements

A volume calculation worksheet should include the following:
1. Circulating volume
2. Holding tanks
3. Filtration equipment
4. Surface piping
5. Contingency needs and pill demands
Circulating Volume
Determining the volume of the CBF required to fill the hole and maintain
the required hydrostatic pressure is a matter of adding up the casing,

E S T I M A T I N G R E Q U I R E D F L U I D VO L U M E
liner, and openhole volumes and then subtracting the volume displaced
by drill pipe or tubing.
Cased Hole with Tubing. Tables of standard API drill pipe, casing, liners,
and tubing are provided in Chapter 6, “Tables, Formulas, and Planning
Support.” Formulas for pipe volume, annular volume, and velocity are
also included in Chapter 6.
Figure 5 is a schematic of FIGURE 5. Combined Casing and Tubing

the two components of
the downhole volume— Casing
tubing volume and annu-
Tubing
lar volume. Determining
the fluid volume required
can be made easy by
IDt
using the internal capaci-
ties for the tubing or
working string given in
Table 19, “API Tubing —
Weight, Dimensions, and
Capacities,” on
page 135 and annular
ODt
capacities in Table 20,
“Annular Capacity,” on IDcasing
page 138.
Values for combined tubing plus annular capacity in barrels per foot can
be calculated using Equation 6. This equation also lends itself to spread-
sheet applications for determining capacity.
EQUATION 6.
(IDcasing2 – ODt2 + IDt2)

Can+t =
1029.4
Can+t = combined annular + tubing capacity, bbl/ft

IDcasing = casing ID, in
ODt = tubing OD, in
IDt = tubing ID, in
1029.4 = units conversion factor, in2 -ft/bbl
Holding Tanks
The tank capacity necessary for a CBF job is often substantially greater
than that required for circulating a drilling fluid. Since brines are contin-
24
uously filtered, two holding tanks are required, one for returning fluid
that may be carrying solids and another of equal volume for filtered
fluid. Holding tank volume may also be limited by rig space.
At least one complete hole volume should be available in surface

; holding tanks to allow filtration operations to keep pace with
circulating requirements.
Filtration Equipment
An allowance should be made for filtration equipment. A larger, high
capacity plate and frame filter press with precoat tanks can hold up to
30 barrels of fluid. Table 5 gives some volumes of typical filtration equip-
ment. A typical system will include filter, precoat and body feed tank,
guard unit, pumps, and hoses.
TABLE 5. Typical Filtration Equipment Volumes
Equipment Volume (bbl) Precoat and Guard1 Total

SafeDEflo 600 and C600 5.3 24 29.3
SafeDEflo 1100 7.1 24 31.1
SafeDEflo 1300 8.4 24 32.4
SafeDEflo 1500 9.6 24 33.6
1
Precoat and Body Feed Tanks = 20 bbl and Guard Unit = 4 bbl
Surface Piping
Any unusual requirements for positioning equipment can result in addi-
tional volumes in hoses, pumps, and piping. An allowance of 10 barrels
is a reasonable recommendation.
Contingency Planning and Pill Demands
Fluid Loss Pills. On occasion, it may become necessary to pump a vis-

cous pill into the producing zone to slow fluid loss. The volume of the pill
will be equal to at least the combined annular and tubing volume
through the perforated zone plus some additional footage for safety. As
a rule of thumb, about 1.5 times the volume of the perforated zone can
be used.
Spike Material. Spike material, or spike fluid, is high density fluid that is
transported to and stored on location in case it is necessary to raise fluid
density in order to control pressure or respond to a kick. The volume usu-
ally ranges between 75 and 150 bbl of a selected high density blending
stock. The volume of spike material that is held in reserve should be
based on a number of factors, including:

• uncertainty regarding bottomhole pressure,
• treating dilutions of working fluid,
• available storage space on the location or rig,
• density difference between the working fluid and the spike fluid,
• environmental discharge/spill limitations, and
• cost considerations.
A detail that is often overlooked when determining the density and vol-
ume of spike material is the relative amount of spike fluid needed to raise
the density of the working fluid by a particular increment. Often, it is
more economical to use a much heavier spike fluid, even if its unit cost is
higher. The reason for this is that it may take substantially less of the
heavier spike material to obtain the same density increase. An illustra-
tion of this relationship is shown in Figure 6.
For example, it will take twice as much 19.2 lb/gal zinc/calcium bro-
mide (ZnBr2/CaBr2) to raise the density of a 17.8 lb/gal working fluid
by 0.2 lb/gal than it would if a 20.5 lb/gal ZnBr2 spike fluid was used.
Half the volume of 20.5 lb/gal fluid could be transported and stored as
spike fluid. In addition to the smaller storage needs of the higher density
spike fluid, there is the added benefit that, when it is used to achieve a
given density adjustment, it will create a smaller volume increase in the
working fluid.
26
FIGURE 6. Selecting and Using Spike Fluids
0.5
0.4
Spike Volume (bbl/bbl)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Working Fluid Density (lb/gal)
11.6 CaCI2 14.2 CaBr2 15.1 CaCI2 /Br2

19.2 Zn/CaBr2 20.5 ZnBr2
Figure 6 shows the amount of spike fluid, in fractions of a barrel, it takes

to raise the density of one barrel of any working fluid by an adjustment
of 0.2 lb/gal. To use this guide, choose a density of working fluid along
the bottom and lay a straight edge vertically through the chart to find the
relative volume of fluid needed to make a 0.2 lb/gal adjustment.
Permeability and Pressure Conditions in a

Producing Zone
Formation characteristics will play a large role in determining the
amount of fluid that is held in reserve. Large quantities of fluid may be
lost to highly permeable formations or formations that contain fracture
permeability. Experience in a particular producing horizon may dictate
carrying extra fluid inventory to allow for seepage into the formation.

Distance to the Supply Point
The distance to the nearest supply point, uncertainty about bottomhole
conditions, and seasonal factors such as temperature changes should be
considered in determining the volume delivered at the beginning of the
job. Deepwater offshore platforms will probably have longer supply lead
times than shallow water or onshore projects. In cases where substantial
delays could impact operations, additional volume should be purchased
to ensure that volume losses can be made up on a safe and timely basis
in order to avoid delays.
Volume Calculation Worksheet

According to the general rule, the initial fluid order should be two to
three times the circulating volume of the well. Another method for deter-
mining the initial fluid quantity is to use a tool similar to the volume cal-
culation worksheet below.
Volume Calculation Worksheet
Equipment Volume
Circulating Volume
Holding Tanks
Surface Piping
Contingency Needs
Total
28
FLUID COMPATIBILITY CHAPTER 2
Fluid Compatibility
Mineralogy
Reservoir mineralogy, especially the percentage and type of clays that
will be encountered, may influence your decision as to the type of CBF
best suited to a particular formation. The dominant cation (positively
charged ion) in the brine, for example, ammonium (NH4+), sodium
(Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca+2), or zinc (Zn+2), will react with clay

minerals to promote stability or act as a dispersant. Compatibility testing
of core samples from the reservoir is the most reliable means of assess-
ing the response of clay minerals to a brine. Experience in offset wells
should also be considered if existing data indicates sensitivity of clay
minerals.
Contact a TETRA fluids specialist to arrange for brine compatibility

testing.
Reservoir Fluid Chemistry

Reservoir fluids are in a state of chemical equilibrium with the reservoir
minerals. This state of equilibrium will be disturbed once a formation is
penetrated and production activities begin. Prior to producing the well,
the potential for formation damage resulting from reactions between for-
mation fluids and drilling or completion fluids will exist. The chemical
composition of formation waters should be evaluated for compatibility,
paying attention to the degree of saturation with salt (NaCl) and any
bicarbonate and sulfate ion concentrations.
Metallurgy and Elastomers

Clear brine fluids must also be compatible with the materials used in
downhole equipment and with any tools with which they will come into
contact. Temperature, pressure, and mechanical stresses can result in
corrosion induced by the interaction between clear brine fluids and vari-
ous types of metals. The increase in HPHT drilling has led to greater use
of corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs) in production tubing. The incidence
of catastrophic tubing failure due to environmentally assisted cracking
(EAC) has risen with the increased use of CRAs. Because of these fail-
ures, compatibility of completion and packer fluids with CRA tubing has
become a critical consideration, especially when planning HPHT wells.
To provide empirical data to support its customers, TETRA has partici-
pated in extensive research aimed at understanding the causes of EAC
and the steps that can be taken to decrease the probability of its occur-

FLUID COMPATIBILITY
rence. TETRA fluids specialists can provide technical guidance in the
proper design of a clear brine fluid system.
Chemically and mechanically induced interactions should be assessed by

TETRA’s fluids experts. If you are planning a well completion where a
CRA will be used, ask for a customer recommendation report from the
MatchWell fluid compatibility selector.
Specialty Formulated Brines and Engineered

Fluid Systems
There are occasions when you may suspect compatibility issues or return
permeability problems. These exceptional conditions may require an
engineered fluid system approach involving TETRA’s specialty brine
blending, a MatchWell recommended fluid, or a nonconventional fluid.
When your data suggests that out of the ordinary conditions may exist in
a well or producing zone, it is best to obtain the advice of your TETRA
fluids specialist and TETRA technical service professional who can help
you explore alternatives. Because these are unique situations, each one
should be investigated and recommendations should be developed on
the basis of available test data.
Some of the conditions that may arise and require unique approaches to
completion fluids may include:
1. density range, bottomhole temperature, and pressure conditions,
2. dispersible or water sensitive clay minerals,
3. metallurgical considerations such as high chromium alloys, and
4. compatibility problems between formation fluids and the completion
fluid.
Reasons to Consider a Specialty Fluid

When making a fluid selection, there are many things you need to con-
sider. Table 6 gives a relative weighing of some of the considerations
that will enter into a decision to use one type of specialty fluid over
another. The decision will usually be based on one primary criterion and
others will be weighed to a lesser degree. If a fluid has a distinct advan-
tage in a particular category over other fluids in the same density range,
a plus sign (+) is shown in that column. An equal sign (=) indicates no
distinct advantage over fluids in the density range. Finally, a minus sign
(–) indicates that a fluid has a disadvantage over other fluids in that par-
ticular density range.
30
FLUID COMPATIBILITY CHAPTER 2
TABLE 6. Specialty Brine Considerations
Shale/ Acid
Brine Corrosion Carbonate Sulfate
Clay
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) + – + +
Potassium Chloride (KCl) + = + +
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) – = + +
Sodium Bromide (NaBr) – = + +
Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) = + + +
Potassium Formate (KO2CH) + + + +
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) + = – –
Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) + = – –
Cesium Formate (CsO2CH) = + + +
Zinc Bromide (ZnBr2) + – = +
+ advantage
= parity to other options
– disadvantage
Shale/Clay Dispersion
Many clay minerals will swell and can potentially disperse when
exposed to the sodium ion (Na+). In general, fluids containing potassium
(K+) and ammonium (NH4+) ions have a tendency to stabilize clay miner-
als by adsorbing into the clay structure. Divalent ions such as calcium
(Ca+2) and zinc (Zn+2) also strongly adsorb into many clay minerals and
create a nondamaging environment in the vicinity of the wellbore.
Acid Corrosion
Corrosion of metallic surfaces that come into contact with brines is
strongly accelerated by the presence of the hydrogen ion (H+). The
hydrogen ion can be essentially eliminated by raising the pH of a brine.
The pH of fluids containing sodium, potassium, or calcium can be raised
into a range where only negligible concentrations of hydrogen ions are
present. Adjusting the pH of fluids containing ammonium or zinc ions is
not recommended, as those ions are not stable at the pH levels that can
be attained in other CBFs.
Carbonate
Formation waters are in a state of chemical equilibrium with formation
minerals. Certain calcareous reservoirs with a high partial pressure of
carbon dioxide may be incompatible with fluids that contain the calcium
ion. Mixing formation water and calcium containing CBFs may result in
the precipitation of calcium carbonate at the point of contact between the
two fluids. The formation of calcium carbonate can result in permeability
reduction, which is difficult to reverse even with strong acid stimulation.

THE NEXT STEPS

If formation water analysis indicates high levels of the bicarbonate ion
(HCO3+1), fluids containing calcium should be avoided.
Sulfate
If formation water contains the sulfate ion (SO4-2) at a concentration of
more than 500 ppm, it will react with the calcium ion to form a precipi-
tate that will not readily respond to acid stimulation. Analysis of forma-
tion water will provide the only reliable means to assess the potential for
this type of formation damage.
Of additional concern, the sulfate ion may also be converted to H2S by

sulfate reducing bacteria. If this conversion occurs, the associated health
and corrosion issues will have to be addressed.
The Next Steps

The information outlined in the preceding sections has explained the first
stages of completion fluid planning. At this point, the general brine fam-
ily, density (corrected for temperature and pressure), crystallization
point, metallurgy, and volume of fluid required for the job have been
determined. The following chapter goes through the processes and sys-
tems associated with a CBF job. Information is arranged by system.
32 CHAPTER 2
Notes:

Notes:
34 CHAPTER 2
Notes:

35
CHAPTER 3 Fluid Planning:

Processes and Systems
At this point, you have chosen a clear brine fluid and made adjustments
for temperature, pressure, and PCT. The volume of fluid required for the
job has also been estimated.

1. Maintenance of Clear Brine Fluid Properties
2. Corrosion Control
3. Displacement
4. Fluid Loss Control
5. Filtration and Brine Clarity
Much of the information contained in each of the following sections is

applicable to all clear brine fluids. For ease of use, where information is
specific, icons have been added to indicate whether it applies to one,
two, or three salt brines.
Maintenance of Clear Brine Fluid

Properties
This section of TETRA’s Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids
and Filtration is concerned with the brine density families depicted in
Figure 2 on page 11. Our goal is to focus your search upon information
that is pertinent to your project. For instance, if you are planning a com-
pletion using a 3% KCl brine, you may want to skip over information that
is specific to high density, three salt fluids. Brine properties also depend
on composition; as the number of salts in a fluid goes up, the response to
changes in brine properties such as the weight up procedure, cutback
procedure, or choice of viscosifying agent to use, will differ. If you are
trying to find information quickly, make use of the icons that indicate
www.tetratec.com
36
CLEAR BRINE FLUID PROPER TIES CHAPTER 3
whether a section applies to one, two, or three salt brines to help narrow
your search.
Objectives
• Maintain or adjust fluid density
• Control formation pressure
• Minimize fluid loss
• Maintain adequate volume
OF
MAINTENANCE
Factors Affecting
• TVD and BHP
• Sources of dilution
• Density adjustment options
• Operational constraints
Discussion
Maintaining a consistent fluid density is of primary importance in pres-
sure control. Formation pressure is usually estimated within a narrow
range. Occasionally, BHP will be different from that anticipated, and the
fluid density will have to be altered to fit the actual well conditions.
Adjustments may also be required due to dilution. Lower than antici-
pated formation pressure and fluid loss may necessitate a cutback or
downward density adjustment. Conversely, higher pressure will dictate
the addition of weight material to increase density.
Responding to variations in density means that a weight up or cutback

procedure may be necessary. Weight material, either a concentrated liq-
uid blending stock spike fluid or dry salt weight material, should be
available on location in order to allow you to respond quickly and main-
tain safe working conditions.
Single Salt Brine Density Maintenance

1 SALT
With densities from 8.4 lb/gal to 11.6 lb/gal and gradients less
than about 0.6 psi/ft, single salt brines are employed in lower
pressure wells. Maintaining pressure control in these wells is no less
important than in any others.
Unintentional Dilution. Well pressure control can be jeopardized by the

unintentional dilution of a CBF with any source of lower density fluid
such as rain water. The effects of this unintentional dilution will depend
on the density difference between the working fluid and the diluting

FLUID PLANNING: PROCESSES AND SYSTEMS 37
MAINTENANCE
fluid. The greater the density difference, the more sensitive the working
fluid will be to dilution.
Weight Up. A single salt brine can be reconstituted by adding dry salt
OF
weight material in the correct proportions or by adding liquid weight
CLEAR BRINE FLUID PROPER TIES

material or spike fluid.
• Dry Salt Weight Material can be used to increase the density of a
single salt fluid that has been diluted, as long as adequate mixing
equipment is available. Dry salt additives can also be used if
additional hydrostatic pressure is needed to control the well. (See
Equation 12 on page 69.) Weight up tables for the single salt fluids
are provided in the “Single Salt Fluid Composition and Blending
Tables” section, beginning on page 145.
When adding dry salt to increase density in a fluid, care should always
Ì
! be taken to monitor TCT with respect to environmental considerations.

• Spike Fluid is a fluid of higher density that can be added to a working
fluid to raise its density. Figure 6, “Selecting and Using Spike Fluids,”
on page 26, illustrates the potential for increasing fluid density using a
spike fluid. As the density of the working fluid approaches the density
of the spike fluid, the volume of spike required to raise the density
increases rapidly.
Changes in brine density, either by dilution or weight up, will change the
TCT of a single salt brine. Make sure you have consulted the “Single Salt
Fluid Composition and Blending Tables” section, beginning on page 145,
before making any change to the fluid density.
Adding dry salts to a fluid can result in a substantial increase in brine

Ì
! temperature. A quick pilot test should be run to get a sense of the
temperature rise that may occur. ALWAYS ADD DRY CHEMICALS
SLOWLY, AND FREQUENTLY CHECK THE TEMPERATURE INCREASE.
Make an estimate of the quantity of weight material required to recover

; from a 0.2 lb/gal drop in density, and have at least that amount
available on location.
Cutback. To reduce the hydrostatic pressure on a formation, in order to

slow fluid loss for example, the density of a fluid can be cut back by add-
ing water. Cutback tables have been provided for each of the common
single salt brines in Chapter 6. (See “Single Salt Fluid Composition and
Blending Tables,” beginning on page 145.) The values in the tables are
decimal fractions of a barrel of starting brine needed to make one barrel
38 CHAPTER 3

of final density brine when diluted with water. Alternatively, Equation 15,
used for cutting a fluid back using weight percent salts, has also been
provided in Chapter 4, “Field Applications and Brine Maintenance.”
Seawater, due to the dissolved minerals it contains, is not recommended

for use in brine cutbacks.
Two Salt Brine Density Maintenance

2 SALT
OF
Maintaining the density of a two salt brine is more complicated

MAINTENANCE
than for that of a single salt fluid. Standard two salt fluids are
blends of calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium bromide (CaBr2), and water.
The relative proportion of each component determines the density and

TCT of the fluid. Any changes you make to weight a fluid up or cut a
fluid back must be made carefully or your TCT will be altered.
Density adjustment is most commonly required as a result of a fluid’s

dilution by rainwater, field brine, or simply by absorption of water from
the air.
Protecting CBFs from dilution is extremely important. It takes only 3.4

bbl of fresh water to drop the density of 100 bbl of a 14.5 lb/gal CBF by
0.2 lb/gal, which represents a 50 psi drop in bottomhole hydrostatic
pressure in a 5,000 ft well.
Dry Salt Weight Up. Under certain circumstances, dry salt may be used
to increase fluid density; however, caution should be exercised to closely
monitor TCT with respect to environmental considerations. Weight up of
a two salt fluid by adding dry calcium chloride (CaCl2) is not recom-
mended, as doing so will alter the ratio of CaCl2 to CaBr2 and increase
the fluid’s TCT. It is also difficult to mix dry salts into nearly saturated
brines without using specialized mixing equipment. In the event of a
severe limit on fluid volume, addition of dry calcium bromide (CaBr2)
can be used as weight material in two salt fluids. Any composition
changes should be verified using one of TETRA’s proprietary fluid blend-
ing programs.
Spike Fluid Weight Up. For midrange densities, a liquid 14.2 lb/gal
spike fluid can be sent to location for any necessary weight up applica-
tions. Calcium bromide 14.2 lb/gal blending stock is an effective spike
fluid that can be used to weight fluids up from about 11.7 lb/gal to 13.5
lb/gal; however, if the target density is greater than 13.5 lb/gal, the vol-
ume increase with a 14.2 blending stock is more than 50%. A 15.1 lb/
gal spike fluid can be used to achieve a weight up in the range of 13.6

MAINTENANCE
lb/gal to 14.8 lb/gal; above that range, the volume increase would be
more than 50%.
Care should be taken when utilizing a 15.1 lb/gal calcium chloride/

Ì
OF
! calcium bromide (CaCl2/CaBr2) spike fluid, as it may raise the TCT of

the resulting brine.
Finally, in extreme cases where the working fluid lies on the boundary of
two and three salt fluids as shown on Figure 2 on page 11, a zinc con-
taining fluid can be used to achieve density increases. In such cases, a
very small amount of 19.2 lb/gal spike fluid would be required; how-
ever, it would change the nature of the working brine; it would also
change the environmental regulations regarding conducting disposal
activities and reporting and reacting to spills. Before making this deci-
sion, weigh the pros and cons carefully.
Estimate the type and quantity of weight material to be used on the job
; based on raising the density of the working fluid by 0.2 lb/gal. Make sure
this amount of material is available on location. It should be kept in
sealed pill tanks to prevent any contamination and/or absorption of
water from the atmosphere.

Three Salt Brine Density Maintenance
3 SALT
High density three salt fluids are blended with precision to maxi-
mize performance and minimize the cost to the operator. This special
attention to composition means equal care and attention should be paid
to maintaining fluid properties like density, TCT, and brine clarity.
It is especially important to protect three salt fluids from dilution. To

prevent contamination and absorption of water from the atmosphere,
this material should be kept in closed top tanks.
There is a considerable difference between the density of a three salt

fluid and most types of dilution water. Rainwater, for example, has a
density of 8.3 lb/gal, and formation water has a density ranging from
8.5 lb/gal to 10 lb/gal. A small amount of contamination from either of
these sources can result in a large change in the density of the working
fluid. For example, it takes only 2.6 bbl of fresh water to decrease the
density of 100 bbl of a 16.5 lb/gal three salt fluid to 16.3 lb/gal (a 0.2
lb/gal decrease). In a 5,000 ft well, this dilution would reduce hydro-
static pressure by more than 50 psi.
The most economical means of maintaining the prescribed density in

three salt fluids is by the addition of 19.2 lb/gal zinc/calcium bromide
(ZnBr2/CaBr2), a common blending stock used in formulating CBFs. For
40
CORROSION CONTROL CHAPTER 3
working fluids with densities higher than 16.5 lb/gal, an even more con-
centrated zinc bromide (ZnBr2) fluid will have real economic advan-
tages. This fluid has a density of 20.5 lb/gal. The effects are clearly
shown in Figure 6, “Selecting and Using Spike Fluids,” on page 26.
The advantages of using a higher density spike fluid are:

1. a much smaller volume is required to achieve the same density
increase,
2. less storage volume is needed for spike material on the rig, and
3. less volume increase occurs in the working fluid when adjustments are
made.
Density adjustment using solid chemicals such as dry calcium chloride is

possible, but is not recommended, as it will usually result in a higher TCT.
Calcium bromide dry salt can be used as weight material, especially
when volume increases are not practical. Dry salts will also require vig-
orous agitation to achieve complete solubility in highly concentrated,
heavy fluids.
The quantity of 19.2 lb/gal zinc/calcium bromide spike fluid should be

; estimated based on raising the working fluid density by 0.2 lb/gal. As a
minimum, this amount should be maintained on the rig. To prevent
contamination and absorption of water from the atmosphere, this
material should be kept in sealed pill tanks.
This section is intended to briefly touch on brine maintenance. See

Chapter 4, “Field Applications and Brine Maintenance,” for a more in
depth discussion on the subject.
Corrosion Control
Inhibiting or minimizing corrosion is extremely important when planning
a well. This section provides a brief overview of the topic. A more com-
plete discussion can be found in Chapter 8 in the “Corrosion Control”
section, beginning on page 185.
Objectives
• Protect casing, liner, and downhole tools
• Minimize corrosion promoters
• Render corrosion products nondamaging to the formation
• Protect packer and production tubing

CORROSION CONTROL
Factors Affecting
• Temperature
• Brine acidity (pH)
• Surface aeration and air entrainment
• Acid formation gases (CO2, H2S)
• Metallurgy
• Bacteria
Discussion
The factors affecting corrosion are very complex. The information pre-
sented here is intended as a brief introduction. TETRA has done exten-
sive testing in the area of corrosion, especially as it relates to
environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) in HPHT wells. A TETRA fluids
specialist will be happy to assist in developing solutions aimed at reduc-
ing the probability of corrosion in your well.
Temperature. Most chemical reactions proceed more rapidly at higher

temperatures. This is also true for the various reactions involved in the
corrosion process. Temperature conditions in the well will provide the
basis for choosing a corrosion program. With proper protection, by
means of a thoroughly planned corrosion control program, brines are
routinely used at temperatures as high as 350°F with corrosion rates of
less than 15 mils per year (mpy). Recommended application rates for
TETRAHib™ and CORSAF™ corrosion inhibitors, OxBan™ oxygen
scavengers, and biological control additives are provided in Table 7,
“Typical Corrosion Control System Applications,” on page 44 at the end
of this section.
Brine Acidity (pH). Single salt fluids range from neutral to

slightly basic when they are manufactured. They can be treated 1 SALT
to increase alkalinity and reduce the presence of the corrosion

promoting hydrogen ion (H +) with the careful addition of a base such as
sodium hydroxide or lime.
Two salt calcium chloride/calcium bromide fluids are neutral to

slightly basic in nature. Alkalinity can be adjusted to further 2 SALT
reduce the presence of the corrosion promoting hydrogen ion

(H +). This adjustment, however, is not easily accomplished in the field.
Because of this, all TETRA two salt fluids are carefully blended to elimi-
nate the presence of corrosion promoters.
Three salt fluids are prepared using calcium chloride (CaCl2),

calcium bromide (CaBr2), and zinc bromide (ZnBr2). When zinc 3 SALT
is dissolved, it has a tendency to create acidic conditions. If a
42
solution is made more alkaline, then zinc may begin to precipitate as

zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2). In order to maintain the physical properties of

zinc bromide brines, the pH must be kept at a relatively low level.
Because corrosion is accelerated by low pH, special attention should be
given to minimizing corrosion in three salt fluids. TETRA has a long his-
tory of manufacturing zinc bromide and formulates all of its zinc prod-
ucts to minimize acidity and corrosion.
Contact a TETRA fluids specialist if you have concerns about zinc

precipitation. TETRA has developed a number of solutions to address
this problem.
Surface Aeration and Air Entrainment. Oxygen derived from the air is
a major corrosion accelerator. Oxygen solubility in concentrated salt
solutions is extremely low and becomes even lower as brine tempera-
tures rise. Oxygen can, however, be introduced into the circulating sys-
tem if fluids are allowed to freefall into tanks. Other possible sources for
oxygen are leaking pump seals, agitators, and suction pumps. Small air

bubbles can be entrained in more viscous brines and carried down into
the well. With increasing pressure, the entrained air will eventually dis-
solve and react with casing, tubing, or downhole tools. To reduce the
impact of surface aeration, it is prudent to add a small amount of oxy-
gen scavenger.
OxBan HB can be used at the level of five gal/100 bbl and up,
depending on oxygen entrainment. If not supervised, this course of action
can lead to overtreatment. Preventative measures should be taken to
eliminate air entrainment to reduce such overtreatment.
The presence of trace amounts of oxygen with sulfur containing species

can be a dangerous combination with respect to EAC. For more infor-
mation, see the “Corrosion Control” section in Chapter 8, beginning on
page 185.
Acid Formation Gases. More common in a completion fluid situation,

gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can
accelerate corrosion. Both gases are slightly acidic in nature and will
contribute to the acidity of a brine.
Metallurgy. It is essential that information concerning the metallurgy of

casing and tubing be considered in the planning and design of any com-
pletion. If carbon steel tubing is to be used, the issue of general corrosion
must be adequately addressed. If CRA tubing is to be used, the issues of
EAC must be addressed, with the compatibility between the fluids and
tubing being carefully evaluated, especially if the fluid is to be used as a

CORROSION CONTROL
packer fluid. Through participation in extensive scientific test studies in
the area of CBFs, metallurgy, and EAC, TETRA has developed a software
program called the MatchWell fluid compatibility selector. It can be used
to predict tubing/fluid compatibility and performance and make fluid
recommendations based on specific well conditions. For more informa-
tion about EAC, read the “Environmentally Assisted Cracking” section,
beginning on page 189 in Chapter 8.
Consult your TETRA representative to take advantage of this technology

; and receive a customer recommendation report from the MatchWell
fluid compatibility selector to assist you in planning your next HPHT well
completion.
Bacteria. In spite of the salinity and high temperatures found in the sub-
surface environment, bacteria have been found to exist in some of the
world’s most extreme environments. Especially adaptable are iron bacte-
ria, sulfur oxidizing bacteria, and sulfate reducing bacteria. The pres-
ence of these microorganisms can dramatically increase the corrosivity
of the environment, especially if H2S is generated from the bacteria.
Brines that are properly formulated with biocides can eliminate these
bacterial problems.
Recommendations
1. Use a properly formulated TETRA clear brine fluid that has been manu-
factured to the highest specifications.
2. Select a corrosion inhibitor package that is compatible with the metal-
lurgy at the expected bottomhole temperature.
3. Try to reduce all sources of entrained air such as freefalls, excessive
agitation, leaking pump seals, and suction vortices.
4. Do not run jet hoppers unless a polymer is being added.
5. Whenever possible, minimize the contact between CBFs and acidic
gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
6. Select a brine formulation to help neutralize acidic gases.
Table 7 provides recommended application rates for TETRAHib™ and

CORSAF™ SF corrosion inhibitors, OxBan™ oxygen scavengers, and
biological control additives for different brine density ranges.
CORROSION CONTROL 44
TABLE 7. Typical Corrosion Control System Applications
www.tetratec.com
Fluid Density Temperature Corrosion Inhibitor Dose1 Oxygen Scavenger Dose1 Biocide Dose1
200°F TETRAHib 10 OxBan 1.5 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
KCl, 3% 8.6
300°F TETRAHib 15 OxBan 1.5 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
200°F TETRAHib 15 OxBan 1 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
KCl 9.7
NaCl 10.0
NaBr 12.0
200°F TETRAHib 15 OxBan HB 10 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
CaCl2 10.0
300°F TETRAHib 20 OxBan HB 10 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
200ºF TETRAHib Plus 5 OxBan HB 10 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
CaCl2 11.6
300°F TETRAHib Plus 7.5 OxBan HB 10 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
200°F CORSAF SF 20 OxBan HB 10 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
CaCl2 + CRA2 11.6
200°F TETRAHib Plus 10 OxBan HB 10 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
CaCl2/Br2 14.5
CaCl2/Br2 + CRA2 14.5
1
Dose quantities are in U.S. gallons per 100 barrels of brine, gal/100 bbl
2Corrosion Resistant Alloy (e.g., 13 Chrome)
CHAPTER 3

TABLE 7. Typical Corrosion Control System Applications
Fluid Density Temperature Corrosion Inhibitor Dose1 Oxygen Scavenger Dose1 Biocide Dose1
CaCl2/Br2 15.2
CaCl2/Br2 + CRA2 15.2
Zn/CaCl2/Br2 16.0
Zn/CaCl2/Br2 + CRA2 16.0
200°F TETRAHib Plus 15 OxBan HB 10-15 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
Zn/CaCl2/Br2 19.0
300°F TETRAHib Plus 20 OxBan HB 10-15 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
FLUID PLANNING: PROCESSES AND SYSTEMS
200°F CORSAF SF 20 OxBan HB 10-15 Antimicrobial Biocide 1

Zn/CaCl2/Br2 + CRA2 19.0
300°F CORSAF SF 30 OxBan HB 10-15 Antimicrobial Biocide 1
1Dose
quantities are in U.S. gallons per 100 barrels of brine, gal/100 bbl
2Corrosion Resistant Alloy (e.g., 13 Chrome)
Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids and Filtration

45
Second Edition
CORROSION CONTROL
46
DISPLACEMENT CHAPTER 3
Displacement
Introducing a clear brine fluid to a well after drilling operations can be a
critical step in a successful well completion. This section is designed to
provide an overview of the topic. For more information, consult the “Dis-
placement” section in Chapter 8, beginning on page 193.
Objectives
• Protect the formation by developing a completely solid free
environment in which to carry out well completion or workover
operations
• Ensure that drilling fluid constituents do not come into contact with
CBFs
• Separate the two systems to maintain the integrity of the drilling fluid
and the CBF
• Reduce standby rig costs caused by unnecessary filtration time
Factors Affecting
• Mud type
• Pressure constraints
• Environmental discharge limitations
• Time constraints due to rig operations or cost
Discussion
Clear brine fluids are incompatible with water based, diesel oil based,
and synthetic oil based muds. When they are mixed, this incompatibility
generally produces a viscous, unpumpable mass due to flocculation of
the mud by high salt content of the brines. Should this reaction take
place downhole during the displacement, the flow resistance and pump
pressure will increase dramatically, and pumping operations may have
to be suspended due to excessive pressures. To avoid this reaction, drill-
ing muds and CBFs must be separated when the mud is being displaced
from the well.
Carefully preparing surface equipment for the change from a drilling

Ì
! fluid to a clear brine fluid is always important, but is even more critical
when a three salt fluid is being used. It is important to avoid cross-
contamination of drilling fluids with zinc. Even small amounts of zinc can
make a drilling fluid unacceptable for conventional disposal.

DISPLACEMENT
The two general methods by which drilling fluids are removed from the
well prior to the introduction of a CBF are indirect displacement and
direct displacement.
Predisplacement Activities. There are seven major activities that must be

performed prior to conducting displacement operations. These predis-
placement activities must be undertaken in the case of both indirect and
direct displacements.
The seven major predisplacement activities are as follows:

1. Selecting Displacement System. Pay careful attention to the design of
the displacement system chosen. TETRA has developed two chemical
systems—TDSP™ and TETRAClean™—both of which can be config-
ured for use in either direct or indirect displacements.
2. Cleaning Surface Equipment. Clean all surface equipment so that it is
completely free of solids and residual water. Active pits should be
cleaned, completely dried, and covered.
3. Verifying Rheology. Check the drilling fluid rheology and thin the mud
to promote complete removal of solids.
4. Ensuring Flow Path is Clear. Ensure that the flow path is clear by cir-

culating or drilling out settled solids.
5. Calculating Pressure Differentials. Calculate pressure differentials
along the flow path to reduce overpressuring casing or tubing. Reverse
circulating during displacement will also result in a large pressure drop
at the base of the working string due to the highly turbulent flow condi-
tions at that point. Higher pumping pressures may be required.
With single salt brines, large differentials are less likely in lower
pressure wells using lightweight mud and brines. But spacer 1 SALT
densities should be carefully designed to minimize these

pressure effects.
With two salt and three salt brines, pressure differentials

Ì
! between heavier brines and the lightweight surfactant
rinse stage of a displacement system can result in large
2 SALT 3 SALT
pressure differentials between tubing and casing.
6. Running Wellbore Cleanup Tools. Run brush and scraper tools to the
casing bottom.

48
7. Maintaining Flow. Do not stop pumping at any time during displace-

ment until the returns indicate a continuous flow of the CBF.
When planning displacement operations for our customers, TETRA’s

fluids specialists use displacement modeling software to perform
necessary calculations and model specific displacement operations.
These software programs and their uses are explained in the
“Displacement Modeling Software” section in Chapter 8, beginning on
page 198.
Water Based Mud

In order to develop a completely solid free environment in the well prior
to completion operations, all traces of solid laden drilling fluids must be
removed. Two options, direct and indirect displacement, are available to
the operator when a water based mud has been used.
If CRA tubing is to be used, it is essential that all of the potential sulfur

Ì
! contaminations, e.g., lignin sulfonates, be removed, as they may form
sulfides which can contribute to EAC.
Indirect Displacement. This technique can be used with water based

muds or sometimes with synthetic oil based muds because of the need to
discharge rinse water containing residual mud constituents.
An indirect displacement technique consists of:

1. displacing the mud from the hole by making a single pass with sea-
water or lease water,
2. circulating seawater with a surfactant added to remove the final mud
residue, and
3. installing the clear brine fluid with a spacer separating it from the sea-
water.
Indirect displacements are carried out when drilling fluid constituents can
be safely jettisoned to the ocean and adequate rig time is available to
allow for recirculation until returns are clean. Sufficient circulation time
must be expended to avoid contact between residual drilling solids and
the CBF. Contamination of the CBF by solids will cause delays, as the sol-
ids will have to be filtered from the CBF. If solids are not entirely
removed, the completion could be jeopardized if solids are allowed to
invade the perforations and/or producing zone. Solids may also settle
around the packer, making it difficult to remove.
Additionally, the presence of solids can induce a form of concentration

cell corrosion known as crevice corrosion, which can lead to EAC issues.
A further consideration is the possible generation of H2S or sulfur from

DISPLACEMENT
additives associated with the mud solids. These sulfur containing contam-
inants can lead to sulfide stress cracking (SSC).
Direct Displacement. This technique requires slightly more attention to

detail; however, because it can be carried out in a much shorter period
of time, it reduces rig time lost while circulating.
TETRA’s TDSP direct displacement system is a three stage process:

1. TDSP I—Mud Removal Stage. This first stage consists of a weighted
spacer designed to push the mud from the hole. This spacer is very vis-
cous and should have a higher yield point than the mud being dis-
placed, which will ensure separation of incompatible fluids and
maximize the hole cleaning ability. The density of the TDSP I phase will
be determined by the density of the drilling mud.
The volume of TDSP I should provide for at least 1,000 feet of coverage
; in the largest annular section of casing.
2. TDSP II—Surfactant Wash Stage. Stage two consists of a turbulent

flow spacer with a concentrated surfactant which disperses any resid-
ual mud from casing and tubing surfaces.
The annular velocity should be greater than 180 ft/min, and the volume
; of TDSP II should provide at least 2,000 feet of coverage in the largest
annular section of casing.
3. TDSP III—Viscosified Sweep Stage. The third stage consists of a

spacer used between the surfactant wash spacer and the completion
fluid. This stage promotes the removal of residual materials dispersed
by the surfactant wash. The rheology of this stage is designed to maxi-
mize lifting capacity.
The volume of TDSP III should provide for at least 1,000 feet of coverage
; in the largest annular section of casing.
Diesel Oil Based Muds and Synthetic Oil Based Muds

Diesel oil based and synthetic oil based drilling fluid systems often
require the use of direct displacement. An additional oil based pad
should be placed between the mud and TDSP I when a CBF is to follow
an oil based mud system; however, other than this, the procedures are
the same.
In a diesel oil based mud displacement where CRA tubing is used, it is

Ì
! vital to eliminate the potential for sulfur or sulfide contamination, which
can lead to EAC. An in depth discussion of corrosion can be found in the
“Corrosion Control” section in Chapter 8, beginning on page 185.
50
FLUID LOSS CONTROL CHAPTER 3
TETRAClean Displacement System

Developed for use under the stringent environmental regulations of the
North Sea, the versatile TETRAClean displacement system is used for
well cleanup after water based, diesel oil based, or synthetic oil based
drilling muds. For ease of use, the TETRAClean system is mixed as a sin-
gle viscous pill, usually in the range of 200 to 250 bbl. The highly effec-
tive, concentrated pill reduces the need for additional pit volume.
Depending on brine chemistry, TETRAVis HEC polymer or BioPol poly-
mer may be used to build viscosity. The TETRAClean 105 surfactant
package and TETRAClean 106 activator are added to the viscosified
brine. The pill is run after a compatible spacer and pumped at a rate
high enough to achieve turbulent conditions.
The TETRAClean system can be used without restriction in the UK North

Sea, as the system has an environmental Chemical Hazard Assessment
and Risk Management (CHARM) rating of Gold. An in depth discussion
of displacement and the TETRAClean system can be found in the “Dis-
placement” section in Chapter 8, beginning on page 193.
Fluid Loss Control

Controlling fluid loss should be an integral part of planning for any com-
pletion operation. Prior to bringing any CBF to the location, provisions
should be made to deal with any potential fluid loss situation. This sec-
tion is designed to provide a brief overview of the topic. For a more in
depth discussion, see the “Reduction of Fluid Loss” section in Chapter 8,
beginning on page 203.
Objectives
• Maintain well control—ensure a full column of adequate density brine
• Minimize seepage losses that may contribute to formation damage
• Reduce relative permeability effects
• Stop lost circulation conditions
Factors Affecting
• Fluid density and pressure differential
• Formation permeability and porosity
• Formation pressure and temperature
• Completion fluid type
• Length of thief zone

FLUID LOSS CONTROL

Discussion
Clear brine fluids are designed to minimize formation damage. Despite
their low potential for damage, these fluids are still foreign to oil and gas
producing formations; for this reason, their introduction to the wellbore
may have adverse effects if large quantities of fluid escape the wellbore
and enter the formation, mixing with formation fluids.
Knowledge of reservoir characteristics should give some indication as to

the potential for movement of fluids from the well into the formation.
Generally there are two types of fluid loss:

1. Seepage is the migration of wellbore fluids into the formation under
the influence of hydrostatic pressure; it is controlled by formation per-
meability. With light seepage, penetration may be a matter of only a
few inches.
2. Lost circulation is severe fluid loss that has reached a rate at which cir-
culation can no longer be maintained. It is wholesale loss of fluid to
highly fractured or very porous formations and requires immediate
action.
Between these two extremes, there is a continuum that spans the full
range. Completion engineers can choose between technologies
designed to address three broad categories: (1) light seepage, (2) mod-
erate seepage due to a relatively permeable formation, and (3) lost cir-
culation, which is severe and requires immediate and decisive action.
Light Seepage. In cases of light seepage, consider lowering the density

of the fluid to reduce flow into the formation. Well control and safety
considerations should both be carefully weighed. If lowering the density
is not feasible, a solid free, viscosified pill should be placed across the
producing zone to slow the loss. The ability of a viscosified pill to control
seepage will depend on the wellbore temperature, as the viscosifying
properties of most polymers are reduced at higher temperatures.
Polymer pills are generally applicable in formations with permeabilities

of less than one darcy. Most common polymer pills are made using
BioPol, TETRAVis, or a combination of the two. A decision as to which
polymer to use should be based on temperature stability, salt system, and
damage characteristics. For most general brine applications, the TET-
RAVis products are most widely used, since the polymer is considered
less damaging and easier to clean up.
1. Single Salt Fluid Polymer Pills. TETRAVis and BioPol L are
both commonly used to viscosify single salt fluids. BioPol L is 1 SALT
often chosen when bottomhole temperatures exceed 225°F.

2. Two Salt Fluid Polymer Pills. The most common viscosifying
agent for use in two salt calcium chloride/calcium bromide 2 SALT
brines is TETRAVis L Plus.
52
FLUID LOSS CONTROL CHAPTER 3
3. Three Salt Fluid Polymer Pills. TETRAVis L Plus is the most

common viscosifying agent used for three salt systems. It will 3 SALT
not hydrate in three salt fluids containing more than 1% ZnBr2

(0.3% Zn) and less than about 30% ZnBr2 (9% Zn). This range covers
three salt fluids with densities up to 17.2 lb/gal. In order to viscosify a
heavy fluid between 15.2 lb/gal and 17.3 lb/gal, a special cutback
fluid must be made from 19.2 lb/gal Zn/CaBr2 and fresh water.
A weighted pill containing zinc bromide can be formulated by using a

fluid made by cutting back 19.2 lb/gal spike fluid with fresh water. This
method will work throughout the range of three salt fluids. (See “Mixing
Viscosified Pills,” beginning on page 74.)
Moderate Seepage. At moderate loss rates, you will want to approach

the problem using a mixture of viscosifying agents and bridging mate-
rial. There are four options available when dealing with moderate loss
situations. They are:
1. TETRACarb Sized Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). TETRA’s sized cal-

cium carbonate (CaCO3) pills provide a reversible means of quickly
shutting off rapid fluid loss to the formation. Carefully ground and
sized particles of CaCO3 are suspended in a viscosified pill and
placed across the thief zone. The procedure for building a viscosified
pill is given in Chapter 4. (See “Mixing Viscosified Pills,” beginning on
page 74.)
When completion operations are finished, a mild acid treatment may be

required to dissolve calcium carbonate solids.
2. TETRA SS Sized Sodium Chloride (NaCl). Another reversible means of

stopping fluid loss is by using a viscous pill with sized particles of

sodium chloride (NaCl) suspended in it. Sodium chloride particles can
be used to bridge formation pores and reduce fluid loss. Application is
limited to situations where a saturated salt (NaCl) solution can be
maintained; otherwise, the particles will dissolve. There are generally
sufficient chloride ions from calcium chloride in three salt fluids to keep
the salt crystals from dissolving.
The advantage of sized sodium chloride crystals is that they will dissolve
during flowback operations, provided formation fluids are not saturated
with respect to sodium chloride. Salt crystals can be removed by using an
undersaturated potassium or sodium chloride brine or a fresh water
rinse.
3. TETRAFlex FLC Seal. For moderate losses, this sized, shredded

crosslinked polymer mixed with a brine can be used for fluid loss con-
trol. The treatment is completely and rapidly reversible with a mild acid
treatment.

FILTRATION
4. TETRA SmartSeal. In the late stages of completion, especially after a
screen and gravel pack emplacement, a TETRA SmartSeal pill will
enable fluid loss control while running the final production tubing.
AND
SmartSeal is a viscosified pill with a carefully chosen blend of TETRA-
Carb calcium carbonate bridging material. SmartSeal pills are usually
BRINE CLARITY
small in volume, approximately five bbl, and can be designed to main-
tain viscosity at temperatures above 300°F. To ensure integrity of the
SmartSeal pill and facilitate removal of the calcium carbonate filter
cake, a TETRA SmartSeal Pad should be run in front of and behind the
SmartSeal pill. In addition to guarding against dilution of the pill, the
SmartSeal Pads play an active role by treating the screen to reduce
adhesion of the TETRACarb particles, thus making cleanup easier and
more complete.
Lost Circulation. For situations involving lost circulation, the primary

objective is to seal off the thief zone. Coarse sized calcium carbonate or
sodium chloride bridging materials should be used.
A TETRA fluids representative can help with these decisions. Whichever

situation is anticipated, fluid loss control should be an integral part of
planning for any completion operation. Provisions should be made to
deal with fluid loss prior to bringing any CBF to the location. For more
information regarding this topic, see the “Reduction of Fluid Loss” section
in Chapter 8, beginning on page 203.
Filtration and Brine Clarity

Brine filtration is another component in TETRA’s integrated productivity
protection system which encompasses more than just the fluid. Workover
and completion operations often generate solids that are picked up and
transported by the CBF. These solids can be carried into the formation or
perforations. Such solids can be difficult to remove and their presence
often results in lower productivity. In order to eliminate the possibility of
production impairment, brine filtration is used to remove solids from the
system. Another important aspect to consider when planning a filtration
operation is the potential impact that solids can have on corrosion within
the annulus, especially with the use of CRAs. Effectively removing these
solids is one more way to reduce the probability of corrosion.
Filtration equipment is operated continuously during all phases of com-

pletion operations as long as the CBF is in the hole. The primary goal of
this section is to assist you in selecting the correctly sized filtration equip-
ment. Chapter 8, “Special Topics,” also includes a section on filtration,
which provides a better understanding of the filtration process.
54
BRINE CLARITY CHAPTER 3
Objectives
• Protect the producing formation
• Remove solids from completion fluid
AND
• Remove potential contaminants for CRA applications

• Assure an uninterrupted supply of filtered, solid free completion fluid
FILTRATION
• Ensure tool operability
Factors Affecting
• Hole volume and available tankage
• Efficiency and type of displacement
• Type of completion
• Anticipated flow rates
• Deck space
• Brine density and viscosity
Discussion
Protection of the formation should always be the primary objective of fil-
tration. To optimize filtration operations, the following factors should be
considered.
Hole Volume. Simply put, the larger the hole, the larger the filtering
equipment should be. Typical flow rates for plate and frame filter presses
range from 0.8 bbl/min to 1.2 bbl/min per 100 square feet of filter
area. A hole with a volume of 800 barrels and appropriately sized sur-
face tankage may have a circulating volume of as much as 1,800 bar-
rels. Using the above range of 0.8 bbl/min to 1.2 bbl/min per 100
square feet, a 1,100 square foot filter unit would operate in the range
from 8.8 bbl/min to 13.2 bbl/min. Using an average value, it would
take 2.7 hours to filter the entire fluid volume once.
Drilling Fluid Displacement. Brine filtration is primarily a means of

removing potentially damaging particulate matter. It is not designed to
remove large amounts of solids resulting from incomplete mud displace-
ment or tank cleaning operations. For the best utilization of filtration
equipment, and to minimize downtime, other strategies should be
employed for the removal of bulk solids. The upper limit for an efficient
plate and frame operation is a solid level of around 2% by volume. Flu-
ids with solid content above 2% should be displaced with clean fluid.
Downtime may become significant if the filter is not correctly sized for
both flow rate and solid content. As an example, a fluid with a solid con-
tent of 0.25% would have a filtration unit operating time of 2.6 hours

FILTRATION
using a 600 square foot filter unit. Filtration unit operating time would
increase to 4.7 hours with an 1,100 square foot unit. Each precoat cycle
may require up to 60 minutes. Downtime would be greatly reduced from
AND
7.2 hr/day to 4.4 hr/day with the larger unit. There is a distinct advan-
tage in using a larger unit.
BRINE CLARITY
Type of Completion. Some downhole activities like gravel packing or
milling operations are likely to generate a larger volume of solids, which
will influence the size of the filtration unit required. The rate at which sol-
ids accumulate in the filter will determine the active filtration time. This
subject is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. (See “Filtration,” begin-
ning on page 205.)
Available Tankage. Efficient filtration requires an available brine hold-

ing tank capacity of about 0.75 to 1.0 times the hole volume. The filter
feed tank and clean brine tank should be about the same size. This
allows larger particles to settle and increases the active filtration time for
the filter unit. This is an advantage, because the filter press must be bro-
ken down, washed out, and precoated each time the chambers are
filled.
Larger tanks provide a wide spot in the circulating path, allowing some
settling and taking some of the load off the filter. If rig space is limited
and tankage is small, more solids must be captured by the filter. If settling
is limited, the filter chambers will fill more rapidly and a larger filter
would be advisable. A smaller filter feed tank, for example 75 bbl, will
reduce settling time. This also means a shorter interval for dumping and
precoating, only 10 minutes at a circulating rate of 7.5 bbl/min, before
rig operations would have to be suspended until filtration equipment
could be brought back online.
Deck Space. Available floor space on the rig may dictate the size of the
filter unit used. All TETRA filter units are specifically designed for comple-
tion fluid applications.
TABLE 8. Filtration Equipment
TETRA Filtration Equipment

Unit Filter Area Flow Rate Footprint
ft2 bbl/min LxW
SafeDEflo 600 600 6 - 8 22 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo C600 600 8 - 10 16 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1100 1,100 8 - 12 24 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1300 1,300 12 - 14 26 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1500 1,500 14 - 20 26 x 15 feet
56
BRINE CLARITY CHAPTER 3
Some general specifications of TETRA’s filtration equipment are shown in

Table 8 to assist you in making your selection. The Filtration section in
Chapter 8, “Special Topics,” explores the subject in greater detail.
AND
Viscosity. Lightweight, single salt fluids typically have a viscosity of less

than 10 centipoise (cp), which will generally result in lower head losses
FILTRATION
through the circulating system. Both the density and the viscosity of a
completion fluid should be considered when determining the filter unit
size required for a specific job.
Above 10.0 lb/gal, the viscosity of CBFs can range up to 30 cp. The
effect of viscosity is most noticeable in the case of two salt summer
blends which may be saturated with calcium chloride. The increased vis-
cosity will also cause compression of the filter cake, reducing its perme-
ability. This will lower flow rates and decrease operating times. In cases
such as these, a slightly larger filtration unit is recommended.
Recommendations
1. Plan and carefully execute a complete displacement of drilling mud to
reduce CBF contamination.
2. As a general guideline, plan a filtration unit that will provide 0.8 bbl/
min to 1.0 bbl/min per 100 ft2 of filter area.
3. Select filtration equipment that will minimize downtime by estimating
solid loading and filtration unit operating time; where settling time is
limited by pit volume, a larger filter unit should be selected.
4. Provide adequate tankage; 100% of the hole volume is ideal, but at
least 75% is recommended to maintain an uninterrupted supply of
clean completion fluid at all times.
5. Establish a baseline nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) value for the
fluid at the rig site as the reference turbidity value for filtered brine.

Notes:
58 CHAPTER 3
Notes:

59
CHAPTER 4 Field Applications and

Brine Maintenance
The information in this chapter addresses needs and decisions that often
arise in the field after the completion fluid has been transported to the
location.

1. General Density Equations
2. Brine Volume Calculations
3. Weight Up of Single Salt Brine with Dry Chemicals
4. Cutback Calculations
5. Mixing Viscosified Pills
6. Spotting Balanced Pills
7. Slug Calculations
General Density Equations

From time to time, it will be necessary to adjust the density of a clear
brine completion fluid. A completion fluid may become diluted by rain,
seawater, or by water from the producing formation. Additionally, bot-
tomhole pressure conditions may demand that a fluid weight up be per-
formed to maintain well control. On the other hand, cutting back a fluid’s
density may also be required to reduce invasion of wellbore fluids into
the formation.
The most basic form of the density equation is given as mass per unit vol-
ume, ordinarily in units of pounds per gallon (lb/gal).
density = mass
volume
The equation can be rearranged to solve for weight, as shown here.
density * volume = mass
www.tetratec.com
60
GENERAL DENSITY EQUATIONS CHAPTER 4
All density adjustment calculations are made using expanded forms of

the preceding equations. Equation 7 is used for weight up or cutback
calculations. It is the most general form used in most oilfield density
adjustment calculations. Equation 8 states that the final volume is the
combination of the starting volume and the added volume. A small error
results from the complex interaction of water and the brine chemicals.
These equations are good approximations, but they will require a field
check for final density. Virtually all density calculations—weight up, cut-
back, or volume—are done using some variation of Equation 7 and/or
Equation 8.
EQUATION 7.
(d1 * v1 ) + (d2 * v2 )
df = v1 + v2
df = density of final target fluid, lb/gal

d1 = density of starting fluid, lb/gal
v1 = volume of starting fluid, bbl
d2 = density of added fluid, lb/gal
v2 = volume of added fluid, bbl
EQUATION 8.
vf = v1 + v2
vf = volume of final target fluid, bbl

v1 = volume of starting fluid, bbl
v2 = volume of added fluid, bbl
The next group of equations deals with density adjustment, rearranging

the terms in Equation 7 and Equation 8 to allow you to find the quanti-
ties you will need.
Mixing Two Known Fluids—Unknown Final

Density
The least complicated situation involves determining the final density
when mixing together two fluids of known density and known volume.
The density is determined using Equation 7 as it is written above. Also in
this case, the final volume (vf) is the sum of the volume of the two fluids
straight out of Equation 8.

FIELD APPLICATIONS AND BRINE MAINTENANCE 61
GENERAL DENSITY EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE A. Determining Final Density, df, When d1, v1, d2, and v2 are Known
Find:
vf, final volume
df, final density

Given:
v1 = 650 bbl
d1 = 15.6 lb/gal
v2 = 150 bbl
d 2 = 14.2 lb/gal
vf = v1 + v2
vf = 650 bbl + 150 bbl
(d1 * v1) + (d2 * v2 )

df = vf
(15.6 lb/gal * 650 bbl) + (14.2 lb/gal * 150 bbl)

df =
800 bbl
Answers:
vf = 800 bbl
df = 15.3 lb/gal
Mixing Two Known Fluids—Known Final Density

The following situation arises frequently and may even be the most com-
mon volume density calculation. You know the densities of the two start-
ing fluids (d1 and d2) and the desired final density (df). What you want to
know are the volumes of the two fluids (v1 and v2) that you need to mix to
get one barrel of final density (df) fluid. Start by using Equation 9 to find
the volume of fluid 1 (v1).
62
EQUATION 9.
(df – d2 )
v1=
(d1 – d2 )
v1 = volume of fluid 1, bbl

df = density of final fluid, lb/gal
d1 = density of fluid 1, lb/gal
Then, set the final volume (vf) to 1.00 and subtract the calculated volume
(v1) to get the volume of fluid 2 (v2) using Equation 8.
.
EXAMPLE B. Finding Volume Proportions of Two Known Fluids Needed to Make

One Barrel of Known Density Fluid
Find:
v1, volume
v2, volume
Given:
vf = 1.00 bbl
df = 15.0 lb/gal
d1 = 16.5 lb/gal
d2 = 14.2 lb/gal
(df – d2 )
v1 =
(d1 – d2 )
(15.0 lb/gal – 14.2 lb/gal)

v1 =
(16.5 lb/gal – 14.2 lb/gal)
v2 = vf – v1
v2 = 1.00 bbl – 0.348 bbl
Answers:
v1 = 0.348 bbl
v2 = 0.652 bbl


Kill Weight Fluids
Completion fluid density is specifically designed to control well pressure;
this being the case, most brines are kill weight fluids. Determining the
appropriate density has been outlined in some detail in the section “Fluid
Categories” on page 10. In some instances, shut in bottomhole pressure
(SIBP) may be substituted for anticipated bottomhole pressure (BHP), and
any overbalance or underbalance will be included; however, the calcula-
tion process is essentially the same, using Equation 1 and Equation 2 on
page 12.
EXAMPLE C. Kill Weight Fluid Density
Find:
grad, pressure gradient
d, kill weight fluid density
Given:
BHP (or SIBP) = 9,500 psi
overbalance = 200 psi
TVD = 15,000 ft
BHP + overbalance
grad =
TVD
9500 psi + 200 psi

grad =
15000 ft
grad
d=
0.052
0.647 psi/ft
d=
0.052
Answers:
grad = 0.647 psi/ft
d = 12.4 lb/gal
Typically, when using a completion fluid, the task will be to weight a fluid
up to a higher density.
Weight Up of Working Fluid with Spike Fluid

The following calculations are applicable when the density of the circu-
lating fluid needs to be increased. There are two cases. The first case,
shown in Example D, uses Equation 7 to determine the density that can
be achieved by adding a known amount of spike fluid to a known circu-
lating volume. In this case, the final volume (vf) will increase. This case is
64
identical to Example B of mixing two fluids of known density and vol-

ume. The final volume (vf) is the combined volume of initial fluid (v1) and
spike fluid (v2).
EXAMPLE D. Weight Up with Spike Fluid
Find:
vf, final volume
df, final density

Given:
v1 = 650 bbl
d1 = 15.6 lb/gal
v2 = 150 bbl
d2 = 19.2 lb/gal
vf = v1 + v2
vf = 650 + 150
(d1 * v1 ) + (d2 * v2 )
df = vf

df =
800 bbl
Answers:
vf = 800 bbl
df = 16.28 lb/gal
The second case, shown in Example E, is used when there is a volume

limitation, meaning that the final volume (vf) is limited to the available
holding capacity of the hole and surface equipment.
In this example, the volume is limited to the hole and surface equipment
capacity (vf). The task is to find the maximum density that can be
achieved with an initial starting fluid density (d1) using a fixed amount
(v2) of spike fluid of a known density (d2).


EXAMPLE E. Weight Up Using Spike Fluid with Volume Limitation
Find:
v1, volume
df, final density
Given:
vf = 1,200 bbl
d1 = 12.8 lb/gal
v2 = 250 bbl
d2 = 14.2 lb/gal
v1 = vf – v2
v1 = 1200 bbl – 250 bbl
(d1 * v1 ) + (d2 * v2 )
df = vf

df =
1200 bbl
Answers:
v1 = 950 bbl
df = 13.1 lb/gal
Surface Density Correction

As a fluid circulates through a well, it experiences changes in tempera-
ture, and expands and contracts in relation to this heating and cooling.
Because of this expansion and contraction, the density of the fluid may
appear to be off. Fluid engineers will use one of the correction factors
from Table 9 and apply Equation 10 on page 66 to account for these
temperature changes and determine the fluid’s density at 60°F.
TABLE 9. Surface Density Correction Factors
Fluid Density Correction Factor

8.4 – 9.0 lb/gal 0.0002
9.1 – 11.0 lb/gal 0.0003
11.1 – 14.5 lb/gal 0.0004
14.6 – 16.0 lb/gal 0.0005
16.1 – 18.0 lb/gal 0.0006
18.1 – 19.2 lb/gal 0.0007
66
EQUATION 10.
dc = ('T * CF + HR) * dw
dc = fluid density, corrected to 60°F, lb/gal

'T = sample temperature - 60°F, °F
CF = correction factor, (lb/gal)/°F
HR = hydrometer reading at sample temperature
dw = density of fresh water, 8.34 lb/gal
The example below illustrates a surface density correction for a fluid with
an initial density of 10.0 lb/gal.
EXAMPLE F. Surface Density Correction
Find:
UT, difference between sample temperature and 60°F
dc, corrected density
Given:
CT = 100°F
CF = 0.0003
HR = 1.187
dw = 8.34 lb/gal
'T = CT – 60°F
'T = 100°F – 60°F
dc = ('T * CF + HR) * dw
dc = (40°F * 0.0003 + 1.187) * 8.34 lb/gal
Answers:
UT = 40°F
dc = 9.99 lb/gal

B R I N E VO L U M E C A L C U L A T I O N S
Brine Volume Calculations
Maximum Volume of a Specific Density

You have a set amount of spike fluid and need to find the maximum vol-
ume (vf) of a target density that can be mixed from a starting fluid. The
first thing to do is to calculate the volume of starting fluid (v1) that will be
required to be mixed with the fixed volume of spike fluid (v2) to get to the
density you want (df).
EQUATION 11.
v1 = v2 * ( d2 – df
df – d1 )
The final total volume (vf) goes back to Equation 8 on page 60. You
already know the spike volume (v2) and have calculated the quantity of
starting fluid needed (v1), so the final volume (vf) is the sum of the two.
vf = v1 + v2
In Example G, the density of the starting fluid (d1), the density of the
spike fluid (d2), and the final target density (df) are all known. In addi-
tion, the volume of spike fluid that is available (v2) is known.
68
DRY CHEMICALS CHAPTER 4
EXAMPLE G. Weight Up to Target Density with Spike Fluid
Find:
v1, volume
WITH
vf, final volume

SINGLE SALT BRINE
Given:
df = 16.1 lb/gal of final fluid
d1 = 15.8 lb/gal of starting fluid
v2 = 100 bbl of spike fluid

d2 = 19.2 lb/gal of spike fluid
OF
( )
WE I G H T U P
d2 – df
v1 = v2 *
df – d1
v1 = 100 bbl * (19.2 lb/gal – 16.1 lb/gal

16.1 lb/gal – 15.8 lb/gal )
vf = v1 + v2
vf = 1033 bbl + 100 bbl
Answers:
v1 = 1,033 bbl
vf = 1,133 bbl
Weight Up of Single Salt Brine with

Dry Chemicals
When single salt brines become diluted with water, they can be reconsti-
tuted to their original composition by adding dry or crystalline chemicals
to the diluted brine, provided sufficient mixing equipment is available.
Reference information showing the weight percent contained at different
densities (pctf and pctdil) can be found in the density and composition
tables in Chapter 6 in the section titled, “Single Salt Fluid Composition
and Blending Tables” on page 145.

WE I G H T U P
EQUATION 12.
pctf – pctdil
OF
lbpure = * ddil * 42
1 – pctf
SINGLE SALT BRINE

lbpure = weight of pure salt (100% basis) per barrel of original brine, lb/bbl
pctf = percent of pure salt (100% basis) in original brine, wt fraction
pctdil = percent of pure salt (100% basis) in diluted brine, wt fraction
WITH
ddil = density of diluted fluid, lb/gal
Note: pct represents weight percent as decimal fraction (i.e., 25% = 0.25)
DRY CHEMICALS
Whenever dealing with dry chemicals, it is important to make sure you
know the purity or percentage of pure salt contained in the product with
which you are working. One to five percent water and impurities are not
uncommon in technical grade chemicals. To calculate total product,
divide the pounds of 100% compound (lbpure) in Equation 12 by the
purity percentage to increase the total product added to the recipe as
illustrated in Equation 13.
EQUATION 13.
lbpure
lbproduct =
purity

lbproduct = total product added to the recipe, lb/bbl
lbpure = weight of pure salt (100%), lb/bbl
purity = weight percent as decimal fraction (i.e., 97% purity = 0.97)
Make sure you know the purity or percentage of pure salt contained in
the product with which you are working.
Weight Up Tables
For a quicker way to determine the amount of weight material required
for a density increase of a single salt brine by as much as 0.6 lb/gal,
weight up tables, similar to the following one (Table 10), are provided in
Chapter 6. They are organized by fluid type and density in the section
titled, “Single Salt Fluid Composition and Blending Tables” on page 145.
In Table 10, as well as in all of the weight up tables in Chapter 6, column

one provides starting density and the succeeding columns provide infor-
70
DRY CHEMICALS CHAPTER 4
mation for the pounds of dry salt of stated purity (in this case 99%)
required to achieve a density increase of 0.1 lb/gal to 0.6 lb/gal. There
will be a volume increase using this method, which is discussed in the
text below Equation 14.
WITH
Remember that using dry chemicals in a weight up can result in a

Ì
!
SINGLE SALT BRINE
substantial temperature increase. A bench scale pilot can give an

indication of how hot the fluid is likely to become. Always add dry
chemicals slowly.
TABLE 10. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Weight Up Using 99% NaCl

OF
WE I G H T U P
Starting
Density Weight Up Increments (0.1 lb/gal)
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

8.4 4.92 11.91 17.96 24.06 31.33 37.58
8.5 6.98 13.01 19.10 26.36 32.59 38.89
8.6 5.99 12.03 19.23 25.42 31.67 39.15
8.7 6.01 13.18 19.34 25.56 33.00 40.57
8.8 7.13 13.26 19.44 26.86 34.39 42.04
8.9 6.08 12.22 19.58 27.05 34.64 41.11
9.0 6.11 13.43 20.86 28.42 34.86 42.63
9.1 7.28 14.68 22.20 28.61 36.34 44.20
9.2 7.34 14.80 21.15 28.83 36.63 44.56
9.3 7.40 13.70 21.32 29.05 36.92 44.92
9.4 6.25 13.80 21.48 29.28 37.22 45.29
9.5 7.51 15.15 22.91 30.81 38.84
9.6 7.57 15.28 23.11 31.07
9.7 7.64 15.40 23.30
9.8 7.70 15.53
9.9 7.77
Dry Salt Weight Up Volume Increase

The weight up tables like Table 10 and those provided in Chapter 6
assume that you are starting with one barrel of brine and will be adding
dry salt to increase the density.

CUTBACK CALCULATIONS
EQUATION 14.
(d1 * 42) + lbproduct

vf =
(df * 42)
vf = final volume, bbl

lbproduct = weight of salt product per barrel required
to weigh up to final fluid density, lb/bbl
Suppose you want to increase the density of an 8.8 lb/gal (d1) NaCl
brine to 9.1 lb/gal (d2), a 0.3 lb/gal increase. This would require 19.44
lb of 99% NaCl (from Table 10) per barrel of starting brine. Applying
Equation 14 above, shows that the volume would increase to 1.018 bbl,
or 1.8 bbl per 100 bbl of starting brine treated.
EXAMPLE H. Weight Up of Single Salt Working Fluid with Dry Salt
Find:
vf, final volume
Given:
d1 = 8.8 lb/gal
d2 = 9.1 lb/gal
lbproduct = 19.44 lb/bbl
(d1 * 42) + lbproduct

vf =
(d2 * 42)
(8.8 lb/gal * 42) + 19.44 lb/bbl

vf =
(9.1 lb/gal * 42)
Answer:
vf = 1.018 bbl
Cutback Calculations
Cutback calculations can be done using two different approaches. The
first is the volume density approach using Equation 8 and Equation 9 as
72
CUTBACK CALCULATIONS CHAPTER 4
shown in earlier examples. The second method, which is more accurate,

uses Equation 15 below and the weight percentages of the dry salts in
the starting fluid and final cutback fluid to calculate the fraction of a bar-
rel of starting fluid that should be diluted with fresh water to get one full
barrel at the target density (df). The weight percent values for each single
salt fluid are provided in the density and composition tables in Chapter 6
in the section titled, “Single Salt Fluid Composition and Blending Tables”
on page 145.
Cutback calculations are based on weight percent salt on a 100% basis

dissolved in a fluid of a particular density. All the examples in this section
assume the cutback is being done with fresh water. The goal is to deter-
mine the volume of starting fluid of density (d1) that, when brought up to
a final volume of one barrel, will give the correct final density (df). The
formula for a cutback is given below in Equation 15.
EQUATION 15.
(pctdil * ddil )
v1 =
(pct1 * d1 )
v1 = volume (as a fraction of a barrel) of fluid 1 (starting fluid), bbl

pctdil = percent of dissolved salt in final fluid, wt fraction
ddil = final diluted density, lb/gal
pct1 = percent of dissolved salt in fluid 1 (starting fluid), wt fraction
d1 = density of fluid 1 (starting fluid), lb/gal
Note: pct represents weight percent as a decimal fraction (i.e., 25% = 0.25)
Example I demonstrates the use of weight percentages and Equation 15

to calculate the volume of starting fluid needed to cut an 11.6 lb/gal cal-
cium chloride fluid back to 10.9 lb/gal. The weight percent values used
in the example below are taken from Table 39 on page 158.
Cutback Tables
A faster way to solve the cutback problem is by using a cutback table.
Table 11 is the cutback table for calcium chloride; the density of the start-
ing fluid (d1) appears across the top and the final target density (df) is
shown down the leftmost column. The values are in barrels of starting
fluid that should be brought up to a final volume of one barrel by adding
water. Cutback tables, such as the following one (Table 11), are pro-
vided in Chapter 6. They are organized by fluid type and density in the
section titled, “Single Salt Fluid Composition and Blending Tables” on
page 145.

CUTBACK CALCULATIONS
EXAMPLE I. Cutting Back a Single Salt Fluid with Fresh Water
Find:
v1, volume of fluid 1
Given:
pctdil = 32.4% by weight CaCl2
ddil = 10.9 lb/gal CaCl2
pct1 = 39.8% by weight CaCl2

d1 = 11.6 lb/gal CaCl2
(pctdil * ddil )
v1 =
(pct1 * d1)
(0.324 * 10.9 lb/gal)

v1 =
(0.398 * 11.6 lb/gal)
Answer:
v1 = 0.765 bbl
If, for instance, you are starting with 11.4 lb/gal (d1) CaCl2 and want to
make 800 bbl of 10.2 lb/gal (ddil) CaCl2 fluid, you will need to follow
the steps below.
To determine the quantity of 11.4 lb/gal fluid needed to make 800 bar-
rels of 10.2 lb/gal fluid:
1. Locate the density of the starting fluid, in this case 11.4 lb/gal, along
the top of Table 11.
2. Run down the 11.4 column until you intersect the 10.2 lb/gal row in
the leftmost column.
3. Read the volume as the fraction of a barrel, 0.595 bbl. This means that
for every one barrel of 10.2 lb/gal fluid, you will need to start with
0.595 bbl of 11.4 lb/gal fluid.
4. Multiply that number by the number of barrels you want in the end.
5. Add the amount of fresh water required to increase the fluid volume to
the final desired volume.
To make 800 bbl of 10.2 lb/gal fluid, it will take 476 barrels of 11.4 lb/
gal CaCl2, diluted with fresh water up to a final volume of 800 bbl.
74
MIXING VISCOSIFIED PILLS CHAPTER 4
TABLE 11. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Volume in Barrels of Starting Density (d1) Fluid Needed for Cutback1

Target Starting Density (d 1) of Stock Fluid, lb/gal
Density
df 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6
8.4 0.026 0.025 0.024 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.020 0.020 0.019 0.018
8.5 0.052 0.050 0.048 0.046 0.044 0.043 0.041 0.040 0.038 0.037
8.6 0.090 0.086 0.083 0.079 0.076 0.074 0.071 0.068 0.066 0.064
8.7 0.136 0.130 0.125 0.120 0.116 0.112 0.107 0.104 0.100 0.097
8.8 0.162 0.155 0.149 0.143 0.138 0.133 0.127 0.123 0.119 0.115
8.9 0.207 0.199 0.191 0.184 0.177 0.170 0.163 0.158 0.153 0.147
9.0 0.256 0.246 0.236 0.227 0.219 0.211 0.202 0.195 0.189 0.182
9.1 0.301 0.289 0.277 0.267 0.257 0.247 0.237 0.229 0.222 0.214
9.2 0.344 0.330 0.317 0.305 0.293 0.282 0.271 0.262 0.254 0.244
9.3 0.388 0.372 0.357 0.343 0.330 0.318 0.305 0.295 0.286 0.275
9.4 0.432 0.414 0.398 0.383 0.368 0.355 0.340 0.329 0.318 0.307
9.5 0.474 0.455 0.437 0.420 0.404 0.389 0.373 0.361 0.350 0.337
9.6 0.518 0.497 0.477 0.459 0.441 0.425 0.407 0.394 0.382 0.368
9.7 0.562 0.539 0.518 0.498 0.479 0.461 0.442 0.428 0.414 0.399
9.8 0.607 0.582 0.559 0.537 0.517 0.498 0.477 0.462 0.447 0.431
9.9 0.649 0.623 0.598 0.575 0.553 0.533 0.511 0.494 0.479 0.461
10.0 0.693 0.664 0.638 0.613 0.590 0.568 0.545 0.527 0.510 0.492
10.1 0.737 0.707 0.679 0.652 0.628 0.605 0.580 0.561 0.543 0.523
10.2 0.781 0.750 0.720 0.692 0.666 0.641 0.615 0.595 0.576 0.555
10.3 0.824 0.790 0.759 0.730 0.702 0.676 0.648 0.627 0.607 0.585
10.4 0.867 0.832 0.799 0.768 0.739 0.711 0.682 0.660 0.639 0.616
10.5 0.911 0.873 0.839 0.806 0.776 0.747 0.717 0.693 0.671 0.647
10.6 0.955 0.916 0.880 0.846 0.814 0.784 0.751 0.727 0.704 0.678
10.7 1.000 0.959 0.921 0.886 0.852 0.821 0.787 0.761 0.737 0.710
10.8 1.000 0.960 0.923 0.888 0.856 0.820 0.794 0.768 0.741
10.9 1.000 0.961 0.925 0.891 0.854 0.826 0.800 0.771
11.0 1.000 0.962 0.927 0.889 0.860 0.832 0.802
11.1 1.000 0.963 0.923 0.893 0.865 0.834
11.2 1.000 0.959 0.928 0.898 0.866
11.3 1.000 0.968 0.937 0.903
11.4 1.000 0.968 0.933
11.5 1.000 0.964
11.6 1.000
1Calculated to make one barrel of final density fluid.
Mixing Viscosified Pills

Mixing a viscosified pill is a common task. The hydration and yield time
for hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) polymer varies in completion fluids that
have different salt compositions and different densities. Factors which

MIXING VISCOSIFIED PILLS

affect HEC hydration are time, temperature, shearing, fluid composition,
pH, and HEC formulation.
Determining Product Type

Single Salt Fluids. TETRAVis can be used in any low density
clear brine fluid when sufficient agitation, shearing, and time 1 SALT
are available. TETRAVis L, an economical prehydrated polymer,

is well suited for use in all single salt fluids. Its advantages are a shorter
hydration time than that of a dry product, a decrease in the possibility of
fish eyes, and greater ease of handling.
Multisalt Fluids. TETRAVis L Plus is the preferred viscosified

pill for multisalt and higher density fluids. It is double the 2 SALT 3 SALT
strength of TETRAVis L.
Brine Type
• All low density (<12.0 lb/gal) single salt fluids can be
viscosified readily with TETRAVis or TETRAVis L. Excessive 1 SALT
yield times can often be shortened by heating the fluid to a

temperature higher than 130°F or by using TETRAVis L, as it is
prehydrated.
• High density two salt fluids, such as NaCl/NaBr and CaCl2/
CaBr2, may be viscosified with TETRAVis L or TETRAVis L Plus. 2 SALT
Hydration times in these fluids will vary as a function of the salt

and water concentrations of each particular fluid blend. Prior to the
actual blending of any pill, a fluids specialist should run a pilot test.
• ZnBr2/CaBr2/CaCl2 fluids can be viscosified with TETRAVis L
Plus, as long as the ZnBr2 concentration is greater than 28- 3 SALT
30% by weight. When the ZnBr2 concentration in the working

fluid is less than this range, cut a 19.2 lb/gal ZnBr2 spike fluid back
with water to the desired density to make your pill. (This process is
illustrated in Example J.)
• Based on standard composition, 19.2 lb/gal ZnBr2 can be cut back
with fresh water to a density of 12.1 lb/gal and still result in a fluid
containing 30% ZnBr2, which is sufficient to ensure viscosification.
Example J shows the calculation used to determine the fraction of both

19.2 lb/gal ZnBr2 fluid and fresh water required to prepare 1 bbl of
15.9 lb/gal final working fluid. The process in the following example is
identical to the earlier example of mixing two known fluids to achieve a
fluid of a certain target density. It uses Equation 8 on page 60 and
Equation 9 on page 62. Table 12, which follows the example, provides
cutback values for 19.2 lb/gal zinc bromide (ZnBr2).
76
EXAMPLE J. Determining the Fraction of 19.2 lb/gal ZnBr2 and Fresh Water
Required to Prepare one bbl of 15.9 lb/gal Fluid
Find:
v1, volume
v2, volume
Given:
vf = 1.00 bbl
df = 15.9 lb/gal
d1 = 19.2 lb/gal
d2 = 8.33 lb/gal, fresh water
(df – d2 )
v1 =
(d1 – d2 )
(15.9 lb/gal – 8.33 lb/gal)

v1 =
(19.2 lb/gal – 8.33 lb/gal)
v2 = vf – v1
v2 = 1.00 bbl – 0.696 bbl
Answers:
v1 = 0.696 bbl
v2 = 0.304 bbl
For a 15.9 lb/gal working fluid, your pill will have the proportions of
0.696 bbl 19.2 lb/gal spike fluid and 0.304 bbl fresh water.
TABLE 12. 19.2 lb/gal Zinc Bromide (ZnBr2) Cutback Table
Volume in Barrels of 19.2 ZnBr2 and Fresh Water

Target 19.2 ZnBr2 lb ZnBr2 % ZnBr2
Water
Density
df1 bbl bbl lb/bbl wt%
13.5 0.524 0.476 210.9 37.2%
13.6 0.515 0.485 215.0 37.6%
13.7 0.506 0.494 219.1 38.1%
13.8 0.497 0.503 223.2 38.5%
13.9 0.488 0.512 227.3 38.9%
14.0 0.478 0.522 231.3 39.3%
14.1 0.469 0.531 235.4 39.8%
14.2 0.460 0.540 239.5 40.2%
14.3 0.451 0.549 243.6 40.6%
1Densities are approximate.


TABLE 12. 19.2 lb/gal Zinc Bromide (ZnBr2) Cutback Table
Volume in Barrels of 19.2 ZnBr2 and Fresh Water

Target 19.2 ZnBr2 lb ZnBr2 % ZnBr2
Water
Density
df1 bbl bbl lb/bbl wt%
14.4 0.442 0.558 247.7 41.0%
14.5 0.432 0.568 251.7 41.3%
14.6 0.423 0.577 255.8 41.7%
14.7 0.414 0.586 259.9 42.1%
14.8 0.405 0.595 264.0 42.5%
14.9 0.396 0.604 268.1 42.8%
15.0 0.386 0.614 272.2 43.2%
15.1 0.377 0.623 276.2 43.6%
15.2 0.368 0.632 280.3 43.9%
15.3 0.359 0.641 284.4 44.3%
15.4 0.350 0.650 288.5 44.6%
15.5 0.340 0.660 292.6 44.9%
15.6 0.331 0.669 296.6 45.3%
15.7 0.322 0.678 300.7 45.6%
15.8 0.313 0.687 304.8 45.9%
15.9 0.304 0.696 308.9 46.3%
16.0 0.294 0.706 313.0 46.6%
16.1 0.285 0.715 317.0 46.9%
16.2 0.276 0.724 321.1 47.2%
16.3 0.267 0.733 325.2 47.5%
16.4 0.258 0.742 329.3 47.8%
16.5 0.248 0.752 333.4 48.1%
16.6 0.239 0.761 337.4 48.4%
16.7 0.230 0.770 341.5 48.7%
16.8 0.221 0.779 345.6 49.0%
16.9 0.212 0.788 349.7 49.3%
17.0 0.202 0.798 353.8 49.5%
17.1 0.193 0.807 357.8 49.8%
1Densities are approximate.
78
TETRAVis L Plus Curves

TETRAVis L Plus is TETRA’s proprietary blend of prehydrated hydroxy-
ethyl cellulose (HEC). The optimum amount of HEC polymer required in
completion fluids varies with differences in salt composition and density.
The curves in Figure 7 through Figure 15 have been provided as a useful
reference. For each brine group, the first illustration shows viscosity in

Marsh Funnel seconds at different concentrations of TETRAVis L Plus in
gal/bbl. The second illustration for each brine group shows yield point
at different concentrations of TETRAVis L Plus in gal/bbl. The final illus-
tration for each brine group shows plastic viscosity at different concen-
trations of TETRAVis L Plus in gal/bbl.
TETRA recommends using TETRAVis L Plus for most applications

because it is prehydrated and, thus, more cost effective.


FIGURE 7. Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Low Density CBFs
(Measured at 75°F)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
TETRAVis L Plus (gal/bbl)

0.4
0.3
0.2
10.9 NaBr/NaCI
11.5 NaBr
10.0 NaCI
9.0 NaCI
3% KCI
0.1
0
300
250
200
150
100
50
Marsh Funnel (sec)
MIXING VISCOSIFIED PILLS 80
100
www.tetratec.com
3% KCI
80 9.0 NaCI
(Measured at 75°F)
10.0 NaCI
10.9 NaBr/NaCI
11.5 NaBr
60
Yield Point
FIGURE 8. Yield Point of Low Density CBFs
40
20
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

CHAPTER 4


FIGURE 9. Plastic Viscosity of Low Density CBFs
(Measured at 75°F)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5

0.4
0.3
0.2
10.9 NaBr/NaCI
11.5 NaBr
10.0 NaCI
9.0 NaCI
3% KCI
0.1
0
35
30
25
20
15
10
Plastic Viscosity
500
www.tetratec.com
9.1 CaCI2
400 10.6 CaCI2
(Measured at 75°F)
11.6 CaCI2
12.5 CaBr2 /CaCI2
14.2 CaBr2
300
200
Marsh Funnel (sec)

FIGURE 10. Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Calcium Brines
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

CHAPTER 4


FIGURE 11. Yield Point of Calcium Brines
(Measured at 75°F)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5

0.4
0.3
0.2
12.5 CaBr2 /CaCI2
14.2 CaBr2
10.6 CaCI2
11.6 CaCI2
9.1 CaCI2
0.1
0
100
80
60
40
20
Yield Point
60
www.tetratec.com
9.1 CaCI2
50
10.6 CaCI2
(Measured at 75°F)
11.6 CaCI2
12.5 CaBr2 /CaCI2
40
14.2 CaBr2
30
Plastic Viscosity
FIGURE 12. Plastic Viscosity of Calcium Brines
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

CHAPTER 4


FIGURE 13. Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines
(Measured at 75°F)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5

0.4
0.3
0.2
14.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
15.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
16.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
17.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
18.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
19.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
0.1
0
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
Marsh Funnel (sec)
100
www.tetratec.com
14.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
80 15.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
(Measured at 75°F)
16.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2

17.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
18.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
60
19.2 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
Yield Point
40
FIGURE 14. Yield Point of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines
20
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

CHAPTER 4


FIGURE 15. Plastic Viscosity of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines
(Measured at 75°F)
0.8
14.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
15.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
16.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
17.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
18.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
19.0 ZnBr2 /CaBr2
0.7
0.6

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
60
50
40
30
20
10
Plastic Viscosity
88
SPOTTING BALANCED PILLS CHAPTER 4
Blending Equipment
In viscosifying any CBF, vigorous agitation is essential for efficient poly-
mer hydration. This is especially critical for the dry product. You have a
number of options when it comes to suitable blending equipment:
1. Usually the best available equipment for blending TETRAVis pills on
location is a sand control blender.
2. Cement unit displacement tanks can be used for blending TETRAVis
pills on location.
3. The rig slugging pit can also be used for blending TETRAVis pills at the
rig site; however, due to their low energy shearing action, they are less
cost effective than other options.
Spotting Balanced Pills

A balanced pill is a volume of viscous material (pill or plug) placed in the
bottom of the working string and up into the casing or liner, such that the
fluid column of the viscous pill in the working string is the same height as
the column of pill fluid in the annulus. The pill is balanced to the degree
that the total fluid column in the working string and the annulus provide
the same hydrostatic head at the bottom of the working string. When
placing the balanced pill to slow fluid loss, pill volume should include
both the length of area of fluid loss plus some volume for anticipated
loss.
If you know the length of the interval that you want the pill to occupy
(hbal), calculate the pill volume (vpill) using Equation 16. Values for the
tubing and annular capacities are found in Table 19, “API Tubing —
Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities,” on page 135 and Table 20,
“Annular Capacity,” on page 138.
EQUATION 16.
vpill = (Can + Ct ) * hbal
vpill = volume of balanced pill, bbl

Can = capacity of annulus, bbl/ft
Ct = capacity of tubing, bbl/ft
hbal = length of pill planned, ft

SPOTTING BALANCED PILLS

EXAMPLE K. Balanced Pill in a Known Interval
Find:
vpill, volume of balanced pill
Given:
Can = 0.03055 bbl/ft
Ct = 0.00264 bbl/ft
hbal = 95 ft
casing = 6-5/8", 20.00 lb/ft, 6.049" ID

tubing = 1-7/8", 2.4 lb/ft, 1.65" ID
vpill = (Can + Ct ) * hbal
vpill = (0.03055 bbl/ft + 0.00264 bbl/ft) * 95 ft
Answer:
vpill = 3.2 bbl
Another approach to spotting a pill or plug is to find out how much foot-
age a pill of a given volume will cover if it is balanced in the tubing and
annulus. In this case, you will already know the starting volume of the pill
in barrels.
EQUATION 17.
vpill
hbal =
(Ct + Can )

vpill = volume of balanced pill, bbl
90
SPOTTING BALANCED PILLS CHAPTER 4
EXAMPLE L. Balanced Pill of Known Volume
Find:
hbal, length of pill planned
Given:
vpill = 5 bbl
Ct = 0.00264 bbl/ft
Can = 0.03055 bbl/ft
casing = 6-5/8", 20.00 lb/ft, 6.049" ID

tubing = 1-7/8", 2.4 lb/ft, 1.65" ID
vpill
hbal =
(Can + Ct )
5 bbl
hbal =
(0.03055 bbl/ft + 0.00264 bbl/ft)
Answer:
hbal = 151 ft
Spotting the pill at the correct depth means that you need to chase it with
a volume of working fluid that will leave it at the same height in the tub-
ing and outside in the annulus. To find the chase volume, determine the
total volume of the tubing and subtract the interval height (hbal) that you
want left in the tubing. Also, make sure to add in the volume of the lines
from the pit to the drill floor (vsurf).
EQUATION 18.
vchase = Ct * (h – hbal ) + vsurf
vchase = volume of chase fluid, bbl

h = total length of tubing, ft
vsurf = volume of empty lines from pit to drill floor, bbl

SLUG CALCULATIONS
EXAMPLE M. Chase Volume to Place a Balanced Pill
Find:
vchase, volume of chase fluid
Given:
Ct = 0.00264 bbl/ft
h = 6,000 ft
hbal = 95 ft
vsurf = 4 bbl
tubing = 1-7/8", 2.4 lb/ft, 1.65" ID
vchase = Ct * (h– hbal ) + vsurf
vchase = 0.00264 bbl/ft * (6000 ft – 95 ft) + 4 bbl
Answer:
vchase = 19.6 bbl
Slug Calculations
At times, it may be necessary to depress the standing fluid level in the
drill pipe or working string with a CBF in the hole. A slug fluid is usually
a stock blending fluid like 11.6 lb/gal CaCl2, 14.2 lb/gal CaBr2, or
19.2 lb/gal Zn/CaBr2, depending on the type of fluid being used as the
working fluid.
This is a three step process:

1. Find the pressure differential (Pdif) needed to attain the number of feet
of dry or empty working string.
EQUATION 19.
Pdif = d * hdry * 0.052
Pdif = pressure differential, psi

d = density of fluid in well, lb/gal
hdry = length of dry pipe, ft
92
SLUG CALCULATIONS CHAPTER 4
2. Knowing the weight of the stock slug fluid, calculate the number of feet
required (hslug) to achieve the desired depression in the fluid level.
EQUATION 20.
Pdif
hslug =
(dslug – d) * 0.052
hslug = length of slug fluid required, ft

dslug = density of slug fluid, lb/gal
Pdif = pressure differential from previous step, psi
d = density of fluid in well, lb/gal
3. Convert the feet of slug fluid to volume of slug fluid in barrels (vslug)
using the inside volume of the drill pipe from Table 17, “API Drill Pipe
Capacity and Displacement,” on page 132 or Table 19, “API Tubing
— Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities,” on page 135.
EQUATION 21.
vslug = hslug * Ct
vslug = volume of slug, bbl

hslug = length of slug fluid required, ft
Ct = internal capacity of drill pipe or tubing, bbl/ft

SLUG CALCULATIONS
EXAMPLE N. Slug Calculation
Find:
Pdif, pressure differential
hslug, feet of slug fluid
vslug, volume of slug

Given:
d = 12.6 lb/gal
hdry = 100 ft
dslug = 14.2 lb/gal
Ct = 0.00264 bbl/ft
Pdif = d * hdry * 0.052
Pdif = 12.6 lb/gal * 100 ft * 0.052
Pdif
hslug =
(dslug – d) * 0.052
65.5 psi
hslug =
(14.2 lb/gal – 12.6 lb/gal) * 0.052
vslug = hslug * Ct
vslug = 787 ft * 0.00264 bbl/ft
Answers:
Pdif = 65.5 psi
hslug = 787 ft
vslug = 2.08 bbl
94 CHAPTER 4
Notes:

Notes:
96 CHAPTER 4
Notes:

PRODUCT QUICK REFERENCE 97
PRODUCT QUICK REFERENCE

CHAPTER 5 Product Quick
Reference
In addition to providing high quality completion fluids, TETRA strives to

remain at the leading edge of technology by developing innovative
products to meet the ever-changing needs of the industry. This chapter is
designed to provide a quick reference to a number of the Company’s
more popular products.
Product names are marked with this icon to indicate that they contain at
RQ least one ingredient with an established EPA reportable quantity (RQ).

1. Clear Brine Fluids
2. Fluids Specially Blended to Control Fluid Loss
3. Breaker Technology
4. Bridging Agents
5. Corrosion Control Additives
6. Dry Salt Weight Material
7. Formation Protection Additives
8. pH Control and Buffering Agents
9. Rheological and Filtrate Control Products
10. Filtration Products
11. Chemical Displacement Products
12. Specialized Rental Equipment
13. Specialty Wellbore Cleanup Tools
98
CLEAR BRINE FLUIDS CHAPTER 5
Clear Brine Fluids
Single Salt Fluids

Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Solution. A clear brine fluid, ammo-
RQ
nium chloride is used as a single salt brine in densities ranging
from 8.4 lb/gal to 8.9 lb/gal. Ammonium chloride is used as a comple-
tion, workover, and gravel pack fluid when the ammonium ion is pre-
ferred. Ammonium chloride is an inherently acidic brine that offers many
properties that serve to minimize or prevent formation damage. Ammo-
nium chloride brines are shale inhibitive and compatible with most for-
mation water.
Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) Solution. A clear brine fluid, calcium bromide

is used as a single salt brine in densities ranging from 8.4 lb/gal to 15.2
lb/gal. It is used as a completion, workover, gravel pack, and packer
fluid. It can also be used as a spike fluid to increase density in fluids up
to 14.2 lb/gal. Calcium bromide is often used when the chloride ion is
not desirable. Due to its inhibitive properties, calcium bromide can help
reduce formation damage induced by clay swelling and dispersion.
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Solution. A clear brine fluid, calcium chloride

is used as a single salt brine in densities ranging from 8.4 lb/gal to 11.6
lb/gal. The divalent calcium ion (Ca+2) inhibits clay swelling, dispersion,
and migration. Calcium chloride is one of the most economical brines
used in oilfield completion and workover operations.
Potassium Chloride (KCl) Solution. A clear brine fluid, potassium chlo-

ride is used as a single salt brine in densities ranging from 8.4 lb/gal to
9.7 lb/gal. Potassium chloride is used when the potassium ion is pre-
ferred. It is also an effective clay/shale stabilizer in water sensitive for-
mations.
Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Solution. A clear brine fluid, sodium bromide is

used as a single salt brine in densities ranging from 8.4 lb/gal to 12.7
lb/gal. A pure sodium bromide brine is often selected when the chloride
ion is not desirable and when sodium is preferred over calcium. It is
often used in situations where formation waters contain high levels of
sulfate or carbonate that may precipitate with the calcium ion.
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Solution. A clear brine fluid, sodium chloride is

used as a single salt brine in densities ranging from 8.4 lb/gal to 10.0
lb/gal. Sodium chloride is chosen frequently due to its wide availability
and low cost.

CLEAR BRINE FLUIDS

Multisalt Fluids
Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide (CaCl2/CaBr2) Blend. A clear brine
fluid, calcium chloride/calcium bromide blend can be formulated to
meet individual density and crystallization temperature requirements in
the density range from 11.6 lb/gal to 15.1 lb/gal. Calcium chloride/
calcium bromide blends are the most economical clear brine fluids at
their available density range.
Sodium Chloride/Sodium Bromide (NaCl/NaBr) Blend. A clear brine

fluid, sodium chloride/sodium bromide blend can be formulated to meet
individual density and crystallization temperature requirements, cover-
ing the density range from 8.4 lb/gal to 12.7 lb/gal. A sodium chlo-
ride/sodium bromide blend is often used when the calcium ion is not
desirable and costs are a concern, as it is less expensive than pure
sodium bromide brines.
Zinc Bromide/Calcium Bromide/Calcium Chloride (ZnBr2/CaBr2/

RQ
CaCl2) Blend. A clear brine fluid, zinc bromide/calcium bromide/
calcium chloride blend can be formulated to meet individual density and
crystallization temperature requirements above the density range from
15.0 lb/gal to 19.2 lb/gal. This blend is used primarily when higher
densities are required.
Stock, Custom, and Specialty Fluids

Zinc Bromide (ZnBr2) Solution. A clear brine fluid, zinc bromide
RQ
can be used as a single salt fluid when calcium ions (Ca+2) or chlo-
ride ions (Cl-) are undesirable. Zinc bromide is available as a 20.5 lb/
gal (78 wt%) stock fluid and can also be used as a spike fluid in high
density, three salt brines with densities greater than 18.0 lb/gal.
Zinc Bromide/Calcium Bromide (ZnBr2/CaBr2) Blend. A clear

RQ
brine fluid, zinc bromide/calcium bromide is available as a stock
blend at densities of 19.2 lb/gal and 20.5 lb/gal, and as a specialty
blend that can be designed to meet individual customer specifications. A
zinc bromide/calcium bromide blend can also be used as a spike fluid
in clear brine fluids.
Cesium Formate (CsO2CH) Solution. A single salt, halide free brine

fluid, cesium formate solution is available in densities up to 19.2 lb/gal.
Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Solution. A single salt, halide free brine

fluid, potassium formate solution is available in densities up to 13.1 lb/
100
CONTROL FLUID LOSS CHAPTER 5
gal. Potassium formate solution can also be used to reduce formation

damage that is caused by clay swelling, dispersion, or migration.
Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) Solution. A single salt, halide free brine

fluid, sodium formate solution is available in densities up to 11.1 lb/gal.
TO
Cesium/Potassium Formate (CsO2CH/KO2CH) Blend. A solid free,

FLUIDS SPECIALLY BLENDED
halide free multisalt fluid blend that is less expensive than the equivalent
density of a pure cesium formate solution. These blends cover the density
range from 13.1 lb/gal up to 19.2 lb/gal.
Sodium/Potassium Formate (NaO2CH/KO2CH) Blend. A solid free,

halide free multisalt fluid blend that is available in densities from 8.4 lb/
gal to 13.1 lb/gal.
Fluids Specially Blended to Control

Fluid Loss
TETRAFlex™ FLC Seal. A premixed gelled polymer crosslinked pill,
TETRAFlex FLC Seal pills can be formulated with sodium, potassium,
calcium, and zinc completion based fluids, giving rise to a wide range of
densities. TETRAFlex FLC Seal crosslinked pills can effectively control
fluid loss in formations with permeabilities up to two darcies and
bottomhole temperatures up to 250°F.
TETRA SmartSeal. A sized calcium carbonate pill, TETRA SmartSeal is

used to treat moderate to high fluid losses by sealing the internal sur-
faces of screens in post gravel pack operations. The base clear brine
fluid, polymeric carrying agents, and calcium carbonate particle size
distribution are each selected for individual well applications. TETRA
SmartSeal is used in conjunction with the TETRA SmartSeal Pad to pro-
vide high bridging efficiency, high return permeability numbers, and
maximum liftoff at low pressures.
TETRA SmartSeal Pad. A solid free pill, TETRA SmartSeal Pad is used in
conjunction with TETRA SmartSeal. It protects the integrity of TETRA
SmartSeal and facilitates easy liftoff of the sealing cake. The SmartSeal
Pad contains TETRA’s proprietary releasing agent and is formulated with
the identical base fluid and polymeric carrying agents as the TETRA
SmartSeal pill with which it will be used.

B R E A K E R TE C H N O L O G Y
Breaker Technology
TETRA carries an extensive range of unique breaker products that permit
the degradation of filter cakes or fluid loss pills from ambient to high
temperatures and in the presence of low to high density fluids. With
TETRA’s patented technology, breaker products can be formulated to
remove the polymeric binding agents and release the bridging materials
either as discrete particles or degraded material. The break time can be
controlled by careful formulation to facilitate the removal of both the
binding and bridging agents.
Breaker Products. TETRA’s breaker products cover a wide range of

applications with respect to specific temperatures and densities. Some of
these products have proven to be especially effective at low tempera-
tures. After being circulated into place, these breaker products are usu-
ally left until the well is brought online.
TETRAVis™ Breaker. A viscosity breaker, TETRAVis Breaker is

RQ
designed with the ability to incorporate a time delay in the break-
ing of an HEC pill.
Bridging Agents
Microfiber Bridging Agents

Microfibers are specially manufactured, acid soluble mineral fibers. The
mineral fibers are long and flexible and will interlock to form a strong,
dense filter cake. Microfibers are recommended for bridging and plug-
ging voids and fractures. They are also the preferred choice to treat lost
circulation in wells with high bottomhole temperatures. Microfibers are
thermally stable in excess of 500°F and are compatible with fresh water,
completion brines, and diesel oil based muds.
TETRA Magmafiber Regular®. Composed of fine acid soluble microfi-

bers, TETRA Magmafiber Regular is used to build a robust filter cake.
TETRA Magmafiber Regular is recommended to seal microfractures as
well as permeable and underpressured sand formations.
TETRA Magmafiber Fine®. Composed of medium sized acid soluble

microfibers, TETRA Magmafiber Fine is used to build a robust filter cake.
TETRA Magmafiber Fine is recommended to bridge and plug voids and
fractures.
102
BRIDGING AGENTS CHAPTER 5
Calcium Carbonate Bridging Agents

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) bridging agents are acid soluble. They
effectively bridge and seal formations with low to moderate porosity and
permeability, and they enhance filter cake characteristics. Calcium car-
bonate bridging agents are used as the primary bridging agents in
TETRA fluid loss control pills to rapidly establish an effective filter cake
across permeable intervals during drilling operations.
TETRACarb Prime. A fine grind, high purity calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

bridging agent, TETRACarb Prime has a particle size distribution rang-
ing from 2.0 to 150 microns and a D50 value of 12 microns. TETRACarb
Prime is sized to flow through prepacked screens without bridging and
to be easily removed by acidizing.
TETRACarb Ultra. An ultra fine grind, high purity calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) bridging agent, TETRACarb Ultra exhibits a narrow particle
size distribution ranging from 1.5 to 20 microns and a D50 value of four
microns. TETRACarb Ultra is sized to flow through prepacked screens
without bridging and to be easily removed by acidizing. It is primarily
used in prepack fluids as a bridging and sealing agent to maintain filter
cake integrity across production intervals, while sand control tools, such
as prepacked screens, are being used.
TETRACarb Fine. A select grind, high purity calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

bridging agent, TETRACarb Fine has a particle size distribution ranging
from 10 to 500 microns and a D50 value of 55 microns.
TETRACarb Medium. An intermediate range, select grind calcium car-

bonate (CaCO3) bridging agent, TETRACarb Medium has a particle size
distribution ranging from 85 to 1200 microns and a D50 value of 370
microns.
TETRACarb Coarse. A select grind, sized calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

bridging agent, TETRACarb Coarse has a particle size distribution rang-
ing from 1000 to 3500 microns and a D50 value of 1800 microns.
TETRACarb Flake. A sized calcium carbonate (CaCO3) bridging agent,

TETRACarb Flake has the physical dimensions of a flat, sheet like mate-
rial, rather than a conventional spherically shaped calcium carbonate.
Sized Salt Bridging Agents

Sized salt bridging agents are made from selected grades of sodium
chloride (NaCl). Sized salt bridging agents are designed to provide opti-
mum bridging and sealing of productive intervals. They are easily

CORROSION CONTROL ADDITIVES

removed by applying undersaturated sodium chloride brine fluid, pro-
duced water, or fresh water.
TETRA SS Fine. A select grind sodium chloride (NaCl) bridging agent,

TETRA SS Fine has a particle size distribution of 1.0 to 800 microns and
a D50 value of 48 microns. It is used to control seepage.
TETRA SS Medium. A select grind sodium chloride (NaCl) bridging

agent, TETRA SS Medium has a particle size distribution of 100 to 1500
microns and a D50 value of 500 microns. It is used to control seepage
and lost circulation.
TETRA SS Coarse. A select grind sodium chloride (NaCl) bridging agent,

TETRA SS Course has a particle size distribution of 1,000 to 10,000
microns. It is used to control lost circulation.
Corrosion Control Additives

CORSAF™ SF Corrosion Inhibitor. This amine based corrosion
RQ
inhibitor is designed for use with solid free brines. CORSAF SF cor-
rosion inhibitor is effective for sodium, potassium, calcium, and zinc
brines. It is a water soluble, film forming amine that can be used at tem-
peratures up to at least 350°F. CORSAF SF corrosion inhibitor is recom-
mended for use in the treatment of brines in well applications utilizing
chrome alloys where a thiocyanate based inhibitor is not appropriate.
CORSAF SF may be used in conjunction with OxBan and OxBan HB
oxygen scavengers.
TETRAHib™ Corrosion Inhibitor. This water soluble, multi compo-

RQ
nent, inorganic, film forming corrosion inhibitor is designed for use
in low density clear brine fluids such as potassium chloride, sodium chlo-
ride, and calcium chloride. TETRAHib corrosion inhibitor is particularly
effective in environments where hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide
are present.
TETRAHib™ Plus Corrosion Inhibitor. This water soluble, inor-

RQ
ganic, film forming corrosion inhibitor is designed for use in mid-
weight and high density clear brine fluids, including calcium chloride,
calcium bromide, and zinc bromide brines. TETRAHib Plus corrosion
inhibitor is effective at bottomhole temperatures from 100°F to 450°F. It
effectively retards the rate of corrosion in calcium chloride and calcium
bromide CBF environments. Unlike standard filming amines, TETRAHib
104
D R Y S A L T WE I G H T M A T E R I A L CHAPTER 5
Plus corrosion inhibitor is compatible with most elastomers common in

packer and seal assemblies.
Antimicrobial Biocide. This antimicrobial biocide solution is recom-

mended in water based drilling, completion, and workover fluids. It is
effective against sulfate reducing bacteria, iron bacteria, and bacterial
slime formers, which cause bacterially induced corrosion.
OxBan™ Oxygen Scavenger. This oxygen scavenger consists of a

RQ
specially formulated, concentrated liquid inorganic sulfite. OxBan
oxygen scavenger eliminates oxygen as a corrosion promoter in fresh
water and low density oilfield completion and workover fluids. It is
designed for use in clear brine fluids containing monovalent ions such as
sodium and potassium. Use of OxBan oxygen scavenger with chrome
resistant alloy (CRA) metallurgy should be avoided.
Use of OxBan oxygen scavenger with CRA metallurgy should be

Ì
! avoided. OxBan HB should be used instead.
OxBan™ HB Oxygen Scavenger. This oxygen scavenger comprises a

proprietary blend of polyfunctional organics that eliminates oxygen in
midweight to high density fluids containing monovalent and divalent
ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and zinc. OxBan HB oxygen
scavenger is compatible with seawater. Additionally, it will not form
undesirable byproducts with calcium or zinc brine fluids. Because it is
free of sulfur containing chemicals, OxBan HB can be used safely with
CRA metallurgy.
Dry Salt Weight Material

Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl). A dry, 99% purity salt, ammonium
RQ
chloride is used as weight material to increase density in comple-
tion fluids ranging from 8.4 lb/gal to 8.9 lb/gal. Ammonium chloride is
an effective clay stabilizer and can be used to prevent formation dam-
age after an acid treatment.
Calcium Bromide (CaBr2). A dry, 95% purity calcium based salt, calcium
bromide is used to increase density in higher density calcium based
completion fluids.

FORMATION PROTECTION ADDITIVES

EXPRESS® Calcium Chloride (CaCl2). A dry, 94-97% purity calcium
based salt, EXPRESS calcium chloride is used to increase density in com-
pletion fluids.
Potassium Chloride (KCl). A dry, 98% purity salt, potassium chloride is

used as weight material to increase density in lightweight completion flu-
ids. Potassium chloride can also be added to unsaturated calcium or
sodium brines as an effective clay stabilizer.
Potassium Formate (KO2CH). A dry, organic, 97% purity salt, potassium

formate is used as weight material to increase density up to 13.1 lb/gal
in formate based completion fluids.
Sodium Bromide (NaBr). A dry, 98% purity salt, sodium bromide is used
as weight material to increase density in higher density sodium based
completion fluids.
Sodium Chloride (NaCl). A dry, 99% purity salt, sodium chloride is used
as weight material to increase density in sodium based completion fluids.
Sodium Formate (NaO2CH). A dry, granular, organic, 97% purity salt,

sodium formate is used as weight material to increase density up to 11.0
lb/gal and when making solid free completion fluids.
Formation Protection Additives

FerroBan™ Iron Control Agent. An organic iron reducer and seques-
trant, FerroBan iron control agent is recommended for use in monovalent
and divalent brines. It reduces ferric iron to the more preferable ferrous
iron, which has a greater stability and solubility at a wider range of pH
levels and in a wide variety of fluids. FerroBan iron control agent also
maintains iron in solution by chelation, thereby preventing iron hydrox-
ide and sulfide precipitation.
CT 100 FR Friction Reducer. A friction reducing additive, CT 100 FR fric-

tion reducer is used in coiled tubing operations.
CT Foam. A coiled tubing agent, CT Foam is designed to lighten hydro-

static pressure to allow a well to flow. It can also be used during cleanup
operations to aid in circulating debris from the well.
PayZone® NE 200 Emulsion Preventor. An emulsion preventor that is

designed to work with calcium based fluids, PayZone NE 200 emulsion
106
BUFFERING AGENTS CHAPTER 5
preventor inhibits the development of emulsion caused by a mixture of

completion fluid and hydrocarbons, which impedes the formation’s abil-
ity to transmit fluids and can cause formation damage.
PayZone® NE 300 Emulsion Preventor. An emulsion preventor that is

designed to work with zinc based fluids, PayZone NE 300 emulsion pre-
AND
ventor inhibits the development of emulsion caused by a mixture of com-

CONTROL
pletion fluid and hydrocarbons, which impedes the formation’s ability to

transmit fluids and can cause formation damage.
PH
PayZone® Stay Clay Stabilizer. A proprietary clay stabilizing additive

that is compatible with all completion fluids, PayZone Stay clay stabilizer
is used to stabilize and prevent hydration and swelling in interstitial clay.
PayZone® StrataGlide Lubricant. A lubricant that is designed to be used

in drilling applications, PayZone StrataGlide lubricant provides relief
from friction between the drill string and the wellbore.
pH Control and Buffering Agents

Acetic Acid (C2H4O2). A mild organic acid, acetic acid is used to
RQ
lower the pH level in clear brine completion fluids. Acetic acid is
less corrosive than strong mineral acids.
Buff-10. An alkaline material, Buff-10 is used to establish alkalinity and

resist pH changes up to a pH level of 10 in fresh water or brine systems.
Buff-6. An organic carboxylic acid, Buff-6 is used to buffer pH to a mod-

erately acidic level.
Caustic Potash (Potassium Hydroxide, KOH). A strong mineral

RQ
base, caustic potash is used to increase pH levels in potassium
based clear brine fluids.
Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH). A strong alkaline

RQ
(base) compound, caustic soda is used to control the alkalinity in
sodium based clear brine fluids.
Citric Acid (C6H8O7). A mild organic acid with strong metal complexing
capabilities, citric acid is used predominately in sodium and potassium
based clear brine fluids to increase the pH level. Citric acid is less corro-
sive than strong mineral acids.

RHEOLOGICAL
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl). A strong mineral acid, hydrochloric acid
RQ
is used to decrease the pH level in halide based clear brine fluids
and to degrade calcium carbonates.
AND
Lime (Ca(OH)2). A mild mineral base, lime is used to increase the pH
FILTRATE CONTROL PRODUCTS

level in calcium based clear brine fluids.
Magnesium Oxide (MgO). A strong alkaline earth base, magnesium

oxide is capable of increasing the pH level up to 10.0 in sodium/potas-
sium based halide and formate clear brine fluids as well as calcium
based halide clear brine fluids.
Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate, Na2CO3). A high, purity base, soda ash
is used as a chemical precipitant for calcium in sodium based brine flu-
ids. Soda ash reacts with available calcium to form calcium carbonate,
which is then removed through filtration. Large amounts of soda ash can
increase pH levels.
Rheological and Filtrate Control

Products
ActiVis™ Viscosifier. Environmentally friendly, ActiVis viscosifier is a liq-
uid HEC viscosifier. The recommended treatment concentration range of
ActiVis viscosifier easily passes the U.S. Gulf of Mexico’s 96-hour acute
toxicity test.
BioPol™ Viscosifier. A complex, high molecular weight polymer, BioPol

viscosifier is used as a viscosifier and suspending agent in clear brine
fluids, spacers, and fluid loss control pills. It is highly resistant to shear

degradation and acts to elevate the yield point and shear rate viscosity,
enhancing hole cleaning and promoting gel strength development for
suspension. BioPol viscosifier provides stable rheology to temperatures in
excess of 250°F. It is a fine, granular product that is easily dispersed in
clear brine fluids.
BioPol viscosifier can be used at higher temperatures with certain clear

brine fluid systems.
BioPol™ L Viscosifier. A liquid, high molecular weight polysaccharide

polymer in a light hydrocarbon based oil, BioPol L viscosifier is used as a
primary viscosifier and suspending agent for clear brine fluids, spacers,
and fluid loss control pills. It is highly resistant to shear degradation and
108
FILTRATE CONTROL PRODUCTS CHAPTER 5
acts to elevate the yield point and shear rate viscosity, enhancing hole
cleaning and promoting gel strength development for suspension. BioPol
L viscosifier provides stable rheology to temperatures in excess of 250°F.
It is an easily mixed liquid product.
BioPol™ HT Viscosifier. A dry polymer that is more compatible with

divalent clear brine fluids, BioPol HT viscosifier provides stable rheology
at temperatures up to 300°F.
AND
PayZone® HPS. A chemically modified high performance starch,

RHEOLOGICAL
PayZone® HPS is used to reduce fluid invasion into the reservoir. The
addition of PayZone HPS to a brine based drill-in fluid or a fluid loss
control pill reduces API and HPHT filtration rates.
PseudoPol™ Polymer. A proprietary, high performance, temperature

tolerant polymeric viscosifier, PseudoPol polymer is designed for use dur-
ing drilling operations and in high temperature fluid loss control applica-
tions. It is extremely stable at high temperatures and provides excellent
drill cutting integrity. PseudoPol polymer reduces the API and HPHT filtra-
tion rates of brine based drill-in fluids and fluid loss control pills at tem-
peratures up to 325°F. It mixes easily into the active system and tolerates
high levels of calcium and zinc.
PseudoPol™ D Polymer. A dry, high performance synthetic polymer,

PseudoPol D polymer is used to control filtration rates in lower density
clear brine fluids.
PseudoPol™ HT Polymer. A dry, synthetic polymer, PseudoPol HT poly-

mer has all of the performance characteristics of PseudoPol polymer at
temperatures exceeding 325°F. PseudoPol HT polymer is used for high
temperature fluid loss control.
PseudoPol™ HT Liquid Polymer. A high performance, synthetic liquid

polymer, PseudoPol HT liquid polymer is used as a viscosifier and to con-
trol filtration rates in higher density brines.
TETRAFlex™ 110 Polymer. A prehydrated gel, TETRAFlex 110 polymer

is used in the formulation of crosslinked polymer pills that function as
nondamaging fluid loss control/lost circulation control pills. TETRAFlex
110 can be used in conjunction with sodium, potassium and calcium
completion brines with densities less than 12.0 lb/gal. TETRAFlex 110
crosslinked pills can effectively control fluid loss on formations with per-
meabilities up to two darcies and bottomhole temperatures up to 250°F.
TETRAFlex™ 135 Polymer. A prehydrated gel, TETRAFlex 135 polymer

is used in the formulation of crosslinked polymer pills that function as

FILTRATION PRODUCTS
nondamaging fluid loss control/lost circulation control pills. It can be
used in sodium, potassium, calcium, and zinc completion brines with
densities greater than 12.0 lb/gal. TETRAFlex 135 crosslinked pills can
effectively control fluid loss in formations with permeabilities up to two
darcies and bottomhole temperatures up to 250°F.
TETRAVis™ Viscosifier. A dry HEC polymer, TETRAVis viscosifier is used

to viscosify low density clear brine fluids.
TETRAVis™ L Viscosifier. A concentrated, multipurpose, liquefied HEC

polymer, TETRAVis L viscosifier is used in low density clear brine fluids.
TETRAVis™ L Plus Viscosifier. A double strength, liquefied hydroxyethyl-

cellulose (HEC) polymer, TETRAVis L Plus viscosifier is suited for use in
most completion and workover fluids. It provides a wide range of viscos-
ities for fluid loss control, hole cleaning, spacer formulation, and gravel
pack applications. TETRAVis L Plus viscosifier also functions as a friction
reducing agent. The liquid formulation provides superior dispersability
characteristics and general ease of handling. It is degradable by time,
oxidizing agents, enzymes, and temperatures above 275°F.
TETRAVis™ Extender. An amine-glycol thermal extender, TETRAVis

Extender is typically recommended for use with TETRAVis products.
TETRA Temperature Stabilizer. An antioxidant temperature stabilizer,

TETRA Temperature Stabilizer is used in the formulation of fluid loss con-
trol pills.
Filtration Products
SafeDEflo™ Plate and Frame (DE) Filtration Units. TETRA’s SafeDEflo
plate and frame diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration systems are recom-
mended for filtering brines, chemicals, and produced water in comple-
tion, stimulation, and workover operations. There are five sizes
available: SafeDEflo 600, SafeDEflo C600, SafeDEflo 1100, SafeDEflo
1300, and SafeDEflo 1500. The SafeDEflo 600 and C600 units are rec-
ommended for use in wells with volumes up to 500 barrels, and the
SafeDEflo 1100, 1300, and 1500 units are recommended for use in
wells with volumes greater than 500 barrels.
110
FILTRATION PRODUCTS CHAPTER 5
SafeDEflo™ Automated DE Delivery System. The SafeDEflo automated

DE delivery system facilitates the quick and safe handling of filtration
media. The system includes an automated dispensing system and control
panel as well as preloaded intermediate bulk carriers (IBCs) containing
either medium or fine DE filter media. Each IBC holds 1,000 pounds of
filter media. The SafeDEflo automated DE delivery system can be used
with TETRA’s SafeDEflo 1100, SafeDEflo 1300, and SafeDEflo 1500
plate and frame filtration systems.
Cartridge Filtration Unit. TETRA’s dual pod filtration cartridge unit is rec-
ommended for filtering brines, gels, chemicals, and produced water in
completion, stimulation, and workover operations. The pods are con-
nected by a manifold, providing staged filtration capability. Staged fil-
tration utilizes cartridge filters with different ratings to maximize filtration
efficiency. Cartridge filtration is designed for use with fluids containing a
low percent by volume of suspended solids. Cartridge filtration is not
economical when fluids are contaminated with oil or other substances.
Filtration Consumables
Celatom FW 60 Diatomaceous Earth (DE). Celatom FW 60 diatoma-
ceous earth is a general purpose brine filter aid. It has a relatively
coarse particle size (median particle diameter 48 microns) and is used in
routine filtration operations.
Celatom FW 20 Diatomaceous Earth (DE). Celatom FW 20 diatoma-

ceous earth has a slightly smaller particle size (median particle diameter
33 microns) and slightly lower permeability than Celatom FW 60 diato-
maceous earth. It is used in applications where clarity is of the utmost
importance and the additional head loss can be tolerated.
TETRA C2 Pleated Cellulose Filtration Cartridges. Pleated cellulosic fil-

tration cartridges (PCCs) are of a fixed pore construction of high quality
cellulosic fibers bonded with phenolic resin. The PCCs are recommended
for completion, workover, and stimulation operations as well as for
diatomaceous earth (DE) guard filtration. These cartridges have a beta
ratio of 1000 at two microns. (See “Filter Rating Systems,” beginning on
page 209.)
TETRA PP2 Pleated Polypropylene Filtration Cartridges. Pleated

polypropylene filtration cartridges (PPCs) are made from pure polypro-
pylene. The PPCs are recommended for completion, workover, and stim-
ulation operations as well as for diatomaceous earth (DE) guard
filtration. PP2 cartridges have a beta ratio of 100 at two microns. (See
“Filter Rating Systems,” beginning on page 209.)

CHEMICAL DISPLACEMENT PRODUCTS

Resin Bonded Filtration Cartridges. Resin bonded filtration cartridges
(RBCs) are long life, nominally rated, filter elements that are especially
suited to viscous liquids and high flow rate applications. The RBCs are
recommended for completion, workover, and stimulation operations as
well as for diatomaceous earth (DE) guard filtration.
Chemical Displacement Products

TDSP™ I. Incorporating a blend of polymers and a variety of weight
material, TDSP I weighted spacers are specially formulated to fit the
given circulating temperature and density requirements. The thermal sta-
bility of TDSP I weighted spacers can be enhanced up to 450°F.
TDSP™ II OMD. A surfactant wash and dispersant consisting of oxylated

alcohols and water, TDSP II OMD surfactant wash spacers are used to
remove water based and diesel oil based mud residue.
TDSP™ II O-Sol. Used during the surfactant wash stage of a displace-

ment, TDSP II O-Sol surfactant wash spacers are used to disperse diesel
oil based and synthetic oil based mud residue.
TDSP™ II O-Sol Plus. Comprising a combination of surfactants, TDSP II

O-Sol Plus surfactant wash spacers are designed for greater cleaning.
They can be mixed with fresh water, saltwater, or an 11.6 lb/gal clear
brine fluid.
TDSP™ III. A blend of polymers and thermal stabilizers, TDSP III viscosi-
fied sweep spacers are mixed in high density brines in accordance with
specific wellbore conditions. TDSP III viscosified sweep spacers are
designed to remove any residual materials that are dispersed by the sur-
factant wash spacer.
TETRA OMD. A dispersant, TETRA OMD is used to clean casing and tub-
ing of water based and diesel oil based mud residue during the dis-
placement of mud by a clear brine completion fluid. TETRA OMD is also
effective at cleaning oil mud residue from rig mud pits and surface
equipment prior to receiving clear brine fluids on location.
TETRA O-Sol. Comprising a proprietary blend of surfactants, TETRA O-

Sol is designed to disperse and remove diesel oil based and synthetic oil
based muds. Additionally, it is used in the formulation of TDSP II O-Sol
surfactant wash.
112
SPECIALIZED RENTAL EQUIPMENT CHAPTER 5
TETRASol. Made up of a proprietary blend of surfactants and solvents,

TETRASol removes hydrocarbons, oil based materials, pipe dope,
asphaltines, and resins from metal surfaces. TETRASol can be used
onshore and offshore as a concentrate to displace diesel oil based muds
from the wellbore prior to introducing a completion fluid.
TETRA Dirt Magnet. A displacement fluid, TETRA Dirt Magnet works to

flocculate mud, pipe dope, sand, oil, polymers, and other solids. TETRA
Dirt Magnet should be used to remove solids and oil from the wellbore
prior to introducing a completion fluid.
TETRAClean™ System. An environmentally friendly displacement system

that can be designed for wellbore cleanup of water based as well as die-
sel oil based and synthetic oil based muds. The TETRAClean system is a
one pill system that contains wellbore cleanup surfactants and suspen-
sion polymers that act to disperse, remove, and suspend solids in one
sweep. This system can be utilized in direct and indirect displacements
and has been used successfully in the North Sea in numerous displace-
ment operations.
TETRAClean™ 105. An environmentally friendly surfactant, TETRAClean

105 is used in the formulation of TETRAClean systems. TETRAClean 105
has the best environmental rating possible for the North Sea.
TETRAClean™ 106. An activator, TETRAClean 106 is used to boost the

cleaning power of TETRAClean 105. TETRAClean 106 is used in noncal-
cium containing clear brine fluids.
Specialized Rental Equipment

Coiled Tubing Solid Control System. The coiled tubing solid control sys-
tem provides solid control and chemical blending capabilities during
coiled tubing operations. The equipment package consists of a 200-bar-
rel open top tank and a hydraulically operated shale shaker and gas
buster assembly. The tanks contain three separate compartments, two of
which aid in the gravimetric settling of solids and a third which contains
a gunline circulating system for blending chemical additives. The
hydraulically operated shale shaker and gas buster assembly allows
operating personnel to view and collect real-time samples of debris such
as bridge plugs, composite plugs, cement, and sand. This feature allows
our fluid engineers to modify circulating fluid properties to improve well
cleaning operations. Improving the control of solids increases the rate of

S P E C I A L T Y W E L L B O R E C L E A N U P TO O L S
penetration and may reduce the time required for coiled tubing and well
intervention operations.
Frac Water Supply Equipment. TETRA’s Frac Water Supply Solutions uti-
lize high volume pumps, large aluminum tubulars, specialized filters,
and an array of chemical additives to supply water to live frac opera-
tions at rates up to 200 bbl/minute. Along with providing the water sup-
ply pumping operation, the best source of water supply is procured and
tested as acceptable for frac use. Special patented frac tank gauges
monitor volumes for this operation and prevent personnel from climbing
the tanks to monitor volumes. This service reduces heavy truck traffic and
also reduces location pad size requirements by limiting the number of
frac tanks required for frac jobs.
Specialty Wellbore Cleanup Tools

AdvanceClean™ Brush Tool. The AdvanceClean brush tool is a self sta-
bilizing tool with high tensile strength stainless steel brushes. The design
eliminates the need for a separate stabilizer. The proprietary, spring
loaded brushes work independently to permit contact with the entire sur-
face area, including any casing irregularities.
AdvanceClean™ Scraper Tool. The AdvanceClean scraper tool is a self

sharpening tool with a patented, opposing blade design. It is recom-
mended when working in high solid environments.
AdvanceClean™ Brush/Scraper Combination Tool. The AdvanceClean

brush/scraper combination tool is a cleanup tool equipped with both
brushes and scrapers. It is an economical alternative to running two tools
in undemanding environments and shallow wells.
AdvanceClean™ Circulating Tool. The AdvanceClean circulating tool

allows a high circulation rate and annular velocities above liner top to
assist in well cleaning. The tool’s multiaction feature allows for changing
tool position, reciprocating, or rotation.
Flow Check Sub Tool. The flow check sub tool is a flow control tool that
blocks fluid down flow, diverting the fluid flows through an accompany-
ing tool. It is ported to allow fluid movement to the annulus below the
plug, it is easily modified to allow partial flow through its ports, and it
can be modified to redirect fluid flow. Additionally, a check valve pre-
vents reverse fluid flow.
114
S P E C I A L T Y W E L L B O R E C L E A N U P TO O L S CHAPTER 5
Multi-Use Waste Retriever Tool. The multi-use waste retriever tool is a

uniquely designed waste retriever system that can be utilized either as a
sealed annular waste retriever or as a more conventional junk basket
waste retriever. This waste retriever tool is multifunctional in that it can be
used with a labyrinth seal to prevent fluid and debris flow around the
tool, or can be used without the seal to serve as a conventional junk bas-
ket waste retriever. Its large capacity basket holds five U.S. gallons.
AdvanceClean™ Riser Brush Tool. The AdvanceClean riser brush tool is

a large adaptation of the time and field proven AdvanceClean casing
brush. It is used to remove caked material from the wall of the riser sys-
tem during displacement operations to enhance chemical cleanup per-
formance. For tough jobs such as gumbo buildup within the riser, its
brushes can be changed to conventional scraper blades and it can be
run to eliminate this buildup. The tool provides redundant 100% cover-
age of the riser wall with the patented blade angle design of its long
stainless steel brushes. This blade angle allows unrestricted fluid flow
and complete bypass of cuttings and debris. Additionally, its brushes are
protected by a stabilizer element, located on the mandrel, which also
ensures uniform 360° brush contact with the riser wall.
Riser Waste Retriever Tool. The riser waste retriever tool is a special type
of junk basket used to capture heavy solids that are generally not easily
removed from the riser and/or the wellbore during displacements or
riser cleanup displacements. With its 14 U.S. gallon capacity basket, the
tool is effective in the removal of heavy solids. Additionally, the riser
waste retriever tool is designed with a series of Venturi jets (patent pend-
ing) that manipulate fluid flow to assist in the capture of solids and
includes automatic drains for fluid removal.
Riser Jet Tool. The riser jet tool is a three position fluid flow jetting tool
that has been designed to clean riser walls and subsurface BOP stacks
using jet nozzle force to efficiently remove attached solids from these
areas. The three position design allows for fluid flow direction toward the
riser and BOP wall or toward the end of the work string. All fluid flow
positions are designed to easily handle flow rates of more than 20 bbl/
min. Flow direction is changed by the use of darts that can be easily
removed if necessary.
Selective Rotation Circulating Tool. The AdvanceClean™ selective rota-

tion circulating tool is a multi-functional, mechanically activated flow
tool. Run in the extended position, flow ports are sealed and rotational
drive is transmitted through the tool. Exceed the preset shear force to
allow the tool to stroke and close. Flow ports are now open and the drive
is disengaged, thereby allowing free rotation above the tool.

S P E C I A L T Y W E L L B O R E C L E A N U P TO O L S
Swivel Tool. The swivel tool is designed for use with the circulating tool.
It allows rotation of the work string in an upper section of the wellbore,
while preventing rotation of the work string in a lower section of the well-
bore. This feature is sometimes necessary due to mechanical or geomet-
ric limitations in the wellbore. The tool is sealed to prevent fluid bypass at
the swivel and is designed for wobble resistance.
Wellhead Jet Tool. The wellhead jet tool is a single body tool designed to
thoroughly clean the wear bushing of the wellhead as well as subsea
BOP stacks at high flow rates. The tool consists of 16 size-adjustable jets
that can be easily manipulated for a desired impact force. With its large
ports, this tool can easily handle flow rates in excess of 20 bbl/min.
116 CHAPTER 5
Notes:

Notes:
118 CHAPTER 5
Notes:

119
CHAPTER 6 Tables, Formulas, and

Planning Support
In this chapter, the most useful tables and formulas have been provided
for your reference. Because many calculations today are made with the
use of a handheld calculator or laptop computer, tabulations of basic
data in this guide have been limited to those most frequently performed
in the field.

1. Units of Measurement
2. Common Minerals and Metals
3. Useful Conversion Factors
4. Useful Formulas
5. Capacity Tables
6. Annular Velocity
7. Single Salt Fluid Composition and Blending Tables
Units of Measurement
TABLE 13. Units of Measurement—Symbols and Abbreviations
Standard Oilfield Measurements and Abbreviations Used in this Guide

Solutions
Measurement Symbol Other
Guide
Capacity (hole, casing, pipe, annulus) C bbl/ft
Density, (SI) kilograms per cubic meter d kg/m3
Density, pounds per gallon d lb/gal ppg
Diameter, inside ID in
Diameter, outside OD in
Fluid displacement (hole, casing, pipe, annulus) Dis ft/bbl
Force, pounds f lb lbf
Length, feet h ft
Pi (π), unitless 3.1416
www.tetratec.com
120
METALS CHAPTER 6
TABLE 13. Units of Measurement—Symbols and Abbreviations

AND
Standard Oilfield Measurements and Abbreviations Used in this Guide

COMMON MINERALS
Solutions
Measurement Symbol Guide Other
Pressure, pounds per square inch P lb/in2, psi
Specific Gravity, unitless SG SG sg, Sp Gr
Velocity, feet per minute Vel ft/min
Volume, barrels v bbl
Volume, cubic feet v ft3 cu. ft.
Volume, cubic inches v in3 cu. in.
Volume, U.S. gallons v gal
Common Minerals and Metals

TABLE 14. Common Minerals and Metals
Common Minerals and Metals

Name Formula Specific Gravity lb/gal
Aluminum Al 2.70 22.5
Barite BaSO4 4.2 35.0
Brass (red) 8.75 72.9
Calcite CaCO3 2.72 22.7
Steel, Stainless 8.02 66.8
Steel (13 Cr) 7.75 64.6
Steel, Carbon 7.8 65
Chromium Cr 7.19 59.9
Copper Cu 8.96 74.6
Diatomaceous Earth 0.4 - 0.6 3.3 - 5.0
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 2.85 23.7
Feldspar 2.57 - 2.76 21.4 - 23.0
Galena PbS 7.5 62.5
Gypsum CaSO4+2H2O 2.32 19.2
Halite (salt) NaCl 2.16 18.0
Hematite Fe2O3 4.9 - 5.3 40.8 - 44.1
Iron Fe 7.86 65.5
Montmorillonite (bentonite) 2.5 20.8
Quartz SiO2 2.65 22.1
Sepiolite (clay) 2 16.7
Siderite FeCO3 3.9 32.5
Zinc Zn 7.14 59.5

TABLES, FORMULAS, AND PLANNING SUPPORT 121
USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS

Useful Conversion Factors
TABLE 15. Useful Conversion Factors
Conversion Factors
Multiply by to Get
acres, ac 0.4047 hectares, ha
acres, ac 43,560 square feet, ft2
acres, ac 4047 square meters, m2
acre-feet 43560 cubic feet, ft3
atmospheres, atm 14.70 pounds per square inch, lb/in2
bars 0.9869 atmospheres, atm
bars 14.5 pounds per square inch, lb/in2
barrels, bbl 5.614 cubic feet, ft3
barrels, bbl 0.159 cubic meters, m3
barrels, bbl 42 gallons, gal
British thermal units, Btu 252 calories (gram), g-cal
British thermal units, Btu 777.65 foot pounds, ft-lb
Btu/hr 0.29287 watts, W
calories (gram), g-cal 0.003969 British thermal units, Btu
calories (gram), g-cal 4.183 joules, j
9
Celsius, (degrees) (C x /5 ) + 32 Fahrenheit (degrees)
centipoise, cp 0.001 newton-sec per sq meter, N-sec/m2
centipoise, cp 0.002089 pound-sec per sq foot, lb-sec/ft2
3
cubic feet, ft 0.0370 cubic yards, yd3
cubic feet, ft3 0.0283 cubic meters, m3
3 7.4805 gallons, gal
cubic feet, ft
cubic feet, ft3 28.32 liters, l
cubic feet per minute, ft/min 0.4719 liters per second, l/sec
5
Fahrenheit (degrees) (F-32) x /9 Celsius (degrees)
feet, ft 12 inches, in
feet, ft 0.3048 meters, m
feet, ft 30.48 centimeters, cm
feet of water, (head) 0.0295 atmospheres, atm
feet per minute, ft/min 0.5080 centimeters per second, cm/sec
feet per minute, ft/min 0.0183 kilometers per hour, km/hr
feet per minute, ft/min 0.0114 miles per hour, mi/hr
feet per second, ft/sec 0.6818 miles per hour, mi/hr
feet per minute, ft/min 0.3048 meters per minute, m/min
foot pounds, ft-lb 0.001286 British thermal units, Btu
foot pounds, ft-lb 0.3236 calories (gram), g-cal
foot pounds, ft-lb 1.356 newton meters, Nm
gallons, gal (U.S.) 3785 cubic centimeters, cm3
gallons, gal (U.S.) 0.1337 cubic feet, ft3
gallons, gal (U.S.) 231 cubic inches, in3
gallons, gal (U.S.) 0.003785 cubic meters, m3
gallons, gal (U.S.) 3.7854 liters, l
122
USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS CHAPTER 6
Conversion Factors
Multiply by to Get
gallons per minute, gal/min (gpm) 0.0238 barrels per minute, bbl/min
gallons per minute, gal/min (gpm) 0.00223 cubic feet per second, ft3/sec
gallons per minute, gal/min (gpm) 0.003785 cubic meters per minute, m3/min
gallons per minute, gal/min (gpm) 0.0631 liters per second, l/sec
grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3 62.43 pounds per cubic foot, lb/ft3
grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3 0.03613 pounds per cubic inch, lb/in3
grams per liter, g/l 0.00834 pounds per gallon, lb/gal
hogsheads (U.S.) 8.422 cubic feet, ft3
horsepower, hp 42.44 Btu per minute, Btu/min
horsepower, hp 746 joules per second, j/sec
horsepower, hp 746 watts, W
inches, in 2.54 centimeters, cm
inches, in 0.0833 feet, ft
inches, in 0.0254 meters, m
inches of mercury, in 0.0333 atmospheres, atm
inches of mercury, in 1.133 feet of water (head)
inches of mercury, in 0.03453 kilograms per sq centimeter, kg/cm2
inches of mercury, in 0.4911 pounds per square inch, lb/in2
inches of water, (4°C) 0.002455 atmospheres, atm
inches of water, (4°C) 0.0361 pounds per square inch, lb/in2
joules, j 0.2391 calories (gram), g-cal
kilograms, kg 2.205 pounds, lb
kilograms, kg 0.001102 tons (short)
kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3 0.001 grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3
kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3 0.06243 pounds per cubic foot, lb/ft3
kilograms per square centimeter, kg/cm2 28.96 inches of mercury, in Hg
kilograms per square centimeter, kg/cm2 32.81 feet of water, ft (head)
kilograms per square centimeter, kg/cm2 14.22 pounds per square inch, lb/in2
kilometers, km 0.6214 miles, mi (statute)
kilometers, km 0.5396 miles, NM (nautical)
kilometers per hour 27.78 centimeters per second, cm/sec
kilometers per hour 54.68 feet per minute, ft/min
kilometers per hour 0.6214 miles per hour, mi/hr
kilopascals, kPa 0.145 pounds per square inch, lb/in2
kilowatts, kW 56.92 Btu per minute, Btu/min
kilowatts, kW 1.341 horsepower, hp
kilowatt-hours, kWh 860.5 kilogram-calories, kg-cal
liters, l 0.2642 gallons, gal
liters, l 0.00629 barrels (oilfield), bbl
liters, l 0.0353 cubic feet, ft3
liters, l 0.001 cubic meters, m3
liters, l 1.057 quarts (U.S.), qt
liters per minute, l/min 0.2642 gallons per minute, gal/min
liters per minute, l/min 0.00629 barrels per minute, bbl/min
meters, m 100 centimeters, cm

USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS

Conversion Factors
Multiply by to Get
meters, m 3.281 feet, ft
meters, m 0.9144 yards, yd
meters per min, m/min 3.281 feet per minute, ft/min
meters per min, m/min 0.060 kilometers per hour, km/hr
meters per min, m/min 0.03728 miles per hour, mi/hr
miles (statute), mi 5280 feet, ft
miles (statute), mi 1609 meters, m
miles (statute), mi 1.609 kilometers, km
miles (statute), mi 0.8690 nautical miles, NM
miles per hour, mi/hr 1.466 feet per second, ft/sec
miles per hour, mi/hr 0.6214 kilometers per hour, km/hr
miles per hour, mi/hr 0.8690 knots, kn
miles per hour, mi/hr 26.82 meters per minute
nautical miles, NM 6076 feet, ft
nautical miles, NM 1852 meters, m
nautical miles, NM 1.151 statute miles, mi
newtons per square meter, N/m2 1 pascals, Pa
ounces, oz 28.35 grams, g
ounces, oz 0.0625 pounds, lb
ounces, oz 0.9115 ounces (troy)
parts per million, ppm 0.0584 grains per gal (U.S.), grain/gal
parts per million, ppm 0.0001 weight percent, wt%
pounds, lb 453.6 grams, g
pounds, lb 0.4356 kilograms, kg
pounds, lb 16 ounces, oz
pounds per gallon, lb/gal 119.8 kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3
pounds per gallon, lb/gal 7.48 pounds per cubic foot, lb/ft3
pounds per square inch, lb/in2 2.307 feet of water (head)
pounds per square inch, lb/in2 703.1 kilograms per square meter, kg/m2
pounds per square inch, lb/in2 6.897 kilopascals, kPa
pounds per square inch, lb/in2 144 pounds per square foot, lb/ft2
quarts (U.S.), qt 946.3 cubic centimeters, cm3
quarts (U.S.), qt 0.9463 liters, l
quarts (U.S.), qt 0.0334 cubic feet, ft3
quarts (U.S.), qt 57.75 cubic inches, in3
radians 57.30 degrees
square centimeters, cm2 0.001076 square feet, ft2
square centimeters, cm2 0.1550 square inches, in2
square centimeters, cm2 0.0001 square meters, m2
square feet, ft2 929 square centimeters, cm2
square feet, ft2 144 square inches, in2
square feet, ft2 0.0929 square meters, m2
square inches, in2 6.45 square centimeters, cm2
square inches, in2 0.00694 square feet, ft2
square inches, in2 0.000645 square meters, m2
124
USEFUL FORMULAS CHAPTER 6
Conversion Factors
Multiply by to Get
square kilometers, km2 247.1 acres, ac
square kilometers, km2 0.3861 square miles, mi2
square meters, m2 0.000247 acres, ac
square meters, m2 10.76 square feet, ft2
square meters, m2 1.196 square yards, yd2
square yards, yd2 9 square feet, ft2
square yards, yd2 1296 square inches, in2
2
square yards, yd 0.8361 square meters, m2
tons (long) 1016 kilograms, kg
tons (long) 2240 pounds, lb
tons (long) 1.016 tons (metric)
tons (long) 1.120 tons (short)
tons (metric) 1000 kilograms, kg
tons (metric) 2204.6 pounds, lb
tons (metric) 0.9841 tons (long)
tons (metric) 1.1023 tons (short)
tons (short) 907.2 kilograms, kg
tons (short) 2000 pounds, lb
tons (short) 0.8929 tons (long)
tons (short) 0.907 tons (metric)
watts, W 3.415 Btu per hour, Btu/hr
watts, W 44.25 foot pounds per minute, ft-lb/min
watts, W 1 joules per second, j/sec
yards, yd 91.44 centimeters, cm
yards, yd 3 feet, ft
yards, yd 36 inches, in
yards, yd 0.000914 kilometers, km
yards, yd 0.9144 meters, m
yards, yd 0.000568 miles, mi
Useful Formulas
Converting Milligrams per Liter to Parts per Million to
Weight Percent
The conversions between milligrams per liter (mg/l), parts per million
(ppm), and weight percent (wt%) can be confusing because the defini-
tions are not always clearly spelled out.
Units of milligrams per liter (mg/l) are often used to report concentra-
tions of dissolved constituents. Milligrams per liter is a ratio of mass or
weight per volume. Parts per million (ppm), on the other hand, repre-
sents a ratio of weight per weight such as grams per million grams or

USEFUL FORMULAS
pounds per million pounds. When the base fluid is fresh water, the value
in ppm is numerically equal to the value reported in mg/l. The previous
statement is true only because the specific gravity of the base fluid,
water, is very close to 1.0. As long as the amount of dissolved solids is
less than 1% or so, a liter of water weighs approximately 1,000 grams,
which is equal to 1,000,000 milligrams.
Confusion can arise when the base fluid has a specific gravity substan-
tially different than 1.0, as is the case for virtually all CBFs. In these
cases, the conversion from mg/l to ppm must take into account the spe-
cific gravity of the base fluid.
To make the conversion, divide the value reported in mg/l by the specific
gravity of the base fluid to convert to ppm.
EQUATION 22.
( )
mg
l
= ppm
SG
or going the other way,
EQUATION 23.
mg
ppm * SG =
l
A third common unit of concentration is weight percent (wt%). Another

way to think about weight percent is parts per hundred. By its definition,
weight percent is a ratio of pounds of a substance per hundred pounds
of total weight. It is a ratio of weight per weight and, as such, is similar
to ppm. The easiest way to remember the conversion from weight per-
cent to parts per million is that one tenth of a percent (0.1%) by weight is
equal to 1,000 parts per million.
EQUATION 24.
0.1 wt% = 1000 ppm
A quick conversion between the three different units of concentration can

be made as long as the specific gravity is known.
126
Hole (Pipe, Tubing) Capacity

(in barrels per one linear foot, bbl/ft)
The first three equations are applicable to calculating internal volume

and displacement for hole, pipe, or tubing using the inside diameter in
inches.
EQUATION 25.
C= ID 2
1029.4
C = capacity, bbl/ft
ID = inside diameter of hole, pipe, tubing, in
To determine the total volume of a hole, pipe, or tubing, multiply the

value from Equation 25 by the length of the hole or pipe in feet.
EQUATION 26.
vtot = C * h
vtot = total volume of hole or pipe, bbl

C = capacity of hole or pipe, bbl/ft
h = length of hole or pipe, ft
Annular Capacity
(in barrels per linear foot, bbl/ft)
The values derived using Equation 27 and Equation 28 are applicable to

any combination of hole, casing, or liner on the outside and tubing or
drill pipe on the inside.
EQUATION 27.
Can = (ID – OD )
2 2
1029.4
Can = capacity of annular space per linear foot, bbl/ft

ID = inside (casing, liner) diameter, in
OD = outside (work string, tubing) diameter, in

USEFUL FORMULAS
The capacity calculated using Equation 27 is the space for each foot of
depth between casing and tubing or open hole and drill pipe.
Annular Volume
(volume between casing and tubing, bbl)
EQUATION 28.
van = Can * h
van = total volume of annulus with pipe/tubing in well, bbl

h = length of annulus, ft
Velocity
(fluid flow rate, ft/min)
You use the same formula to determine velocity whether it is in a hole,

pipe, or annulus. The input values are (1) the capacity in bbl/ft, gal/ft,
or ft3/ft and (2) the pumping rate in bbl/min, gal/min, or ft3/min. Bar-
rels, gallons, and cubic feet can be used as long as both terms (1) and
(2) use the same unit of measurement.
EQUATION 29.
Vel = Q
C
Vel = velocity, ft/min

Q = flow rate, bbl/min
C = capacity of hole, pipe, annulus, bbl/ft
Pressure Differentials
Two columns of fluid exist, one in the annulus and one inside the tubing.
They are in hydraulic connection, but substantial pressure differentials
may exist between the two columns, especially when fluids are being
changed or displaced from the hole.
Each length of annulus or tubing containing fluid with a different density

is calculated separately. For example, if the annulus has three fluids with
densities of d1, d2, and d3, respectively, and the true vertical lengths of
coverage for each fluid are h1, h2, and h3, respectively, then the bottom-
hole pressure in the annulus (Pan) is:
128
EQUATION 30.
Pan = [(d1 * h1) + (d2 * h2) + (d3 * h3 )] * 0.052
Pan = hydrostatic pressure, psi

dn = density of fluid n in annulus, lb/gal
hn = true vertical length of coverage of fluid n in annulus, ft
If the tubing of length (ht) is filled with a single fluid of density (d4) then
Equation 30 simplifies to:
:
Pt = d4 * ht * 0.052
In this case, the pressure differential (Pdif) between the annulus and tub-
ing (Pt) is the difference between the pressure exerted by the two columns
of fluid:
Pdif = Pt – Pan
It is worth mentioning that the lengths of the two columns of fluid are nor-
mally equal:
ht = h1 + h2 + h3
The preceding formulas will correctly calculate the volumes, quantities,

and values they are designed to calculate. However, they are based on a
perfect world. In the field, a 10.0 lb/gal fluid rarely, if ever, weighs
exactly 10.0 lb/gal and fresh water rarely, if ever, weighs 8.34 lb/gal.
Using the formulas to determine the volumes of various fluids or the
quantity dry salt to use for a specific purpose is of great value. However,
when applying this data to the actual exercise of adjusting fluid densi-
ties, approach the end point of this activity with caution. In other words,
never add all of the required spike, dilution fluid, or dry salt without
closely monitoring the progress of the fluid adjustment, especially as you
near your end point. Adopting this approach will allow you to complete
the adjustment with much greater accuracy.

C A P A C I T Y TA B L E S
Capacity Tables
For speed and convenience, the following standard tables have been
included. Using the formulas given in the previous section, the values
provided in the tables can all be calculated.
130
C A P A C I T Y TA B L E S CHAPTER 6
Open Hole Capacity (Volume)
TABLE 16. Hole Capacity TABLE 16. Hole Capacity

(in barrels per foot and feet per barrel) (in barrels per foot and feet per barrel)
Hole Capacity Hole Capacity

Hole Hole
Capacity Capacity Capacity Capacity
Diameter Diameter
in bbl/ft ft/bbl in bbl/ft ft/bbl
3 0.0087 114.387 8 0.0622 16.086
3-1/8 0.0095 105.419 8-1/8 0.0641 15.595
3-1/4 0.0103 97.466 8-1/4 0.0661 15.126
3- 3/8 0.0111 90.380 8- 3/8 0.0681 14.677
3-1/2 0.0119 84.040 8-1/2 0.0702 14.249
3-5/8 0.0128 78.344 8-5/8 0.0723 13.839
3-3/4 0.0137 73.208 8-3/4 0.0744 13.446
3-7/8 0.0146 68.561 8-7/8 0.0765 13.070
4 0.0155 64.343 9 0.0787 12.710
4-1/8 0.0165 60.502 9-1/8 0.0809 12.364
4-1/4 0.0175 56.996 9-1/4 0.0831 12.032
4- 3/8 0.0186 53.785 9- 3/8 0.0854 11.713
4-1/2 0.0197 50.839 9-1/2 0.0877 11.407
4-5/8 0.0208 48.128 9-5/8 0.0900 11.113
4-3/4 0.0219 45.628 9-3/4 0.0923 10.830
4-7/8 0.0231 43.318 9-7/8 0.0947 10.557
5 0.0243 41.179 10 0.0971 10.295
5-1/8 0.0255 39.195 10-1/8 0.0996 10.042
5-1/4 0.0268 37.351 10-1/4 0.1021 9.799
5- 3/8 0.0281 35.634 10- 3/8 0.1046 9.564
5-1/2 0.0294 34.033 10-1/2 0.1071 9.338
5-5/8 0.0307 32.537 10-5/8 0.1097 9.119
5-3/4 0.0321 31.138 10-3/4 0.1123 8.908
5-7/8 0.0335 29.827 10-7/8 0.1149 8.705
6 0.0350 28.597 11 0.1175 8.508
6-1/8 0.0364 27.442 11-1/8 0.1202 8.318
6-1/4 0.0379 26.355 11-1/4 0.1229 8.134
6- 3/8 0.0395 25.331 11- 3/8 0.1257 7.956
6-1/2 0.0410 24.367 11-1/2 0.1285 7.784
6-5/8 0.0426 23.456 11-5/8 0.1313 7.618
6-3/4 0.0443 22.595 11-3/4 0.1341 7.457
6-7/8 0.0459 21.781 11-7/8 0.1370 7.301
7 0.0476 21.010 12 0.1399 7.149
7-1/8 0.0493 20.279 12-1/8 0.1428 7.003
7-1/4 0.0511 19.586 12-1/4 0.1458 6.860
7- 3/8 0.0528 18.928 12- 3/8 0.1488 6.722
7-1/2 0.0546 18.302 12-1/2 0.1518 6.589
7-5/8 0.0565 17.707 12-5/8 0.1548 6.459
7-3/4 0.0583 17.140 12-3/4 0.1579 6.333
7-7/8 0.0602 16.600 12- 7/8 0.1610 6.210

TABLE 16. Hole Capacity TABLE 16. Hole Capacity
(in barrels per foot and feet per barrel) (in barrels per foot and feet per barrel)
Hole Capacity Hole Capacity

Hole Capacity Capacity Hole Capacity Capacity
Diameter Diameter
in bbl/ft ft/bbl in bbl/ft ft/bbl
13 0.1642 6.092 18 0.3147 3.177
13-1/8 0.1673 5.976 18-1/4 0.3235 3.091
13-1/4 0.1705 5.864 18-1/2 0.3324 3.008
13- 3/8 0.1738 5.755 18-3/4 0.3415 2.928
13-1/2 0.1770 5.649 19 0.3507 2.852
13-5/8 0.1803 5.546 19-1/4 0.3599 2.778
13-3/4 0.1836 5.445 19-1/2 0.3694 2.707
13-7/8 0.1870 5.348 19-3/4 0.3789 2.639
14 0.1904 5.252 20 0.3885 2.574
14-1/8 0.1938 5.160 20-1/4 0.3983 2.511
14-1/4 0.1972 5.070 20-1/2 0.4082 2.450
14- 3/8 0.2007 4.982 20-3/4 0.4182 2.391
14-1/2 0.2042 4.896 21 0.4284 2.334
14-5/8 0.2078 4.813 21-1/4 0.4386 2.280
14-3/4 0.2113 4.732 21-1/2 0.4490 2.227
14-7/8 0.2149 4.653 21-3/4 0.4595 2.176
15 0.2186 4.575 22 0.4701 2.127
15-1/8 0.2222 4.500 22-1/4 0.4809 2.080
15-1/4 0.2259 4.427 22-1/2 0.4918 2.034
15- 3/8 0.2296 4.355 22-3/4 0.5027 1.989
15-1/2 0.2334 4.285 23 0.5138 1.946
15-5/8 0.2371 4.217 23-1/4 0.5251 1.904
15-3/4 0.2410 4.150 23-1/2 0.5364 1.864
15-7/8 0.2448 4.085 23-3/4 0.5479 1.825
16 0.2487 4.021 24 0.5595 1.787
16-1/8 0.2526 3.959 24-1/4 0.5712 1.751
16-1/4 0.2565 3.899 24-1/2 0.5831 1.715
16- 3/8 0.2605 3.839 24-3/4 0.5950 1.681
16-1/2 0.2645 3.781 25 0.6071 1.647
16-5/8 0.2685 3.725 26 0.6566 1.523
16- 3/4 0.2725 3.669 27 0.7081 1.412
16-7/8 0.2766 3.615 28 0.7615 1.313
17 0.2807 3.562 29 0.8169 1.224
17-1/4 0.2890 3.460 30 0.8742 1.144
17-1/2 0.2975 3.362 31 0.9335 1.071
17- 3/4 0.3060 3.268 32 0.9947 1.005
132
Drill Pipe Capacity and Displacement
TABLE 17. API Drill Pipe Capacity and Displacement
API Drill Pipe Capacity and Displacement

Nominal Pipe
Size Weight OD ID Capacity Capacity Displacement
in lb/ft in in bbl/ft ft/bbl bbl/100 ft

2- 3/8 6.65 2.375 1.815 0.0032 311.43 0.228
2-7/8 10.40 2.875 2.151 0.0045 221.73 0.353
3-1/2 9.50 3.500 2.992 0.0087 114.60 0.320
3-1/2 13.30 3.500 2.764 0.0074 134.29 0.448
3-1/2 15.50 3.500 2.602 0.0066 151.53 0.532
4 11.85 4.000 3.476 0.0118 84.91 0.381
4 14.00 4.000 3.340 0.0109 91.96 0.471
4-1/2 13.75 4.500 3.958 0.0153 65.49 0.445
4-1/2 16.60 4.500 3.826 0.0143 70.08 0.545
4-1/2 20.00 4.500 3.640 0.0129 77.43 0.680
5 16.25 5.000 4.408 0.0189 52.80 0.541
5 19.50 5.000 4.276 0.0178 56.11 0.652
5 25.60 5.000 4.000 0.0156 64.12 0.874
5-1/2 21.90 5.500 4.778 0.0223 44.94 0.721
5-1/2 24.70 5.500 4.670 0.0213 47.04 0.820
API Casing and Liner Capacity and Displacement
TABLE 18. Casing and Liners — Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities
Casing and Liner Capacity and Displacement

Nominal Weight w/ Pipe
OD ID Capacity Capacity
Size Coupling Displacement
4-1/2 9.50 4.500 4.090 0.0162 61.54 0.342
4-1/2 10.50 4.500 4.052 0.0159 62.70 0.372
4-1/2 11.60 4.500 4.000 0.0155 64.34 0.413
4-1/2 13.50 4.500 3.920 0.0149 67.00 0.474
4-1/2 15.10 4.500 3.826 0.0142 70.33 0.545
5 11.50 5.000 4.560 0.0202 49.51 0.409
5 13.00 5.000 4.494 0.0196 50.97 0.467
5 15.00 5.000 4.408 0.0189 52.98 0.541
5 18.00 5.000 4.276 0.0178 56.30 0.652
5 21.40 5.000 4.126 0.0165 60.47 0.775
5 23.20 5.000 4.044 0.0159 62.95 0.840
5 24.10 5.000 4.000 0.0155 64.34 0.874
5-1/2 14.00 5.500 5.012 0.0244 40.98 0.498
5-1/2 15.50 5.500 4.950 0.0238 42.02 0.558
5-1/2 17.00 5.500 4.892 0.0232 43.02 0.614


5-1/2 20.00 5.500 4.778 0.0222 45.09 0.721
5-1/2 23.00 5.500 4.670 0.0212 47.20 0.820
5-1/2 26.80 5.500 4.500 0.0197 50.84 0.971
5-1/2 29.70 5.500 4.376 0.0186 53.76 1.078
5-1/2 32.60 5.500 4.250 0.0175 57.00 1.184
5-1/2 35.30 5.500 4.126 0.0165 60.47 1.285
5-1/2 38.00 5.500 4.000 0.0155 64.34 1.384
5-1/2 40.50 5.500 3.876 0.0146 68.53 1.479
5-1/2 43.10 5.500 3.750 0.0137 73.21 1.572
6-5/8 20.00 6.625 6.049 0.0355 28.14 0.550
6-5/8 24.00 6.625 5.921 0.0341 29.37 0.699
6-5/8 28.00 6.625 5.791 0.0326 30.70 0.846
6-5/8 32.00 6.625 5.675 0.0313 31.97 0.976
7 17.00 7.000 6.538 0.0415 24.08 0.608
7 20.00 7.000 6.456 0.0405 24.70 0.711
7 23.00 7.000 6.366 0.0394 25.40 0.823
7 26.00 7.000 6.276 0.0383 26.14 0.934
7 29.00 7.000 6.184 0.0371 26.92 1.045
7 32.00 7.000 6.094 0.0361 27.72 1.152
7 35.00 7.000 6.004 0.0350 28.56 1.258
7 38.00 7.000 5.920 0.0340 29.37 1.355
7 42.70 7.000 5.750 0.0321 31.14 1.548
7 46.40 7.000 5.625 0.0307 32.54 1.686
7 50.10 7.000 5.500 0.0294 34.03 1.821
7 53.60 7.000 5.376 0.0281 35.62 1.952
7 57.10 7.000 5.250 0.0268 37.35 2.082
7-5/8 24.00 7.625 7.025 0.0479 20.86 0.854
7-5/8 26.40 7.625 6.969 0.0472 21.20 0.930
7-5/8 29.70 7.625 6.875 0.0459 21.78 1.056
7-5/8 33.70 7.625 6.765 0.0445 22.49 1.202
7-5/8 39.00 7.625 6.625 0.0426 23.46 1.384
7-5/8 42.80 7.625 6.501 0.0411 24.36 1.542
7-5/8 45.30 7.625 6.435 0.0402 24.86 1.625
7-5/8 47.10 7.625 6.375 0.0395 25.33 1.700
7-5/8 51.20 7.625 6.251 0.0380 26.35 1.852
7-5/8 55.30 7.625 6.125 0.0364 27.44 2.003
7-3/4 46.10 7.750 6.560 0.0418 23.92 1.467
8-5/8 24.00 8.625 8.097 0.0637 15.70 0.858
8-5/8 28.00 8.625 8.017 0.0624 16.02 0.983
8-5/8 32.00 8.625 7.921 0.0609 16.41 1.131
8-5/8 36.00 8.625 7.825 0.0595 16.81 1.278
8-5/8 40.00 8.625 7.725 0.0580 17.25 1.429
134

Nominal Weight w/ OD ID Capacity Capacity Pipe
8-5/8 44.00 8.625 7.625 0.0565 17.71 1.578
8-5/8 49.00 8.625 7.511 0.0548 18.25 1.746
9-5/8 32.30 9.625 9.001 0.0787 12.71 1.129
9-5/8 36.00 9.625 8.921 0.0773 12.94 1.268
9-5/8 40.00 9.625 8.835 0.0758 13.19 1.417
9-5/8 43.50 9.625 8.755 0.0745 13.43 1.553
9-5/8 47.00 9.625 8.681 0.0732 13.66 1.679
9-5/8 53.50 9.625 8.535 0.0708 14.13 1.923
9-5/8 58.40 9.625 8.435 0.0691 14.47 2.088
9-5/8 59.40 9.625 8.407 0.0687 14.57 2.133
9-5/8 64.90 9.625 8.281 0.0666 15.01 2.338
9-5/8 70.30 9.625 8.157 0.0646 15.47 2.536
9-5/8 75.60 9.625 8.031 0.0626 15.96 2.734
10-3/4 32.75 10.750 10.192 0.1009 9.91 1.135
10-3/4 40.50 10.750 10.050 0.0981 10.19 1.414
10-3/4 45.50 10.750 9.950 0.0962 10.40 1.609
10-3/4 51.00 10.750 9.850 0.0942 10.61 1.801
10-3/4 55.50 10.750 9.760 0.0925 10.81 1.972
10-3/4 60.70 10.750 9.660 0.0906 11.03 2.161
10-3/4 65.70 10.750 9.560 0.0888 11.26 2.348
10-3/4 73.20 10.750 9.406 0.0859 11.64 2.631
10-3/4 79.20 10.750 9.282 0.0837 11.95 2.856
10-3/4 85.30 10.750 9.156 0.0814 12.28 3.082
11-3/4 42.00 11.750 11.084 0.1193 8.38 1.477
11-3/4 47.00 11.750 11.000 0.1175 8.51 1.657
11-3/4 54.00 11.750 10.880 0.1150 8.70 1.912
11-3/4 60.00 11.750 10.772 0.1127 8.87 2.140
11-3/4 65.00 11.750 10.682 0.1108 9.02 2.327
11-3/4 71.00 11.750 10.586 0.1089 9.19 2.525
13- 3/ 8 48.00 13.375 12.715 0.1570 6.37 1.673
13- 3/ 8 54.50 13.375 12.615 0.1546 6.47 1.919
13- 3/8 61.00 13.375 12.515 0.1521 6.57 2.163
13- 3/8 68.00 13.375 12.415 0.1497 6.68 2.405
13- 3/8 72.00 13.375 12.347 0.1481 6.75 2.568
16 65.00 16.000 15.250 0.2259 4.43 2.277
16 75.00 16.000 15.124 0.2222 4.50 2.648
16 84.00 16.000 15.010 0.2188 4.57 2.982
16 109.00 16.000 14.688 0.2096 4.77 3.911
18-5/8 87.50 18.625 17.755 0.3062 3.27 3.074
20 94.00 20.000 19.124 0.3553 2.81 3.329


20 106.50 20.000 19.000 0.3507 2.85 3.788
20 133.00 20.000 18.730 0.3408 2.93 4.778
Tubing Capacity and Displacement

.
TABLE 19. API Tubing — Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities
API Tubing Capacity and Displacement

Nominal Pipe
Size End Fin1 Weight OD ID Capacity Capacity
Displacement
1 N 1.14 1.050 0.824 0.0007 1516.23 0.041
1 E 1.20 1.050 0.824 0.0007 1516.23 0.041
1 N 1.48 1.050 0.742 0.0005 1869.87 0.054
1 E 1.54 1.050 0.742 0.0005 1869.87 0.054
1-5/16 N 1.70 1.315 1.049 0.0011 935.56 0.061
1-5/16 U 1.80 1.315 1.049 0.0011 935.56 0.061
1-5/16 E 1.72 1.315 1.049 0.0011 935.56 0.061
1-5/16 N 2.19 1.315 0.957 0.0009 1124.08 0.079
1-5/16 U 2.24 1.315 0.957 0.0009 1124.08 0.079
1-11/16 E 2.10 1.660 1.410 0.0019 517.82 0.075
1-11/16 N 2.30 1.660 1.380 0.0018 540.58 0.083
1-11/16 U 2.40 1.660 1.380 0.0018 540.58 0.083
1-11/16 E 2.33 1.660 1.380 0.0018 540.58 0.083
1-11/16 N 3.03 1.660 1.278 0.0016 630.32 0.109
1-11/16 U 3.07 1.660 1.278 0.0016 630.32 0.109
1- 7/8 E 2.40 1.900 1.650 0.0026 378.14 0.086
1- 7/8 N 2.75 1.900 1.610 0.0025 397.16 0.099
1- 7/8 U 2.90 1.900 1.610 0.0025 397.16 0.099
1- 7/ 8 E 2.76 1.900 1.610 0.0025 397.16 0.099
1- 7/ 8 N 3.65 1.900 1.500 0.0022 457.55 0.132
1- 7/8 U 3.73 1.900 1.500 0.0022 457.55 0.132
1- 7/8 N 4.42 1.900 1.400 0.0019 525.25 0.160
1- 7/8 N 5.15 1.900 1.300 0.0016 609.16 0.187
2-1/16 E 3.25 2.063 1.751 0.0030 335.77 0.116
2- 3/8 N 4.00 2.375 2.041 0.0040 247.14 0.143
2- 3/8 N 4.60 2.375 1.995 0.0039 258.66 0.161
2- 3/8 U 4.70 2.375 1.995 0.0039 258.66 0.161
1
N = Non-Upset, E = External Upset, U = Integral Joint
136
TABLE 19. API Tubing — Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities
API Tubing Capacity and Displacement

Nominal Pipe
Size End Fin1 Weight OD ID Capacity Capacity
Displacement
2- 3/8 N 5.80 2.375 1.867 0.0034 295.35 0.209
2- 3/8 U 5.95 2.375 1.867 0.0034 295.35 0.209
2- 3/8 N 6.60 2.375 1.785 0.0031 323.11 0.238
2- 3/8 N 7.35 2.375 1.703 0.0028 354.97 0.266
2- 3/8 U 7.45 2.375 1.703 0.0028 354.97 0.266
2- 7/8 N 6.40 2.875 2.441 0.0058 172.78 0.224
2- 7/8 U 6.50 2.875 2.441 0.0058 172.78 0.224
2- 7/8 N 7.80 2.875 2.323 0.0052 190.78 0.279
2- 7/8 U 7.90 2.875 2.323 0.0052 190.78 0.279
2- 7/8 N 8.60 2.875 2.259 0.0050 201.74 0.307
2- 7/8 U 8.70 2.875 2.259 0.0050 201.74 0.307
2- 7/8 N 9.35 2.875 2.195 0.0047 213.67 0.335
2- 7/8 U 9.45 2.875 2.195 0.0047 213.67 0.335
2- 7/8 N 10.50 2.875 2.091 0.0042 235.46 0.378
2- 7/8 N 11.50 2.875 1.995 0.0039 258.66 0.416
3-1/2 N 7.70 3.500 3.068 0.0091 109.37 0.276
3-1/2 N 9.20 3.500 2.992 0.0087 115.00 0.320
3-1/2 U 9.30 3.500 2.992 0.0087 115.00 0.320
3-1/2 N 10.20 3.500 2.922 0.0083 120.58 0.361
3-1/2 N 12.70 3.500 2.750 0.0073 136.13 0.455
3-1/2 U 12.95 3.500 2.750 0.0073 136.13 0.455
3-1/2 N 14.30 3.500 2.640 0.0068 147.71 0.513
3-1/2 N 15.50 3.500 2.548 0.0063 158.57 0.559
3-1/2 N 17.00 3.500 2.440 0.0058 172.92 0.612
4 N 9.50 4.000 3.548 0.0122 81.78 0.331
4 U 11.00 4.000 3.476 0.0117 85.20 0.381
4 N 13.20 4.000 3.340 0.0108 92.28 0.471
4 N 16.10 4.000 3.170 0.0098 102.45 0.578
4 N 18.90 4.000 3.000 0.0087 114.39 0.680
4 N 22.20 4.000 2.780 0.0075 133.21 0.803
4-1/2 N 12.60 4.500 3.958 0.0152 65.72 0.445
4-1/2 U 12.75 4.500 3.958 0.0152 65.72 0.445
4-1/2 N 15.20 4.500 3.826 0.0142 70.33 0.545
4-1/2 N 17.00 4.500 3.740 0.0136 73.60 0.608
4-1/2 N 18.90 4.500 3.640 0.0129 77.70 0.680
4-1/2 N 21.50 4.500 3.500 0.0119 84.04 0.777
4-1/2 N 23.70 4.500 3.380 0.0111 90.11 0.857
4-1/2 N 26.10 4.500 3.240 0.0102 98.07 0.947
1
N = Non-Upset, E = External Upset, U = Integral Joint

Annular Capacity (Volume)
The values in Table 20 on the following pages are given as annular
capacity in barrels per linear foot (bbl/ft). API tubing sizes are given
along the top of the table, and casing and plain end liner dimensions
are the values in the first three columns on the left. The capacity is given
in the cell that represents the intersection of the tubing column and the
casing row.
C A P A C I T Y TA B L E S 138
TABLE 20. Annular Capacity
www.tetratec.com
(in bbl/ft between API casing and API tubing)
API Casing & Liners API Tubing Nominal Sizes and OD (in)
Nominal Size Weight ID 1" 1-5/16" 1-11/16" 1-7/8" 2-1/16" 2-3/8" 2-7/8" 3-1/2" 4" 4-1/2"
in lb/ft in 1.050 OD 1.315 OD 1.660 OD 1.900 OD 2.063 OD 2.375 OD 2.875 OD 3.500 OD 4.000 OD 4.500 OD
4-1/2 9.50 4.090 0.0152 0.0146 0.0136 0.0127 0.0121 0.0108 0.0082 0.0043 0.0007 N/A
4-1/ 2 10.50 4.052 0.0149 0.0143 0.0133 0.0124 0.0118 0.0105 0.0079 0.0040 0.0004 N/A
4-1/2 11.60 4.000 0.0145 0.0139 0.0129 0.0120 0.0114 0.0101 0.0075 0.0036 0.0000 N/A
4-1/2 13.50 3.920 0.0139 0.0132 0.0122 0.0114 0.0108 0.0094 0.0069 0.0030 N/A N/A
4-1/2 15.10 3.826 0.0131 0.0125 0.0115 0.0107 0.0101 0.0087 0.0062 0.0023 N/A N/A
5 11.50 4.560 0.0191 0.0185 0.0175 0.0167 0.0161 0.0147 0.0122 0.0083 0.0047 0.0005
5 13.00 4.494 0.0185 0.0179 0.0169 0.0161 0.0155 0.0141 0.0116 0.0077 0.0041 N/A
5 15.00 4.408 0.0178 0.0172 0.0162 0.0154 0.0147 0.0134 0.0108 0.0070 0.0033 N/A
5 18.00 4.276 0.0167 0.0161 0.0151 0.0143 0.0136 0.0123 0.0097 0.0059 0.0022 N/A
5 21.40 4.126 0.0155 0.0149 0.0139 0.0130 0.0124 0.0111 0.0085 0.0046 0.0010 N/A
5 23.20 4.044 0.0148 0.0142 0.0132 0.0124 0.0118 0.0104 0.0079 0.0040 0.0003 N/A
5 24.10 4.000 0.0145 0.0139 0.0129 0.0120 0.0114 0.0101 0.0075 0.0036 0.0000 N/A
5-1/2 14.00 5.012 0.0233 0.0227 0.0217 0.0209 0.0203 0.0189 0.0164 0.0125 0.0089 0.0047
5-1/2 15.50 4.950 0.0227 0.0221 0.0211 0.0203 0.0197 0.0183 0.0158 0.0119 0.0083 0.0041
5-1/2 17.00 4.892 0.0222 0.0216 0.0206 0.0197 0.0191 0.0178 0.0152 0.0113 0.0077 0.0036
5-1/2 20.00 4.778 0.0211 0.0205 0.0195 0.0187 0.0180 0.0167 0.0141 0.0103 0.0066 0.0025
5-1/ 2 23.00 4.670 0.0201 0.0195 0.0185 0.0177 0.0171 0.0157 0.0132 0.0093 0.0056 0.0015
CHAPTER 6

5-1/2 26.80 4.500 0.0186 0.0180 0.0170 0.0162 0.0155 0.0142 0.0116 0.0078 0.0041 0.0000
5-1/2 29.70 4.376 0.0175 0.0169 0.0159 0.0151 0.0145 0.0131 0.0106 0.0067 0.0031 N/A
5-1/ 2 32.60 4.250 0.0165 0.0159 0.0149 0.0140 0.0134 0.0121 0.0095 0.0056 0.0020 N/A
5-1/2 35.30 4.126 0.0155 0.0149 0.0139 0.0130 0.0124 0.0111 0.0085 0.0046 0.0010 N/A
5-1/2 38.00 4.000 0.0145 0.0139 0.0129 0.0120 0.0114 0.0101 0.0075 0.0036 0.0000 N/A
5-1/2 40.50 3.876 0.0135 0.0129 0.0119 0.0111 0.0105 0.0091 0.0066 0.0027 N/A N/A
TABLES, FORMULAS, AND PLANNING SUPPORT
5-1/2 43.10 3.750 0.0126 0.0120 0.0110 0.0102 0.0095 0.0082 0.0056 0.0018 N/A N/A
6-5/ 8 20.00 6.049 0.0345 0.0339 0.0329 0.0320 0.0314 0.0301 0.0275 0.0236 0.0200 0.0159
6-5/8 24.00 5.921 0.0330 0.0324 0.0314 0.0305 0.0299 0.0286 0.0260 0.0222 0.0185 0.0144

6-5/8 28.00 5.791 0.0315 0.0309 0.0299 0.0291 0.0284 0.0271 0.0245 0.0207 0.0170 0.0129
6-5/8 32.00 5.675 0.0302 0.0296 0.0286 0.0278 0.0271 0.0258 0.0233 0.0194 0.0157 0.0116
7 17.00 6.538 0.0405 0.0398 0.0388 0.0380 0.0374 0.0360 0.0335 0.0296 0.0260 0.0219
7 20.00 6.456 0.0394 0.0388 0.0378 0.0370 0.0364 0.0350 0.0325 0.0286 0.0249 0.0208
7 23.00 6.366 0.0383 0.0377 0.0367 0.0359 0.0352 0.0339 0.0313 0.0275 0.0238 0.0197
7 26.00 6.276 0.0372 0.0366 0.0356 0.0348 0.0341 0.0328 0.0302 0.0264 0.0227 0.0186
7 29.00 6.184 0.0361 0.0355 0.0345 0.0336 0.0330 0.0317 0.0291 0.0252 0.0216 0.0175
7 32.00 6.094 0.0350 0.0344 0.0334 0.0326 0.0319 0.0306 0.0280 0.0242 0.0205 0.0164
139
Second Edition

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7 35.00 6.004 0.0339 0.0333 0.0323 0.0315 0.0309 0.0295 0.0270 0.0231 0.0195 0.0153
7 38.00 5.920 0.0330 0.0324 0.0314 0.0305 0.0299 0.0286 0.0260 0.0221 0.0185 0.0144
7 42.70 5.750 0.0310 0.0304 0.0294 0.0286 0.0280 0.0266 0.0241 0.0202 0.0166 0.0124
7 46.40 5.625 0.0297 0.0291 0.0281 0.0272 0.0266 0.0253 0.0227 0.0188 0.0152 0.0111
7 50.10 5.500 0.0283 0.0277 0.0267 0.0259 0.0252 0.0239 0.0214 0.0175 0.0138 0.0097
7 53.60 5.376 0.0270 0.0264 0.0254 0.0246 0.0239 0.0226 0.0200 0.0162 0.0125 0.0084
7 57.10 5.250 0.0257 0.0251 0.0241 0.0233 0.0226 0.0213 0.0187 0.0149 0.0112 0.0071
7-5/8 24.00 7.025 0.0469 0.0463 0.0453 0.0444 0.0438 0.0425 0.0399 0.0360 0.0324 0.0283
7-5/8 26.40 6.969 0.0461 0.0455 0.0445 0.0437 0.0430 0.0417 0.0391 0.0353 0.0316 0.0275
7-5/8 29.70 6.875 0.0448 0.0442 0.0432 0.0424 0.0418 0.0404 0.0379 0.0340 0.0304 0.0262
7-5/8 33.70 6.765 0.0434 0.0428 0.0418 0.0409 0.0403 0.0390 0.0364 0.0326 0.0289 0.0248
7-5/8 39.00 6.625 0.0416 0.0410 0.0400 0.0391 0.0385 0.0372 0.0346 0.0307 0.0271 0.0230
7-5/ 8 42.80 6.501 0.0400 0.0394 0.0384 0.0375 0.0369 0.0356 0.0330 0.0292 0.0255 0.0214
7-5/8 45.30 6.435 0.0392 0.0385 0.0375 0.0367 0.0361 0.0347 0.0322 0.0283 0.0247 0.0206
7-5/8 47.10 6.375 0.0384 0.0378 0.0368 0.0360 0.0353 0.0340 0.0314 0.0276 0.0239 0.0198
7-5/8 51.20 6.251 0.0369 0.0363 0.0353 0.0344 0.0338 0.0325 0.0299 0.0261 0.0224 0.0183
7-5/8 55.30 6.125 0.0354 0.0348 0.0338 0.0329 0.0323 0.0310 0.0284 0.0245 0.0209 0.0168
CHAPTER 6

7-5/8 46.10 6.560 0.0407 0.0401 0.0391 0.0383 0.0377 0.0363 0.0338 0.0299 0.0263 0.0221
8-5/8 24.00 8.097 0.0626 0.0620 0.0610 0.0602 0.0595 0.0582 0.0557 0.0518 0.0481 0.0440
8-5/ 8 28.00 8.017 0.0614 0.0608 0.0598 0.0589 0.0583 0.0570 0.0544 0.0505 0.0469 0.0428
8-5/ 8 32.00 7.921 0.0599 0.0593 0.0583 0.0574 0.0568 0.0555 0.0529 0.0490 0.0454 0.0413
8-5/8 36.00 7.825 0.0584 0.0578 0.0568 0.0560 0.0553 0.0540 0.0514 0.0476 0.0439 0.0398
8-5/8 40.00 7.725 0.0569 0.0563 0.0553 0.0545 0.0538 0.0525 0.0499 0.0461 0.0424 0.0383
8-5/8 44.00 7.625 0.0554 0.0548 0.0538 0.0530 0.0523 0.0510 0.0484 0.0446 0.0409 0.0368
8-5/8 49.00 7.511 0.0537 0.0531 0.0521 0.0513 0.0507 0.0493 0.0468 0.0429 0.0393 0.0351
9-5/ 8 32.30 9.001 0.0776 0.0770 0.0760 0.0752 0.0746 0.0732 0.0707 0.0668 0.0632 0.0590
36.00 8.921 0.0762 0.0756 0.0746 0.0738 0.0732 0.0718 0.0693 0.0654 0.0618 0.0576

9-5/8
9-5/8 40.00 8.835 0.0748 0.0741 0.0731 0.0723 0.0717 0.0703 0.0678 0.0639 0.0603 0.0562
9-5/8 43.50 8.755 0.0734 0.0728 0.0718 0.0709 0.0703 0.0690 0.0664 0.0626 0.0589 0.0548
9-5/8 47.00 8.681 0.0721 0.0715 0.0705 0.0697 0.0691 0.0677 0.0652 0.0613 0.0577 0.0535
9-5/ 8 53.50 8.535 0.0697 0.0691 0.0681 0.0673 0.0666 0.0653 0.0627 0.0589 0.0552 0.0511
9-5/ 8 58.40 8.435 0.0680 0.0674 0.0664 0.0656 0.0650 0.0636 0.0611 0.0572 0.0536 0.0494
9-5/8 59.40 8.407 0.0676 0.0670 0.0660 0.0651 0.0645 0.0632 0.0606 0.0568 0.0531 0.0490
141
Second Edition

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9-5/8 64.90 8.281 0.0655 0.0649 0.0639 0.0631 0.0625 0.0611 0.0586 0.0547 0.0511 0.0469
9-5/ 8 70.30 8.157 0.0636 0.0630 0.0620 0.0611 0.0605 0.0592 0.0566 0.0527 0.0491 0.0450
9-5/8 75.60 8.031 0.0616 0.0610 0.0600 0.0591 0.0585 0.0572 0.0546 0.0508 0.0471 0.0430
10-3/4 32.75 10.192 0.0998 0.0992 0.0982 0.0974 0.0968 0.0954 0.0929 0.0890 0.0854 0.0812
10-3/4 40.50 10.050 0.0970 0.0964 0.0954 0.0946 0.0940 0.0926 0.0901 0.0862 0.0826 0.0784
10-3/4 45.50 9.950 0.0951 0.0945 0.0935 0.0927 0.0920 0.0907 0.0881 0.0843 0.0806 0.0765
10-3/ 4 51.00 9.850 0.0932 0.0926 0.0916 0.0907 0.0901 0.0888 0.0862 0.0823 0.0787 0.0746
10-3/4 55.50 9.760 0.0915 0.0908 0.0899 0.0890 0.0884 0.0871 0.0845 0.0806 0.0770 0.0729
10-3/4 60.70 9.660 0.0896 0.0890 0.0880 0.0871 0.0865 0.0852 0.0826 0.0787 0.0751 0.0710
10-3/4 65.70 9.560 0.0877 0.0871 0.0861 0.0853 0.0846 0.0833 0.0807 0.0769 0.0732 0.0691
10-3/ 4 73.20 9.406 0.0849 0.0843 0.0833 0.0824 0.0818 0.0805 0.0779 0.0740 0.0704 0.0663
10-3/4 79.20 9.282 0.0826 0.0820 0.0810 0.0802 0.0796 0.0782 0.0757 0.0718 0.0681 0.0640
10-3/4 85.30 9.156 0.0804 0.0798 0.0788 0.0779 0.0773 0.0760 0.0734 0.0695 0.0659 0.0618
11-3/4 42.00 11.084 0.1183 0.1177 0.1167 0.1158 0.1152 0.1139 0.1113 0.1074 0.1038 0.0997
11-3/4 47.00 11.000 0.1165 0.1159 0.1149 0.1140 0.1134 0.1121 0.1095 0.1056 0.1020 0.0979
11-3/ 4 54.00 10.880 0.1139 0.1133 0.1123 0.1115 0.1108 0.1095 0.1070 0.1031 0.0994 0.0953
CHAPTER 6

11-3/4 60.00 10.772 0.1116 0.1110 0.1100 0.1092 0.1086 0.1072 0.1047 0.1008 0.0972 0.0930
11-3/4 65.00 10.682 0.1098 0.1092 0.1082 0.1073 0.1067 0.1054 0.1028 0.0989 0.0953 0.0912
11-3/ 4 71.00 10.586 0.1078 0.1072 0.1062 0.1053 0.1047 0.1034 0.1008 0.0970 0.0933 0.0892
13-3/8 48.00 12.715 0.1560 0.1554 0.1544 0.1535 0.1529 0.1516 0.1490 0.1451 0.1415 0.1374
13-3/8 54.50 12.615 0.1535 0.1529 0.1519 0.1511 0.1504 0.1491 0.1466 0.1427 0.1390 0.1349
13-3/8 61.00 12.515 0.1511 0.1505 0.1495 0.1486 0.1480 0.1467 0.1441 0.1402 0.1366 0.1325
13-3/8 68.00 12.415 0.1486 0.1480 0.1470 0.1462 0.1456 0.1442 0.1417 0.1378 0.1342 0.1300
13-3/8 72.00 12.347 0.1470 0.1464 0.1454 0.1446 0.1439 0.1426 0.1401 0.1362 0.1325 0.1284
16 65.00 15.250 0.2248 0.2242 0.2232 0.2224 0.2218 0.2204 0.2179 0.2140 0.2104 0.2062
16 75.00 15.124 0.2211 0.2205 0.2195 0.2187 0.2181 0.2167 0.2142 0.2103 0.2066 0.2025

16 84.00 15.010 0.2178 0.2172 0.2162 0.2153 0.2147 0.2134 0.2108 0.2069 0.2033 0.1992
16 109.00 14.688 0.2085 0.2079 0.2069 0.2061 0.2054 0.2041 0.2015 0.1977 0.1940 0.1899
18-5/8 87.50 17.755 0.3051 0.3045 0.3035 0.3027 0.3021 0.3007 0.2982 0.2943 0.2907 0.2865
20 94.00 19.124 0.3542 0.3536 0.3526 0.3517 0.3511 0.3498 0.3472 0.3434 0.3397 0.3356
20 106.50 19.000 0.3496 0.3490 0.3480 0.3472 0.3465 0.3452 0.3426 0.3388 0.3351 0.3310
20 133.00 18.730 0.3397 0.3391 0.3381 0.3373 0.3366 0.3353 0.3327 0.3289 0.3252 0.3211
143
Second Edition
144
A N N U L A R VE L O C I T Y CHAPTER 6
Annular Velocity
The values in Table 20 can be used to get a quick estimate of fluid veloc-
ity using Figure 16. The values along the bottom of the figure are annu-
lar capacity in barrels per foot (bbl/ft). The values along the vertical axis
are annular velocity in feet per minute (ft/min). The curves that run from
upper left to lower right are pump rates in barrels per minute (bbl/min).
Move up along the annular capacity line until you find the annular veloc-
ity you want and read the pump rate in bbl/min from the curve that is
closest to the velocity you are hoping to achieve.
As an alternative, follow the annular capacity line up until you hit the
pump rate curve and read the annular velocity given on the left axis.
FIGURE 16. Annular Velocity
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 Pump Rate (bbl/min)

200
180
160
Pump Rate (bbl/min)
Annular Velocity (ft/min)
140
120
100
30
80 28
26
24
22
60 20
18
16
40 14
12
10
8
20 6
4
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
Annular Capacity (bbl/ft)

SINGLE SALT FLUID COMPOSITION

Single Salt Fluid Composition and
Blending Tables
The following single salt fluid tables are organized according to the CBF
density. Each single salt fluid shown has three tables: (1) density and
composition information, (2) cutback information, and (3) weight up
information. The information in the following tables is intended as a
guide. The values are representative of TETRA’s clear brine fluids; how-
ever, there can be slight variations in the values provided in the tables
AND
versus those measured in actual fluids. These variations are due to slight
compositional differences inherent in the manufacturing processes.
B L E N D I N G TA B L E S
To see the equations necessary for conversions between milligrams per
liter (mg/l), parts per million (ppm), and weight percent (wt%), see
Equation 22 through Equation 24 beginning on page 125.
Using the Density and Composition Tables

The density and composition tables provided here are based on dis-
solving commonly available commercial grade salts in fresh water. Den-
sities in pounds per gallon (lb/gal) shown in column one are measured
at 60°F. Column three shows the volume of water in barrels that, when
mixed with the weight in pounds of commercial purity dry salt shown in
column four, will yield one barrel at the density shown in column one.
The average purity of the dry salt is given in parentheses at the top of
column four. Column five is the concentration of salt on a 100% basis.
Using the Single Salt Cutback Tables

The cutback tables for single salt fluids provided here are based on
weight percentages of salt in the starting fluid and the target fluid, as
shown in Equation 15 on page 72.
Values along the top of each cutback table show starting density, and
values in column one show target density. Values in the table are frac-
tions of a barrel of starting fluid required to make a single barrel of tar-
get fluid. For example, it takes 0.623 bbl of 9.4 lb/gal KCl to make one
barrel of 9.0 lb/gal KCl when it is brought up to one barrel with fresh
water. In short, first add the CBF and then bring it up to the target volume
with fresh water.
Using the Single Salt Weight Up Tables

The single salt weight up tables provided here give pounds of dry chem-
ical that can be added to one barrel of brine (with the starting density
shown in column one) to achieve a density increase that ranges from 0.1
lb/gal to 0.6 lb/gal. A volume increase will be experienced and you will
146
B L E N D I N G TA B L E S CHAPTER 6
be able to estimate it using Equation 14 on page 71. The purity of the

dry chemical is provided in the title of each table.
Ammonium Chloride
AND
TABLE 21. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Density and Composition Table

Ammonium Chloride Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water NH4Cl NH4Cl Cl– TCT
lb/gal SG bbl lb 99% wt% wt% °F
8.4 1.008 0.979 10.7 3.0 2.0 29
8.5 1.020 0.958 23.1 6.4 4.2 24
8.6 1.031 0.919 38.0 10.9 7.2 18
8.7 1.044 0.889 55.0 14.8 9.8 12
8.8 1.055 0.859 69.7 18.9 12.5 8
8.9 1.068 0.812 90.7 24.1 16.0 45
TABLE 22. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Ammonium Chloride Cutback Information

Target
Density Starting Density
lb/gal 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9

8.4 0.463 0.269 0.196 0.152 0.117
8.5 1.000 0.580 0.422 0.327 0.254
8.6 1.000 0.728 0.564 0.437
8.7 1.000 0.774 0.600
8.8 1.000 0.775
8.9 1.000
TABLE 23. Ammonium Chloride (100% NH4Cl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Ammonium Chloride Weight Up Information

Starting
Weight Up Increments
Density
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
8.4 12.64 25.28 38.83 52.41 67.50 83.74
8.5 12.35 25.59 38.86 53.59 69.47 84.25
8.6 12.94 25.92 40.33 55.86 70.31 87.05
8.7 12.68 26.75 41.91 56.03 72.37
8.8 13.76 28.58 42.38 58.36
8.9 14.45 27.91 43.49
9.0 13.10 28.27
9.1 14.82


Potassium Chloride
TABLE 24. Potassium Chloride (KCl) Density and Composition Table
Potassium Chloride Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water KCl KCl Cl– TCT
8.4 1.008 0.995 4.0 1.1 0.5 31
8.5 1.020 0.986 11.6 3.2 1.5 29
8.6 1.032 0.976 18.9 5.2 2.5 28
AND
8.7 1.044 0.969 26.1 7.1 3.4 26
8.8 1.056 0.960 33.4 9.0 4.3 25
8.9 1.068 0.950 40.7 10.9 5.2 23
9.0 1.080 0.943 47.9 12.7 6.0 22
9.1 1.092 0.933 55.2 14.4 6.8 20
9.2 1.104 0.924 62.4 16.1 7.7 18
9.3 1.116 0.917 69.7 17.8 8.5 16
9.4 1.128 0.907 76.9 19.5 9.3 14
9.5 1.140 0.898 84.2 21.1 10.0 18
9.6 1.152 0.890 91.5 22.7 10.8 40
9.7 1.164 0.881 98.7 24.2 11.5 60
TABLE 25. Potassium Chloride (KCl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Potassium Chloride Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
lb/gal 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7
8.4 0.084 0.072 0.064 0.057 0.052 0.048 0.044 0.041
8.5 0.242 0.210 0.186 0.166 0.151 0.138 0.127 0.118
8.6 0.395 0.342 0.303 0.271 0.246 0.224 0.207 0.191
8.7 0.545 0.473 0.418 0.374 0.339 0.310 0.285 0.264
8.8 0.697 0.605 0.535 0.479 0.434 0.397 0.365 0.338
8.9 0.850 0.737 0.652 0.584 0.529 0.483 0.445 0.412
9.0 1.000 0.868 0.768 0.687 0.623 0.569 0.523 0.485
9.1 1.000 0.885 0.792 0.718 0.656 0.603 0.559
9.2 1.000 0.895 0.811 0.741 0.682 0.632
9.3 1.000 0.906 0.828 0.762 0.706
9.4 1.000 0.913 0.840 0.779
9.5 1.000 0.920 0.853
9.6 1.000 0.927
9.7 1.000
148
TABLE 26. Potassium Chloride (99% KCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Potassium Chloride Weight Up Information

Starting
Density
AND
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

8.4 7.71 15.26 22.83 30.65 38.62 46.61

8.5 7.47 14.97 22.71 30.60 38.52 46.71
8.6 7.43 15.11 22.92 30.77 38.88 47.02
8.7 7.61 15.36 23.13 31.18 39.25 47.60
8.8 7.68 15.39 23.35 31.35 39.62 47.93
8.9 7.64 15.53 23.45 31.65 39.88 48.39
9.0 7.82 15.67 23.80 31.95 40.39 49.00
9.1 7.78 15.82 23.90 32.26 40.79 49.35
9.2 7.97 15.98 24.26 32.71 41.19
9.3 7.93 16.13 24.50 32.90
9.4 8.13 16.42 24.74
9.5 8.21 16.45
9.6 8.16
Sodium Chloride
TABLE 27. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Density and Composition Table
Sodium Chloride Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water NaCl NaCl Cl– TCT
8.4 1.008 0.998 4 1.1 0.7 31
8.5 1.020 0.993 9 2.5 1.5 29
8.6 1.032 0.986 16 4.4 2.7 27
8.7 1.044 0.981 22 6.0 3.6 26
8.8 1.056 0.976 28 7.6 4.6 24
8.9 1.068 0.969 35 9.4 5.7 22
9.0 1.080 0.962 41 10.8 6.6 19
9.1 1.092 0.955 47 12.3 7.5 17
9.2 1.104 0.948 54 14.0 8.5 14
9.3 1.116 0.940 61 15.6 9.5 11
9.4 1.128 0.933 68 17.2 10.4 9
9.5 1.140 0.926 74 18.5 11.2 6
9.6 1.152 0.919 81 20.1 12.2 3
9.7 1.164 0.910 88 21.6 13.1 -1
9.8 1.176 0.902 95 23.1 14.0 -5
9.9 1.188 0.895 102 24.5 14.9 5
10.0 1.200 0.888 109 26.0 15.8 25


TABLE 28. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Sodium Chloride Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
lb/gal 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 10.0
8.4 0.066 0.059 0.054 0.049 0.045 0.042 0.039 0.037
8.5 0.148 0.132 0.122 0.111 0.102 0.095 0.088 0.083
8.6 0.262 0.235 0.216 0.198 0.182 0.168 0.157 0.147
8.7 0.361 0.324 0.297 0.272 0.250 0.232 0.216 0.202
AND
8.8 0.459 0.412 0.378 0.346 0.318 0.295 0.275 0.257
8.9 0.574 0.515 0.473 0.432 0.398 0.368 0.343 0.321
9.0 0.672 0.603 0.554 0.506 0.466 0.432 0.402 0.376
9.1 0.770 0.691 0.635 0.580 0.534 0.495 0.461 0.431
9.2 0.885 0.794 0.730 0.667 0.614 0.568 0.529 0.495
9.3 1.000 0.897 0.824 0.753 0.693 0.642 0.598 0.560
9.4 1.000 0.919 0.840 0.773 0.716 0.667 0.624
9.5 1.000 0.914 0.841 0.779 0.725 0.679
9.6 1.000 0.920 0.853 0.794 0.743
9.7 1.000 0.926 0.863 0.807
9.8 1.000 0.931 0.872
9.9 1.000 0.936
10.0 1.000
TABLE 29. Sodium Chloride (99% NaCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Sodium Chloride Weight Up Information

Starting
Density Weight Up Increments
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

8.4 4.92 11.91 17.96 24.06 31.33 37.58
8.5 6.98 13.01 19.10 26.36 32.59 38.89
8.6 5.99 12.03 19.23 25.42 31.67 39.15
8.7 6.01 13.18 19.34 25.56 33.00 40.57
8.8 7.13 13.26 19.44 26.86 34.39 42.04
8.9 6.08 12.22 19.58 27.05 34.64 41.11
9.0 6.11 13.43 20.86 28.42 34.86 42.63
9.1 7.28 14.68 22.20 28.61 36.34 44.20
9.2 7.34 14.80 21.15 28.83 36.63 44.56
9.3 7.40 13.70 21.32 29.05 36.92 44.92
9.4 6.25 13.80 21.48 29.28 37.22 45.29
9.5 7.51 15.15 22.91 30.81 38.84
9.6 7.57 15.28 23.11 31.07
9.7 7.64 15.40 23.30
9.8 7.70 15.53
9.9 7.77
150
Sodium Formate
TABLE 30. Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) Density and Composition Table
Sodium Formate Density and Composition Information

AND
Density Spec Grav Water NaO2CH NaO2CH TCT

lb/gal SG bbl lb 100% wt% °F

9.0 1.08 0.943 48 12.7 16
9.1 1.09 0.932 56 14.7 6
9.2 1.10 0.921 64 16.6 1
9.3 1.12 0.910 72 18.5 -0.6
9.4 1.13 0.898 81 20.4 1
9.5 1.14 0.887 89 22.2 3
9.6 1.15 0.876 97 24.0 6
9.7 1.16 0.864 105 25.8 10
9.8 1.18 0.853 113 27.5 13
9.9 1.19 0.841 122 29.2 15
10.0 1.20 0.829 130 30.9 17
10.1 1.21 0.818 138 32.6 18
10.2 1.22 0.806 146 34.2 19
10.3 1.24 0.795 155 35.7 20
10.4 1.25 0.783 163 37.3 21
10.5 1.26 0.771 171 38.8 23
10.6 1.27 0.760 179 40.3 26
10.7 1.28 0.749 188 41.7 30
10.8 1.30 0.737 196 43.1 39
10.9 1.31 0.726 204 44.5 44
11.0 1.32 0.715 212 45.9 57
11.1 1.33 0.704 220 47.2 73
TABLE 31. Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Sodium Formate Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
lb/gal 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.1
9.0 0.296 0.281 0.269 0.257 0.246 0.236 0.227 0.219
9.1 0.345 0.328 0.313 0.300 0.287 0.276 0.265 0.255
9.2 0.395 0.376 0.358 0.343 0.328 0.315 0.303 0.292
9.3 0.444 0.423 0.404 0.386 0.370 0.355 0.341 0.329
9.4 0.494 0.471 0.449 0.429 0.411 0.395 0.380 0.366
9.5 0.545 0.518 0.495 0.473 0.453 0.435 0.418 0.403
9.6 0.595 0.566 0.540 0.517 0.495 0.475 0.457 0.440
9.7 0.645 0.614 0.586 0.560 0.537 0.516 0.496 0.478
9.8 0.696 0.662 0.632 0.604 0.579 0.556 0.535 0.515
9.9 0.747 0.711 0.678 0.648 0.621 0.596 0.574 0.553
10.0 0.797 0.759 0.724 0.692 0.663 0.637 0.613 0.590
10.1 0.848 0.807 0.770 0.736 0.706 0.677 0.652 0.628
10.2 0.899 0.855 0.816 0.780 0.748 0.718 0.690 0.665
10.3 0.949 0.904 0.862 0.825 0.790 0.758 0.729 0.703


TABLE 31. Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Sodium Formate Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
lb/gal 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.1
10.4 1.000 0.952 0.908 0.869 0.832 0.799 0.768 0.740
10.5 1.000 0.954 0.912 0.874 0.839 0.807 0.778
10.6 1.000 0.956 0.916 0.880 0.846 0.815
10.7 1.000 0.958 0.920 0.885 0.852
10.8 1.000 0.960 0.923 0.889
AND
10.9 1.000 0.962 0.926
11.0 1.000 0.963
11.1 1.000
TABLE 32. Sodium Formate (99% NaO2CH) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Sodium Formate Weight Up Information

Starting
Density
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
9.0 8.69 17.64 26.86 36.35 46.12 56.17
9.1 8.85 17.96 27.33 36.99 46.93 57.16
9.2 9.00 18.27 27.81 37.63 47.74 58.15
9.3 9.15 18.58 28.28 38.27 48.55 59.13
9.4 9.31 18.89 28.75 38.91 49.36 60.11
9.5 9.46 19.20 29.23 39.54 50.16 61.09
9.6 9.61 19.51 29.70 40.18 50.97 62.06
9.7 9.77 19.82 30.16 40.81 51.76 63.03
9.8 9.92 20.13 30.63 41.43 52.55 63.98
9.9 10.07 20.43 31.09 42.05 53.33 64.92
10.0 10.22 20.73 31.54 42.66 54.10 65.85
10.1 10.37 21.03 31.99 43.27 54.85 66.76
10.2 10.51 21.32 32.43 43.86 55.59 67.65
10.3 10.65 21.61 32.87 44.43 56.32 68.51
10.4 10.79 21.89 33.29 45.00 57.02 69.35
10.5 10.93 22.16 33.70 45.54 57.70 70.16
10.6 11.06 22.43 34.10 46.07 58.35
10.7 11.19 22.68 34.48 46.57
10.8 11.32 22.93 34.84
10.9 11.44 23.16
11.0 11.55
152
Potassium Formate
TABLE 33. Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Density and Composition Table
Potassium Formate Density and Composition Information

AND
Density Spec Grav Water KO2CH KO2CH TCT


8.4 1.008 0.980 10 2.7 29
8.5 1.020 0.972 17 4.7 28
8.6 1.032 0.963 24 6.6 27
8.7 1.044 0.953 32 8.5 25
8.8 1.056 0.944 39 10.4 24
8.9 1.068 0.934 47 12.3 22
9.0 1.080 0.924 55 14.2 20
9.1 1.092 0.914 63 16.0 17
9.2 1.104 0.903 70 17.9 15
9.3 1.116 0.892 78 19.7 12
9.4 1.128 0.881 86 21.5 9
9.5 1.140 0.870 95 23.2 6
9.6 1.152 0.859 103 25.0 3
9.7 1.164 0.847 111 26.7 -1
9.8 1.176 0.835 119 28.4 -4
9.9 1.188 0.823 128 30.1 -8
10.0 1.200 0.811 136 31.8 -12
10.1 1.212 0.798 145 33.5 -16
10.2 1.224 0.786 153 35.1 -20
10.3 1.236 0.773 162 36.7 -25
10.4 1.248 0.760 171 38.3 -29
10.5 1.261 0.747 180 39.9 -34
10.6 1.273 0.734 189 41.5 -38
10.7 1.285 0.720 197 43.0 -43
10.8 1.297 0.707 206 44.6 -48
10.9 1.309 0.693 215 46.1 -53
11.0 1.321 0.679 224 47.6 -58
11.1 1.333 0.665 233 49.1 -63
11.2 1.345 0.651 243 50.5 -68
11.3 1.357 0.637 252 52.0 -74
11.4 1.369 0.623 261 53.4 -78
11.5 1.381 0.609 270 54.8 -72
11.6 1.393 0.594 279 56.2 -66
11.7 1.405 0.580 289 57.5 -60
11.8 1.417 0.565 298 58.9 -54
11.9 1.429 0.551 307 60.2 -48
12.0 1.441 0.536 316 61.5 -42
12.1 1.453 0.521 326 62.8 -36
12.2 1.465 0.507 335 64.1 -30
12.3 1.477 0.492 345 65.4 -24
12.4 1.489 0.477 354 66.6 -18
12.5 1.501 0.462 363 67.8 -12
12.6 1.513 0.447 373 69.0 -6


TABLE 33. Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Density and Composition Table
Potassium Formate Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water KO2CH KO2CH TCT
12.7 1.525 0.432 382 70.2 0
12.8 1.537 0.417 392 71.4 6
12.9 1.549 0.403 401 72.5 12
13.0 1.561 0.388 410 73.6 17
13.1 1.573 0.373 420 74.8 23
AND
TABLE 34. Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Potassium Formate Cutback Information
Target
Starting Density
Density
lb/gal 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 13.0 13.1
9.0 0.155 0.151 0.147 0.143 0.140 0.136 0.133 0.130
9.1 0.177 0.172 0.168 0.164 0.160 0.156 0.152 0.149
9.2 0.199 0.194 0.189 0.184 0.180 0.176 0.172 0.168
9.3 0.221 0.216 0.210 0.205 0.200 0.196 0.191 0.187
9.4 0.244 0.238 0.232 0.226 0.221 0.216 0.211 0.206
9.5 0.267 0.260 0.254 0.247 0.241 0.236 0.230 0.225
9.6 0.290 0.283 0.276 0.269 0.262 0.256 0.250 0.245
9.7 0.314 0.306 0.298 0.291 0.283 0.277 0.271 0.265
9.8 0.337 0.329 0.320 0.312 0.305 0.298 0.291 0.284
9.9 0.361 0.352 0.343 0.334 0.326 0.319 0.311 0.305
10.0 0.385 0.375 0.366 0.357 0.348 0.340 0.332 0.325
10.1 0.409 0.399 0.389 0.379 0.370 0.361 0.353 0.345
10.2 0.434 0.423 0.412 0.402 0.392 0.383 0.374 0.366
10.3 0.458 0.446 0.435 0.424 0.414 0.405 0.395 0.386
10.4 0.483 0.470 0.459 0.447 0.436 0.426 0.416 0.407
10.5 0.508 0.495 0.482 0.470 0.459 0.448 0.438 0.428
10.6 0.533 0.519 0.506 0.493 0.481 0.470 0.459 0.449
10.7 0.558 0.543 0.530 0.517 0.504 0.492 0.481 0.470
10.8 0.583 0.568 0.554 0.540 0.527 0.515 0.503 0.492
10.9 0.608 0.593 0.578 0.564 0.550 0.537 0.525 0.513
11.0 0.634 0.618 0.602 0.587 0.573 0.560 0.547 0.534
11.1 0.659 0.643 0.626 0.611 0.596 0.582 0.569 0.556
11.2 0.685 0.668 0.651 0.635 0.619 0.605 0.591 0.578
11.3 0.711 0.693 0.675 0.659 0.643 0.628 0.613 0.600
11.4 0.737 0.718 0.700 0.683 0.666 0.651 0.636 0.621
11.5 0.763 0.743 0.725 0.707 0.689 0.674 0.658 0.643
11.6 0.789 0.769 0.750 0.731 0.713 0.697 0.681 0.665
11.7 0.815 0.794 0.774 0.755 0.737 0.720 0.703 0.687
11.8 0.841 0.820 0.799 0.779 0.760 0.743 0.726 0.710
11.9 0.868 0.846 0.824 0.804 0.784 0.766 0.749 0.732
12.0 0.894 0.871 0.849 0.828 0.808 0.790 0.771 0.754
12.1 0.921 0.897 0.874 0.853 0.832 0.813 0.794 0.776
12.2 0.947 0.923 0.900 0.877 0.856 0.836 0.817 0.799
154
TABLE 34. Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Potassium Formate Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
AND
lb/gal 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 13.0 13.1

12.3 0.974 0.949 0.925 0.902 0.880 0.860 0.840 0.821
12.4 1.000 0.974 0.950 0.926 0.904 0.883 0.863 0.843

12.5 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.928 0.906 0.885 0.866
12.6 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.930 0.908 0.888
12.7 1.000 0.976 0.953 0.931 0.910
12.8 1.000 0.977 0.954 0.933
12.9 1.000 0.977 0.955
13.0 1.000 0.978
13.1 1.000
TABLE 35. Potassium Formate (98% KO2CH) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Potassium Formate Weight Up Information

Starting
Density
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
8.4 7.39 15.02 22.91 31.06 39.49 48.21
8.5 7.57 15.38 23.46 31.82 40.46 49.40
8.6 7.74 15.75 24.03 32.59 41.45 50.63
8.7 7.93 16.13 24.61 33.38 42.47 51.88
8.8 8.12 16.51 25.20 34.20 43.52 53.17
8.9 8.31 16.91 25.81 35.03 44.59 54.50
9.0 8.51 17.31 26.44 35.89 45.70 55.87
9.1 8.71 17.73 27.08 36.78 46.83 57.27
9.2 8.92 18.16 27.74 37.68 48.00 58.72
9.3 9.13 18.60 28.42 38.62 49.21 60.21
9.4 9.35 19.05 29.12 39.58 50.44 61.74
9.5 9.58 19.52 29.84 40.57 51.72 63.32
9.6 9.81 20.00 30.58 41.59 53.04 64.95
9.7 10.05 20.49 31.35 42.64 54.40 66.64
9.8 10.30 21.00 32.13 43.72 55.80 68.38
9.9 10.55 21.52 32.95 44.84 57.24 70.18
10.0 10.81 22.06 33.78 46.00 58.74 72.03
10.1 11.08 22.62 34.65 47.19 60.28 73.96
10.2 11.36 23.20 35.54 48.43 61.88 75.95
10.3 11.64 23.79 36.46 49.70 63.54 78.01
10.4 11.94 24.40 37.42 51.02 65.26 80.15
10.5 12.25 25.04 38.41 52.39 67.03 82.37
10.6 12.56 25.70 39.43 53.81 68.88 84.68
10.7 12.89 26.38 40.50 55.29 70.80 87.08
10.8 13.23 27.08 41.60 56.82 72.79 89.58
10.9 13.58 27.82 42.74 58.41 74.87 92.18
11.0 13.95 28.58 43.93 60.06 77.03 94.89
11.1 14.33 29.37 45.17 61.79 79.28 97.72


TABLE 35. Potassium Formate (98% KO2CH) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Potassium Formate Weight Up Information

Starting
Density
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
11.2 14.72 30.19 46.46 63.58 81.63 100.67
11.3 15.13 31.05 47.80 65.46 84.09 103.77
11.4 15.56 31.94 49.20 67.41 86.65 107.00
11.5 16.00 32.87 50.66 69.46 89.34 110.40
11.6 16.47 33.84 52.19 71.61 92.17 113.97
AND
11.7 16.95 34.86 53.80 73.85 95.13 117.72
11.8 17.46 35.92 55.48 76.22 98.24 121.67
11.9 17.99 37.04 57.24 78.70 101.52 125.84
12.0 18.54 38.21 59.09 81.31 104.98 130.25
12.1 19.13 39.44 61.05 84.07 108.64 134.91
12.2 19.74 40.73 63.10 86.98 112.51 139.86
12.3 20.38 42.10 65.28 90.06 116.62 145.12
12.4 21.06 43.54 67.58 93.33 120.98 150.73
12.5 21.78 45.07 70.02 96.81 125.63 156.71
12.6 22.54 46.69 72.61 100.51 130.59
12.7 23.35 48.41 75.38 104.46
12.8 24.20 50.24 78.33
12.9 25.11 52.20
13.0 26.09
Sodium Bromide
TABLE 36. Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Density and Composition Table
Sodium Bromide Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water NaBr NaBr Br TCT
8.4 1.008 0.999 3 0.9 0.7 30
8.5 1.020 0.998 8 2.2 1.7 30
8.6 1.032 0.993 14 3.8 2.9 29
8.7 1.044 0.989 19 5.2 4.0 29
8.8 1.056 0.984 25 6.7 5.2 29
8.9 1.068 0.979 31 8.2 6.4 28
9.0 1.080 0.974 37 9.7 7.5 28
9.1 1.092 0.970 43 11.0 8.5 27
9.2 1.104 0.965 49 12.4 9.6 26
9.3 1.116 0.960 55 13.8 10.7 25
9.4 1.128 0.955 61 15.1 11.7 24
9.5 1.140 0.949 67 16.5 12.8 23
9.6 1.152 0.945 73 17.7 13.7 19
9.7 1.164 0.940 79 18.9 14.7 18
9.8 1.176 0.923 89 21.1 16.4 17
9.9 1.188 0.931 90 21.3 16.5 16
156
TABLE 36. Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Density and Composition Table
Sodium Bromide Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water NaBr NaBr Br TCT
AND
10.0 1.200 0.925 96 22.5 17.5 15

10.1 1.212 0.920 102 23.6 18.3 13
10.2 1.224 0.915 108 24.8 19.2 12

10.3 1.236 0.912 114 25.8 20.0 11
10.4 1.248 0.907 119 26.8 20.8 10
10.5 1.261 0.902 125 27.9 21.6 9
10.6 1.273 0.897 132 29.0 22.5 6
10.7 1.285 0.892 137 30.0 23.3 3
10.8 1.297 0.887 143 31.0 24.0 1
10.9 1.309 0.883 149 31.9 24.8 -2
11.0 1.321 0.878 155 32.9 25.5 -5
11.1 1.333 0.873 161 33.8 26.2 -6
11.2 1.345 0.868 167 34.8 27.0 -8
11.3 1.357 0.862 173 35.7 27.7 -10
11.4 1.369 0.857 179 36.6 28.4 -12
11.5 1.381 0.852 185 37.6 29.2 -14
11.6 1.393 0.848 191 38.4 29.8 -16
11.7 1.405 0.842 197 39.3 30.5 -19
11.8 1.417 0.838 202 40.0 31.1 -21
11.9 1.429 0.834 208 40.8 31.7 -13
12.0 1.441 0.828 214 41.7 32.3 -6
12.1 1.453 0.825 220 42.4 32.9 5
12.2 1.465 0.819 226 43.2 33.5 10
12.3 1.477 0.817 231 43.8 34.0 27
12.4 1.489 0.810 238 44.7 34.7 33
12.5 1.501 0.805 243 45.4 35.3 38
12.6 1.513 0.800 249 46.2 35.8 50
12.7 1.525 0.797 255 46.8 36.3 65
TABLE 37. Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Sodium Bromide Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
lb/gal 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4
10.0 0.521 0.506 0.490 0.477 0.463 0.450 0.439 0.427 0.418 0.406
10.1 0.552 0.536 0.519 0.505 0.491 0.477 0.465 0.452 0.442 0.430
10.2 0.585 0.568 0.550 0.535 0.520 0.506 0.493 0.479 0.469 0.456
10.3 0.615 0.597 0.578 0.562 0.547 0.532 0.518 0.504 0.493 0.479
10.4 0.646 0.627 0.607 0.590 0.574 0.558 0.544 0.529 0.517 0.503
10.5 0.678 0.658 0.637 0.620 0.602 0.586 0.571 0.555 0.543 0.528
10.6 0.711 0.690 0.668 0.650 0.632 0.615 0.599 0.582 0.570 0.554
10.7 0.743 0.721 0.698 0.679 0.660 0.642 0.626 0.608 0.595 0.578
10.8 0.774 0.751 0.727 0.708 0.688 0.669 0.652 0.634 0.620 0.603
10.9 0.807 0.783 0.758 0.737 0.717 0.697 0.679 0.660 0.646 0.628


TABLE 37. Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Sodium Bromide Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
lb/gal 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4
11.0 0.838 0.813 0.787 0.766 0.744 0.724 0.705 0.686 0.671 0.652
11.1 0.870 0.844 0.817 0.795 0.773 0.752 0.733 0.712 0.697 0.677
11.2 0.902 0.875 0.848 0.825 0.801 0.780 0.760 0.738 0.723 0.702
11.3 0.935 0.907 0.878 0.855 0.831 0.808 0.787 0.765 0.749 0.728
11.4 0.967 0.938 0.909 0.884 0.859 0.836 0.815 0.792 0.775 0.753
AND
11.5 1.000 0.970 0.939 0.914 0.888 0.864 0.842 0.818 0.801 0.778
11.6 1.000 0.968 0.942 0.916 0.890 0.868 0.843 0.825 0.802
11.7 1.000 0.973 0.946 0.920 0.896 0.871 0.853 0.829
11.8 1.000 0.972 0.945 0.921 0.895 0.876 0.852
11.9 1.000 0.973 0.948 0.921 0.902 0.876
12.0 1.000 0.975 0.947 0.927 0.901
12.1 1.000 0.972 0.951 0.924
12.2 1.000 0.979 0.951
12.3 1.000 0.972
12.4 1.000
TABLE 38. Sodium Bromide (98% NaBr) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Sodium Bromide Weight Up Information

Starting
Density Weight Up Increments
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

8.4 5.53 11.73 17.35 23.34 29.61 35.61
8.5 6.17 11.78 17.75 24.00 29.97 36.23
8.6 5.57 11.51 17.73 23.67 29.89 35.94
8.7 5.92 12.11 18.03 24.23 30.26 36.58
8.8 6.16 12.05 18.23 24.23 30.52 37.00
8.9 5.86 12.00 17.97 24.23 30.68 37.44
9.0 6.11 12.06 18.29 24.71 31.44 37.50
9.1 5.91 12.12 18.50 25.20 31.23 37.69
9.2 6.17 12.53 19.20 25.20 31.63 37.87
9.3 6.32 12.96 18.93 25.33 31.54 37.68
9.4 6.60 12.54 18.91 25.08 31.18 38.14
9.5 5.90 12.23 18.37 24.44 31.35 37.67
9.6 6.30 12.42 18.46 25.34 31.63 38.40
9.7 6.08 12.09 18.94 25.20 31.93 38.04
9.8 5.98 12.80 19.03 25.73 31.82 38.09
9.9 6.79 13.00 19.67 25.72 31.97 38.70
10.0 6.17 12.80 18.82 25.03 31.72 38.77
10.1 6.60 12.59 18.77 25.43 32.45 39.11
10.2 5.96 12.10 18.72 25.70 32.33 38.87
10.3 6.12 12.71 19.67 26.26 32.78 39.66
10.4 6.57 13.49 20.06 26.54 33.40 40.02
10.5 6.89 13.42 19.87 26.69 33.27 40.23
158
TABLE 38. Sodium Bromide (98% NaBr) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Sodium Bromide Weight Up Information

Starting Weight Up Increments
Density
AND
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

10.6 6.49 12.91 19.68 26.23 33.15 40.15
10.7 6.38 13.12 19.63 26.52 33.48 40.68

10.8 6.71 13.19 20.04 26.97 34.14 41.22
10.9 6.44 13.26 20.15 27.28 34.33 41.62
11.0 6.78 13.64 20.73 27.75 35.01 41.68
11.1 6.82 13.87 20.85 28.07 34.71 42.43
11.2 7.01 13.95 21.13 27.73 35.41 41.81
11.3 6.90 14.04 20.59 28.23 34.59 41.70
11.4 7.10 13.62 21.22 27.54 34.61 41.76
11.5 6.48 14.03 20.32 27.35 34.45 41.10
11.6 7.51 13.77 20.77 27.84 34.45 42.59
11.7 6.21 13.16 20.19 26.76 34.84 40.44
11.8 6.92 13.92 20.46 28.51 34.09 42.88
11.9 6.96 13.47 21.47 27.02 35.77 42.74
12.0 6.47 14.43 19.95 28.65 35.59 43.37
12.1 7.93 13.42 22.08 28.99 36.74 43.21
12.2 5.46 14.05 20.91 28.60 35.03
12.3 8.57 15.42 23.09 29.50
12.4 6.79 14.39 20.75
12.5 7.57 13.90
12.6 6.29
Calcium Chloride
TABLE 39. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Density and Composition Table
Calcium Chloride Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water CaCl2 CaCl2 Cl– TCT
9.0 1.080 0.970 39 9.7 6.2 21
9.1 1.092 0.965 45 11.1 7.1 19
9.2 1.104 0.960 50 12.4 7.9 17
9.3 1.116 0.955 56 13.7 8.8 15
9.4 1.128 0.950 62 15.0 9.6 12
9.5 1.140 0.946 68 16.2 10.3 9
9.6 1.152 0.940 74 17.5 11.2 6
9.7 1.164 0.935 80 18.7 11.9 3
9.8 1.176 0.930 86 19.9 12.7 0
9.9 1.188 0.925 92 21.1 13.5 -4
10.0 1.200 0.919 99 22.3 14.2 -8
10.1 1.212 0.913 105 23.5 15.0 -13
10.2 1.224 0.907 111 24.6 15.7 -18


TABLE 39. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Density and Composition Table
Calcium Chloride Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water CaCl2 CaCl2 Cl– TCT
10.3 1.236 0.901 117 25.8 16.5 -23
10.4 1.248 0.895 124 26.9 17.2 -29
10.5 1.261 0.889 130 28.0 17.9 -36
10.6 1.273 0.883 136 29.1 18.6 -43
10.7 1.285 0.876 143 30.2 19.3 -51
AND
10.8 1.297 0.869 149 31.3 20.0 -59
10.9 1.309 0.862 156 32.4 20.7 -40
11.0 1.321 0.855 163 33.5 21.4 -22
11.1 1.333 0.847 170 34.6 22.1 -11
11.2 1.345 0.841 176 35.6 22.7 0
11.3 1.357 0.832 183 36.7 23.4 13
11.4 1.369 0.825 190 37.7 24.1 27
11.5 1.381 0.817 197 38.8 24.8 35
11.6 1.393 0.809 204 39.8 25.4 44
Calcium Chloride Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
lb/gal 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6
8.4 0.026 0.025 0.024 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.020 0.020 0.019 0.018
8.5 0.052 0.050 0.048 0.046 0.044 0.043 0.041 0.040 0.038 0.037
8.6 0.090 0.086 0.083 0.079 0.076 0.074 0.071 0.068 0.066 0.064
8.7 0.136 0.130 0.125 0.120 0.116 0.112 0.107 0.104 0.100 0.097
8.8 0.162 0.155 0.149 0.143 0.138 0.133 0.127 0.123 0.119 0.115
8.9 0.207 0.199 0.191 0.184 0.177 0.170 0.163 0.158 0.153 0.147
9.0 0.256 0.246 0.236 0.227 0.219 0.211 0.202 0.195 0.189 0.182
9.1 0.301 0.289 0.277 0.267 0.257 0.247 0.237 0.229 0.222 0.214
9.2 0.344 0.330 0.317 0.305 0.293 0.282 0.271 0.262 0.254 0.244
9.3 0.388 0.372 0.357 0.343 0.330 0.318 0.305 0.295 0.286 0.275
9.4 0.432 0.414 0.398 0.383 0.368 0.355 0.340 0.329 0.318 0.307
9.5 0.474 0.455 0.437 0.420 0.404 0.389 0.373 0.361 0.350 0.337
9.6 0.518 0.497 0.477 0.459 0.441 0.425 0.407 0.394 0.382 0.368
9.7 0.562 0.539 0.518 0.498 0.479 0.461 0.442 0.428 0.414 0.399
9.8 0.607 0.582 0.559 0.537 0.517 0.498 0.477 0.462 0.447 0.431
9.9 0.649 0.623 0.598 0.575 0.553 0.533 0.511 0.494 0.479 0.461
10.0 0.693 0.664 0.638 0.613 0.590 0.568 0.545 0.527 0.510 0.492
10.1 0.737 0.707 0.679 0.652 0.628 0.605 0.580 0.561 0.543 0.523
10.2 0.781 0.750 0.720 0.692 0.666 0.641 0.615 0.595 0.576 0.555
10.3 0.824 0.790 0.759 0.730 0.702 0.676 0.648 0.627 0.607 0.585
10.4 0.867 0.832 0.799 0.768 0.739 0.711 0.682 0.660 0.639 0.616
10.5 0.911 0.873 0.839 0.806 0.776 0.747 0.717 0.693 0.671 0.647
10.6 0.955 0.916 0.880 0.846 0.814 0.784 0.751 0.727 0.704 0.678
10.7 1.000 0.959 0.921 0.886 0.852 0.821 0.787 0.761 0.737 0.710
160
Calcium Chloride Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
Density
AND
lb/gal 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6
10.8 1.000 0.960 0.923 0.888 0.856 0.820 0.794 0.768 0.741
10.9 1.000 0.961 0.925 0.891 0.854 0.826 0.800 0.771

11.0 1.000 0.962 0.927 0.889 0.860 0.832 0.802
11.1 1.000 0.963 0.923 0.893 0.865 0.834
11.2 1.000 0.959 0.928 0.898 0.866
11.3 1.000 0.968 0.937 0.903
11.4 1.000 0.968 0.933
11.5 1.000 0.964
11.6 1.000
TABLE 41. Calcium Chloride (95% CaCl2) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Calcium Chloride Weight Up Information

Density
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
9.0 5.85 11.88 18.11 24.54 31.18 37.51
9.1 6.01 12.21 18.61 25.22 31.52 38.57
9.2 6.17 12.54 19.12 25.39 32.41 39.10
9.3 6.34 12.89 19.13 26.11 32.77 39.64
9.4 6.43 12.72 19.66 26.28 33.12 40.19
9.5 6.51 13.07 19.66 26.46 33.48 40.74
9.6 6.60 13.42 20.19 27.18 34.40 41.24
9.7 6.69 13.23 20.17 27.35 34.14 41.80
9.8 6.77 13.59 20.72 27.48 35.09 42.31
9.9 6.86 13.96 20.67 28.24 35.41 42.82
10.0 6.96 13.72 21.24 28.37 35.73 44.04
10.1 7.06 14.10 21.18 28.49 36.75 44.58
10.2 7.16 14.47 21.74 29.95 37.74 45.80
10.3 7.27 14.20 22.35 30.09 38.09 45.61
10.4 7.37 15.27 22.95 30.91 38.38 46.88
10.5 7.47 15.68 23.58 31.00 39.44 48.19
10.6 7.57 15.40 22.76 31.13 39.80 47.97
10.7 7.77 15.08 23.38 31.99 40.10 49.33
10.8 7.25 15.49 24.03 32.07 41.24 49.87
10.9 8.19 16.67 24.66 33.77 42.34 51.23
11.0 8.41 16.33 25.36 33.86 42.67 51.80
11.1 7.85 16.79 25.22 33.95 42.99
11.2 8.07 17.24 25.90 34.88
11.3 8.28 16.86 25.75
11.4 8.50 17.32
11.5 8.73


Calcium Bromide
TABLE 42. Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) Density and Composition Table
Calcium Bromide Density and Composition Information

Density Spec Grav Water CaBr2 CaBr2 Br TCT1
11.6 1.393 0.860 186 36.3 29.0 -32
11.7 1.405 0.856 192 37.1 29.7 -36
11.8 1.417 0.852 198 37.9 30.3 -40
AND
11.9 1.429 0.848 203 38.6 30.9 -45
12.0 1.441 0.844 209 39.3 31.4 -50
12.1 1.453 0.840 214 40.1 32.1 -55
12.2 1.465 0.836 220 40.8 32.6 -61
12.3 1.477 0.832 226 41.5 33.2 -67
12.4 1.489 0.828 231 42.2 33.7 -73
12.5 1.501 0.824 237 42.8 34.2 -80
12.6 1.513 0.820 242 43.5 34.8 -88
12.7 1.525 0.816 248 44.2 35.3 -92
12.8 1.537 0.811 254 44.8 35.8 -96
12.9 1.549 0.807 259 45.5 36.4 -87
13.0 1.561 0.803 265 46.1 36.9 -78
13.1 1.573 0.799 271 46.8 37.4 -70
13.2 1.585 0.794 277 47.4 37.9 -63
13.3 1.597 0.790 282 48.0 38.4 -53
13.4 1.609 0.786 288 48.6 38.9 -43
13.5 1.621 0.781 294 49.2 39.3 -39
13.6 1.633 0.777 299 49.8 39.8 -34
13.7 1.645 0.772 305 50.4 40.3 -27
13.8 1.657 0.768 311 51.0 40.8 -20
13.9 1.669 0.763 317 51.6 41.3 -13
14.0 1.681 0.758 323 52.1 41.7 -7
14.1 1.693 0.754 328 52.7 42.1 1
14.2 1.705 0.751 333 53.1 42.5 10
14.3 1.717 0.744 340 53.8 43.0 17
14.4 1.729 0.739 346 54.3 43.4 23
14.5 1.741 0.734 352 54.9 43.9 30
14.6 1.753 0.730 358 55.4 44.3 36
14.7 1.765 0.724 364 56.0 44.8 43
14.8 1.777 0.719 370 56.5 45.2 50
14.9 1.789 0.714 376 57.0 45.6 56
15.0 1.801 0.709 382 57.6 46.1 61
15.1 1.813 0.704 388 58.1 46.5 66
1
TCT values from Bridges 2000.
162
TABLE 43. Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)
Calcium Bromide Cutback Information

Target
Starting Density
AND
Density
lb/gal 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 14.0 14.1 14.2
11.6 0.660 0.647 0.635 0.622 0.610 0.599 0.588 0.577 0.567 0.559
11.7 0.680 0.667 0.654 0.641 0.629 0.617 0.606 0.595 0.584 0.576
11.8 0.700 0.686 0.673 0.660 0.647 0.635 0.623 0.612 0.601 0.592
11.9 0.720 0.705 0.692 0.678 0.665 0.653 0.641 0.630 0.618 0.609
12.0 0.740 0.725 0.711 0.697 0.684 0.671 0.659 0.647 0.636 0.626
12.1 0.759 0.744 0.730 0.716 0.702 0.689 0.676 0.664 0.653 0.643
12.2 0.779 0.764 0.749 0.734 0.721 0.707 0.694 0.682 0.670 0.660
12.3 0.799 0.783 0.768 0.753 0.739 0.725 0.712 0.699 0.687 0.676
12.4 0.819 0.803 0.787 0.772 0.757 0.743 0.729 0.716 0.704 0.693
12.5 0.839 0.822 0.806 0.791 0.776 0.761 0.747 0.734 0.721 0.710
12.6 0.859 0.842 0.825 0.809 0.794 0.779 0.765 0.751 0.738 0.727
12.7 0.879 0.861 0.845 0.828 0.813 0.797 0.783 0.769 0.755 0.744
12.8 0.899 0.881 0.864 0.847 0.831 0.816 0.801 0.786 0.773 0.761
12.9 0.919 0.901 0.884 0.866 0.850 0.834 0.819 0.804 0.790 0.778
13.0 0.939 0.921 0.903 0.885 0.869 0.852 0.837 0.822 0.807 0.795
13.1 0.960 0.941 0.922 0.904 0.887 0.871 0.855 0.839 0.825 0.812
13.2 0.980 0.960 0.942 0.924 0.906 0.889 0.873 0.857 0.842 0.829
13.3 1.000 0.980 0.961 0.943 0.925 0.907 0.891 0.875 0.859 0.846
13.4 1.000 0.981 0.962 0.943 0.926 0.909 0.892 0.877 0.864
13.5 1.000 0.981 0.962 0.944 0.927 0.910 0.894 0.881
13.6 1.000 0.981 0.963 0.945 0.928 0.912 0.898
13.7 1.000 0.981 0.963 0.946 0.929 0.915
13.8 1.000 0.982 0.964 0.947 0.933
13.9 1.000 0.982 0.965 0.950
14.0 1.000 0.982 0.968
14.1 1.000 0.985
14.2 1.000
TABLE 44. Calcium Bromide (95% CaBr2) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Calcium Bromide Weight Up Information

Starting
Density
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
11.6 6.50 13.06 19.68 26.36 33.10 39.92
11.7 6.53 13.12 19.77 26.48 33.26 40.11
11.8 6.56 13.18 19.86 26.61 33.42 40.30
11.9 6.59 13.24 19.96 26.74 33.58 40.50
12.0 6.62 13.31 20.05 26.87 33.75 40.69
12.1 6.65 13.37 20.15 27.00 33.91 41.09
12.2 6.68 13.43 20.25 27.13 34.27 41.49
12.3 6.72 13.50 20.35 27.45 34.63 41.89
12.4 6.75 13.56 20.64 27.78 35.01 42.31


TABLE 44. Calcium Bromide (95% CaBr2) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)
Calcium Bromide Weight Up Information

Density
lb/gal 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
12.5 6.78 13.82 20.93 28.12 35.38 42.73
12.6 7.00 14.08 21.23 28.46 35.77 43.15
12.7 7.04 14.16 21.35 28.62 35.96 43.39
12.8 7.08 14.23 21.46 28.77 36.16 43.63
12.9 7.12 14.31 21.58 28.93 36.35 43.86
AND
13.0 7.15 14.38 21.69 29.08 36.55 44.32
13.1 7.19 14.46 21.81 29.24 36.97 44.79
13.2 7.23 14.54 21.93 29.62 37.40 45.27
13.3 7.27 14.62 22.27 30.00 37.83 45.75
13.4 7.31 14.91 22.61 30.39 38.27 46.25
13.5 7.56 15.21 22.96 30.79 38.72 46.75
13.6 7.61 15.31 23.10 30.98 38.96 45.16
13.7 7.65 15.40 23.23 31.17 37.33 47.56
13.8 7.70 15.49 23.38 29.50 39.68 48.10
13.9 7.74 15.58 21.67 31.79 40.16 48.65
14.0 7.79 13.84 23.90 32.22 40.66 49.21
14.1 6.01 16.01 24.28 32.67 41.17 50.03
14.2 9.96 18.22 26.58 35.05 43.88 52.85
14.3 8.17 16.45 24.84 33.60 42.48 51.48
14.4 8.23 16.56 25.26 34.08 43.03 52.11
14.5 8.28 16.92 25.68 34.57 43.59 52.74
14.6 8.58 17.29 26.12 35.08 44.16
14.7 8.64 17.41 26.31 35.33
14.8 8.71 17.54 26.50
14.9 8.77 17.67
15.0 8.83
164 CHAPTER 6
Notes:

Notes:
166 CHAPTER 6
Notes:

167
CHAPTER 7 U.S. Safety and

Environmental
Information
This chapter is an introductory knowledge base regarding the safety and

handling of CBFs in the U.S. and adjacent offshore waters and should be
read carefully. It should in no way be considered exhaustive or the sole
source of information. Reference should be made to the applicable regu-
lations published by U.S. state and federal regulatory agencies that have
the authority to oversee the health and safety of workers and environ-
mental compliance during oil and gas development operations. Your pri-
mary contact should be your company’s health, safety, and
environmental personnel. In addition, TETRA fluids specialists are exten-
sively trained and experienced in the proper methods of handling clear
brine fluids and are a resource available to the completions engineer.
Before handling a specific CBF, read the appropriate Material Safety

Ì
! Data Sheet (MSDS) to understand all of the hazards involved when
handling that particular fluid.

1. CBF Chemical Constituents
2. Brine Handling and Personal Safety
3. Environmental Considerations: Brine Handling and Disposal
4. Agency Contact Information
CBF Chemical Constituents

Clear brine fluids are concentrated solutions of simple salts. As they are
not highly reactive, their chemical behavior is secondary to their physi-
cal properties such as density and clarity. Chemical constituents of CBFs
include the positively charged cations of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),
ammonium (NH4+), calcium (Ca+2), and zinc (Zn+2). Of these, only zinc
and ammonium are regulated environmentally. None of them are con-
www.tetratec.com
168
PERSONAL SAFETY CHAPTER 7
sidered highly toxic. In fact, zinc is an essential micronutrient and has

been shown to reduce the severity of common colds. The negatively
charged anions are chloride (Cl– ) and bromide (Br–), both of which are
found in seawater, but at a much lower concentration than is found in a
clear brine fluid.
AND
Another family of CBFs is based on the formate ion. The formate ion
BRINE HANDLING
(HCO2–) is also used in some CBF applications in conjunction with

sodium, potassium, and cesium. Formate is a low molecular weight,
organic anion and is biodegradeable.
Despite the fact that none of the constituents are in and of themselves
highly toxic, the concentrations at which these constituents exist in CBFs
can create workplace hazards and cause damage to the environment.
Since CBFs are chemically simple, it is easy to make light of their safety
and environmental issues. However, these materials are hazardous and
should be accorded all due respect.
Brine Handling and Personal

Safety
Completion fluids containing compounds such as calcium chloride
(CaCl2), calcium bromide (CaBr2), and zinc bromide (ZnBr2) are made
by dissolving these and other salts in water. The common CBF chemical
salts are shown below in Table 45. The Chemical Abstracts Service regis-
tration number (CAS), given in the last column, is a universal reference
number for each chemical compound.
TABLE 45. CBF Constituents and Chemical Abstracts Service Numbers
Name Formula CAS

Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl 12125-02-9
Potassium Chloride KCl 7447-40-7
Sodium Chloride NaCl 7647-14-5
Sodium Bromide NaBr 7647-15-6
Calcium Chloride CaCl2 10043-52-4
Calcium Bromide CaBr2 7789-41-5
Sodium Formate NaO2CH 141-53-7
Potassium Formate KO2CH 590-29-4
Cesium Formate CsO2CH 3495-36-1
Zinc Bromide ZnBr2 7699-45-8

U.S. SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION 169
BRINE HANDLING
Handling of Clear Brine Fluids
The high concentrations of dissolved salts in CBFs impart a strong affinity
for water—to the point where they will readily absorb water from the air
(hygroscopic). This strong tendency to absorb water is the basis for most
AND
of the safety precautions that should be observed when working with any
clear brine fluid.
PERSONAL SAFETY
Contact While Handling
There are certain use and handling precautions that should be followed
when rig personnel are working with these fluids. Fluid contact with the
skin can cause slight irritation and redness upon a short, single expo-
sure. Continued or prolonged exposure can cause superficial to severe
burns of the skin. The fluids can also cause potential eye injury if contact
occurs. Contact with the eyes can cause moderate to severe irritation to
permanent corneal injury.
Eye protection is mandatory for all personnel working with clear brine
Ì
! fluids.
Heat of Solution
Another aspect of working with clear brine fluids which calls for respect,
is that the addition of dry CaCl2 or CaBr2 salt can generate excessive
heat of solution. If solid CaCl2 is added too rapidly while preparing an
11.6 lb/gal brine, enough heat can be generated to raise the solution
temperature to more than 200°F. Care must be taken to avoid being
burned by the hot liquid or equipment.
For weight up applications, it is advisable to perform a pilot test first in

order to check the kind of temperature rise that may be expected in the
field.
Toxic Fumes
Two circumstances exist where toxic fumes can be released:
1. Brines are not flammable, but they can release chlorine and/or bro-
mine gases in fires fueled by other sources, and
2. Oxidizers such as calcium hypochlorite, which is commonly used as a
polymer breaker, can release chlorine and/or bromine gases under
acidic conditions. Chlorine and bromine gases are both heavier than
air and will settle into lower or confined spaces and displace all
breathable air.
170
PERSONAL SAFETY CHAPTER 7
Safety Equipment
The type and amount of safety apparel recommended will vary with the
specific task being performed. However, hard hats, goggles or safety
glasses with side shields, rubber gloves, and rubber boots should be the
minimum safety apparel worn when working with, or in the vicinity of,
AND
clear brine fluids. Safety packages that contain this necessary equipment
BRINE HANDLING
are available from all of TETRA’s stock points.
Safety Equipment Overview:

• Goggles or safety glasses with side shields will provide eye protection.
• Face shields may be used in conjunction with goggles or safety
glasses, but should not be used alone as they are primarily used to
protect the face and throat from frontal splashing.
• Safety showers and eyewash stations should be easily accessible to
each area of high activity. Portable eyewash units are highly
recommended for remote locations.
• Rubber gloves prevent direct contact of any brine fluid with the hands
and arms. A popular alternative to these gloves is thin latex gloves that
are worn under cotton knobbies.
• Rubber boots should always be worn around brines. The hygroscopic
nature of the brines can dehydrate and cause severe shrinkage in
leather boots.
• When splashing is likely, such as when tripping pipe, slicker suits are
recommended. Extra time should be allowed for completing projects to
prevent personnel from overheating. Slickers should be worn properly
and should be periodically cleaned.
• Dust masks should be available when mixing dry additives.
• Moisturizing creams can help prevent the loss of moisture to brines
when used beforehand and can help replace the oils and moisture that
may already have been lost.
Several precautions may be taken at the well site in order to create a

safer environment:
• Pipe wipers not only reduce fluid loss when pulling pipe, they also
minimize the danger of fluid dripping onto the floor and rig crew.
• Bristle type floor mats should be used wherever the floor may become
wet with clear brine fluid.
• All spills should be cleaned with soap and fresh water in order to
remove any slippery residue.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS: BRINE HANDLING

Recommendations for Immediate Treatment
The following are recommendations to follow in the event that rig per-
sonnel come in contact with a completion fluid:
• If eye contact occurs, irrigate the eyes with flowing water immediately
and continuously for at least 15 minutes. Consult with medical
personnel as soon as possible.
• In case of contact with the skin, immediately flush skin with plenty of
water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing
and shoes. Consult with medical personnel as soon as possible.
• Wash clothing thoroughly before reuse. Destroy contaminated shoes.
• As fluids can cause slipping hazards on surfaces, sand or other
absorbent material should be applied to any fluid spills to reduce the
possibility of falls. Once the spill has been absorbed, the material
should be placed in containers for disposal.
• Everyone directly involved with a project should be instructed in the
AND
possible hazards of working with clear brine fluids. TETRA’s fluids
DISPOSAL
specialists conduct precompletion safety meetings to review the Job
Safety Analysis and inform all personnel of the safety and handling
precautions to be taken with these fluids and the need for proper use
of safety equipment.
Environmental Considerations:
Brine Handling and Disposal
Certain environmental regulations apply to completion/workover fluids
as well as to some of the additive products used when working with these
fluids. A listing of TETRA’s brine fluids and additive products with estab-
lished EPA reportable quantities (RQs) are found in Table 48 and
Table 49.
A few definitions are provided to help you understand the applicable

rules and regulations.
Hazardous Substances
Hazardous substances are:

1. Any elements, compounds, mixtures, solutions, or substances specially
designated by the EPA under Section 311 of the Clean Water Act
(CWA) (40CFR 116.4) or under Section 102 of the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
(40CFR 302.4);
2. Any toxic pollutants listed under Section 307(a) of the CWA;
172
DISPOSAL CHAPTER 7
3. Any hazardous substances regulated under Section 311(b)(2)(A) of the

CWA;
4. Any listed or characteristic Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
AND
(RCRA) hazardous wastes;

5. Any hazardous air pollutants listed under Section 112 of the Clean Air
Act (CAA); or
6. Any imminently hazardous chemical substances or mixtures regulated
under Section 7 of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).

Discharges
A discharge is any flow of surface water in a stream or canal or the out-
flow of ground water from a flowing artesian well, ditch, or spring. It can
also apply to the discharge of liquid effluent from a facility or to chemi-
cal emissions into the air through designated venting mechanisms.
For a glossary of environmental terms, visit the EPA Web site at:
www.epa.gov/OCEPAterms.
Permitted Discharges
Completion Fluids. Under the regulations of the National Pollutant Dis-
charge Elimination System (NPDES), a discharge of clear brine fluid may
be permitted as long as it does not have an RQ designation and passes
certain tests. Permit effluent limitations pertinent to completion, well treat-
ment, and workover fluids are listed in Table 46.
TABLE 46. NPDES Permit Effluent Limitations for Completion Fluids
Constituent Test Limit Frequency

Daily, when
Free Oil Static Sheen Test No free oil
discharging
Oil and Grease <29 mg/l mo avg Monthly, when
Oil and Grease1
Analysis <42 mg/l day max discharging
Priority Pollutant (Zinc) No discharge Prohibited
1The analytical method for Oil and Grease determination should be specified as EPA Method
1664, Revision A, N-Hexane Extractable Material (HEM: Oil and Grease), a liquid/liquid
extraction gravimetric procedure.
Drilling Fluids. A different set of requirements applies to reservoir drill-

ing fluids. TETRA recommends that, in the case of drilling fluids, the stan-
dards regarding Free Oil should be based on the Static Sheen Test and
the standards for Oil and Grease should be based on the HEM method
as noted above. In addition, a toxicity test should be run to determine the
LC50 rating.


TABLE 47. NPDES Permit Effluent Limitations for Drilling Fluids
Limitation Test Limit Frequency

Oil Based Fluids No Discharge
Oil Contaminated
No Discharge
Drilling Fluids1
Static Sheen 58 Number of days
Free Oil Once per day
12506 sheen observed
Grab 96 hr LC50
30,000 ppm daily
Toxicity using Mycidopsis Once per month
minimum
Bahia
Maximum Discharge Rate Estimate 1000 bbl/hr Once per hour
1
EPA Method 1664 Revision A: N-Hexane Extractable Material (HEM: Oil and Grease)
Releases
A release is any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying,
discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing of a
AND
hazardous or toxic chemical or extremely hazardous substance into the
environment.
DISPOSAL
Reportable Quantities (RQs)
A reportable quantity (RQ) is the amount of a hazardous substance
which, when released to the environment, must be reported to the
National Response Center (NRC). Reportable quantities are action levels
that may trigger an appropriate response to a release under provisions
of the CWA, the CERCLA, or the Emergency Planning & Community-
Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA).
CBF RQs
The following table outlines the RQ information for ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl) and zinc bromide (ZnBr2), which are the only brine salts that
have established EPA reportable quantities.
TABLE 48. CBF RQ Information
Zinc Bromide
1RQ
Compound
Ammonium Chloride
based on 49 CFR 172.101 Appendix A

Formula
NH4Cl
ZnBr2
RQ lb (Kg)1
5,000 (2,268)
1,000 (454)
Consult with your company’s environmental professionals regarding use

of any regulated chemical.
Figure 17 shows how the reportable quantity in barrels of a three salt

brine containing zinc bromide (ZnBr2) varies as the density goes up. As
174
DISPOSAL CHAPTER 7
can be seen in Figure 17, a release of as little as 10 bbl constitutes a

reportable release for all zinc containing brines with densities greater
than 16.0 lb/gal. This quantity decreases to approximately two bbl at a
AND
density of 19.2 lb/gal.

FIGURE 17. Estimated RQs for Zinc Fluids

(in barrels for three salt fluids containing zinc at different densities)
100
90
80
Reportable Quantity (bbl)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0
Brine Density (lb/gal)
Additive RQs
The following table provides a list of TETRA additive products containing
at least one ingredient with an established EPA reportable quantity. Keep
in mind that TETRA is continually developing new additives aimed at
solving corrosion, fluid loss, and production impairment issues. While
Table 49 provides a complete list of TETRA additives containing at least
one ingredient with an established EPA reportable quantity as of this
guide’s publication, the list may become outdated as new products are
introduced to the marketplace. Consult your TETRA representative
regarding reportable quantity information for the particular additive
package you select for your well.


TABLE 49. TETRA Additive RQ Information
TETRA
Additive Product Name RQ for Product1
Packaging
Unit lb gal
Acetic Acid 55 gal 570
Ammonium Chloride Dry Salt 50 lb 5,000
Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide) 50 lb 1,000
Caustic Potash (Potassium Hydroxide) 50 lb 1,000
CORSAF SF 5 gal, 55 gal 11,000
Hydrochloric Acid 55 gal 510
OxBan 5 gal 790
TETRAHib 5 gal, 55 gal 940
TETRAHib Plus 5 gal, 55 gal 250
TETRAVis Breaker 5 gal, 55 gal 75
1RQ for products are approximate and are based on 49 CFR 172.101 Appendix A
AND
Releases to the Environment and Notification
Requirements
DISPOSAL
Releases are spills or unplanned discharges. They are regulated by the
Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). Notification of a
release in excess of the Reportable Quantity is required. Notification
requirements (for releases) 40CFR 302.6 reads as follows:
Any person in charge of a vessel or an offshore or onshore facil-

ity shall, as soon as he has knowledge of any release (other than
a permitted release) of a hazardous substance from the facility in
a quantity equal to or exceeding the reportable quantity (RQ) in
any 24 hour period, notify the National Response Center at
800.424.8802.
Other agencies to be notified:

U.S. Federal Agencies
• U.S. Coast Guard
• U.S. Department of Interior Minerals Management Service (MMS)
Louisiana Agencies
• Department of Environmental Quality–Water Resources Control
Division
• Department of Public Safety
Texas Agencies
• The Railroad Commission of Texas (operations and waste)
176
AGENCY CONTACT INFORMATION CHAPTER 7
• Texas Commission on Environmental Quality

• Texas General Land Office (Oil Spill Response)
Addresses and phone numbers for some, but not all, regulatory agencies
are included in the following section.
Due to the number of involved agencies, many of which have overlap-

ping boundaries or authorities, as well as differing interpretations of
regulations, most companies working in oil and gas development have
departments established specifically to deal with environmental compli-
ance issues.
Agency Contact Information

Various regulatory agencies administer environmental programs that, in
one way or another, guide the activities of operators of oil and gas pro-
duction facilities. While not exhaustive, the following list should be of
some help when additional information is required. Information is cur-
rent as of February 1, 2006.
United States Federal Agencies

National Response Center
800.424.8802
U.S. EPA Region 6 Dallas

Regional Coverage: Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
1445 Ross Ave., Suite 1200
Dallas, Texas 75202-2733
http://epa.gov/region6
866.EPASPILL (866.372.7745)
Minerals Management Service (MMS)

U.S. Department of the Interior
Public Information Office
1201 Elmwood Park Blvd.
New Orleans, Louisiana 70123-2394
http://www.gomr.mms.gov
504.736.2504 (New Orleans District)

AGENCY CONTACT INFORMATION

U.S. Coast Guard
Coast Guard District Eight
Marine Safety Division
Hale Boggs Federal Bldg.
500 Poydras Street
New Orleans, Louisiana 70130
http://www.uscg.mil/d8
504.589.6271
State of Louisiana
Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality
Office of Environmental Compliance
P.O. Box 4312
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70821-4312
http://www.deq.state.la.us
225.342.1234 (24 Hour Notification Hotline)
State of Texas
Railroad Commission of Texas
P.O. Box 12967
Austin, Texas 78711-2967
www.rrc.state.tx.us
512.463.6788 (24 Hour Emergency Number)
Texas Commission on Environmental Quality

P.O. Box 13087
http://www.tceq.state.tx.us
800.832.8224 (Spill Reporting Hotline)
Texas General Land Office

1700 North Congress Ave., Suite 840
http://www.glo.state.tx.us
800.832.8224 (CHEMTEL)
178 CHAPTER 7
Notes:

Notes:
180 CHAPTER 7
Notes:

181
CHAPTER 8 Special Topics
Some readers may want additional information or more in depth discus-

sion of the subjects mentioned throughout this guide. In this chapter, spe-
cial topics that are of a critical nature are explored in more detail.

1. Crystallization Temperature
2. Corrosion Control
3. Displacement
4. Reduction of Fluid Loss
5. Filtration
6. Clarity
The crystallization temperature of a brine is the temperature at which a
solid phase begins to form, resulting in a mixture of solid particles and
solution. These solids may be salt crystals or water crystals (ice).
Figure 18 shows a typical crystallization temperature curve for a brine.

The system plotted in Figure 18 is CaCl2 – H2O. Note that the left side of
the curve slopes downward with increasing CaCl2 concentration levels.
This side of the curve is labeled Solution + Ice Crystals. It represents the
freezing point of the brine, where ice crystals would begin to form. The
right side of the curve is labeled Solution + Salt Crystals. It represents the
phase boundary of the brine, below which salt crystals begin to form.
The minimum point where the two curves intersect is known as the eutec-
tic point. It is the point at which the minimum crystallization temperature
can be realized. In essence, it is the lowest temperature at which a solid
free solution (brine) can exist.
www.tetratec.com
182
FIGURE 18. Crystallization Temperature — Aqueous Calcium Chloride
CaCl2 Fluid Density (lb/gal)
8.3 9.0 9.8 10.7 11.6

60
40
Solution
Temperature (°F)
20
ls
ysta
Eutectic Point (10.8 lb/gal)
0
lt Cr
Solution + Ice Crystals
+ Sa
-20
tion
-40
Solu
-60
0 10 20 30 40
CaCl2 Weight Percent (%)
Virtually all single salt brines have similar phase diagrams. In oilfield
applications, one is frequently operating on the right side of the eutectic
point. Because of this situation, it is the crystallization temperature that
should be the determining factor when selecting a clear brine fluid for a
completion/workover application.
FIGURE 19. Typical Crystallization Curve The crystallization

point is deter-
mined by cooling
a brine until salt
crystals form, and
recording temper-
atures at various
times during the
process. Figure 19
to the left shows a
typical cooling
curve for a brine.
Note the three
points along the
curve. First Crystal
to Appear (FCTA)
is the point at which salt crystals first form. The formation of salt crystals
generates a small amount of heat, which causes a slight rise in the solu-

SPECIAL TOPICS 183
tion’s temperature. This higher temperature corresponds to the true crys-
tallization temperature (TCT) of the brine.
Once crystals have formed, the brine can then be heated until all the
crystals are redissolved. The point on the curve which corresponds to the
temperature at which the salt goes back into solution is labeled Last
Crystal to Dissolve (LCTD). As a general rule, the TCT is the most com-
monly reported crystallization point. In practice, the TCT is extremely
valuable since it is a strong reflection of the composition of the brine. It
is, in fact, the most reliable and reproducible measure of the safe work-
ing limits of heavy brines. The measurement of TCT is governed by an
API protocol.
In the case of multisalt brines, the least soluble component will crystallize
at the TCT (Table 50). Thus, if a heavy brine is contaminated with minor
amounts of NaCl or KCl from formation brine or seawater, the TCT may
be shifted to a much higher temperature. This is due to the limited solu-
bility of NaCl and KCl in heavy brines. Although the brine at the altered
TCT may appear cloudy, it can be cooled to the original TCT with no fur-
ther crystallization occurring.
TABLE 50. Least Soluble Component in Multiple Salt Brines
Multiple Salt Brines Least Soluble Component

NaCl/CaCl2 NaCl
CaCl2/CaBr2 CaCl2
CaBr2/ZnBr2 CaBr2
CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 CaCl2
Formulation and Specification of Crystallization

Temperature
Single salt brines have a unique composition and TCT for a given density
fluid. Multisalt brines can be blended to a specific density several differ-
ent ways, giving rise to a range of TCT formulations. During formulation
and the specification of the crystallization temperature of a brine, a TCT
should be chosen that is below the minimum expected average ambient
temperature. In the case of deepwater applications, the mudline temper-
ature will almost always be the minimum temperature for the entire circu-
lating system. The use of FCTA or LCTD for fluid specification is
discouraged. If FCTA is used as the specification, the TCT would be
higher than the ambient temperature and would not provide adequate
protection against crystallization. Using LCTD would result in a TCT well
below average ambient temperature, which would result in the brine
being more expensive than necessary.
184
The TCT of a brine is a critical use parameter for several reasons. First, if
crystals form at the surface, the density of the resulting solution is low-
ered, which can result in pressure control problems. Second, if the TCT is
not below ambient temperature, valves and lines can plug quickly, which
can cause costly delays in operations. Third, getting the TCT right initially
is important because adjusting the TCT at the well site is both costly and
time consuming.
Pressurized Crystallization Temperature

TCT is a measure of crystallization temperature under atmospheric pres-
sure. For most applications, the effect of pressure on solubility is slight.
However, the effect of pressure can be significant under conditions
involving a combination of high pressure and low temperature such as in
deepwater applications at seabed or when pressure testing in colder cli-
mates. Under these conditions, some brines may crystallize at a temper-
ature higher than the expected TCT, possibly varying by as much as
20°F. Therefore, the pressurized crystallization temperature (PCT) behav-
ior of the brine should be known prior to usage. Unexpected crystalliza-
tion could have disastrous results. At the mudline, where temperatures
are lowest, choke or kill lines can plug and valves can seize, jeopardiz-
ing operations. Removal of crystals deposited during pressure testing in
the BOP stack or in other locations where circulation is poor can be
extremely difficult.
As a general rule, if the composition or density of the brine is repre-

sented by a point on the equilibrium curve to the right of the ice-salt
eutectic, an increase in pressure will raise the TCT of the brine solution.
Recall that salt precipitates at low temperatures for compositions or den-
sities to the right of the ice-salt eutectic point (Figure 18). On the other
hand, ice, rather than salt, precipitates for compositions represented by
points to the left of the eutectic. A change in volume caused by elevated
pressure can lead to a more concentrated solution from which salt will
precipitate.
PCT Generalizations
Referring to the crystallization temperature versus weight percent curve
in Figure 18:
• The TCT of brines at concentrations greater than the density
corresponding to the minimum TCT (to the right of the eutectic point)
will be raised by higher pressures in the well, i.e., PCT>TCT.
• The TCT of brines of lower concentrations than the eutectic will be
lowered as more pressure is applied to the brine, i.e., PCT<TCT. In
Figure 18, these low density brines are shown in the area to the left of
the eutectic.

SPECIAL TOPICS 185
CORROSION CONTROL
TETRA was the first service company to recognize the potential impor-
tance of PCT measurement and to develop the technology enabling such
measurement.
If you are contemplating a deepwater or subsea completion, learn more

; about PCT by talking with your TETRA representative and have your fluid
tested at TETRA’s Technology Center to ensure the formulation of your
brine has been adjusted for the effects of PCT.
Corrosion Control
Corrosion Overview
Corrosion involves the loss of metal, usually iron, to its environment. If
conditions are nonoxidizing, this dissolved iron may remain in solution
in the form of ferrous iron, imparting a green tint to the CBF. However, if
conditions are oxidizing, the dissolved iron may further oxidize to the
ferric ion, which will commonly form reddish brown ferric hydroxide and
cause formation damage.
In the corrosion process, the metal loses electrons and some other spe-
cies—such as an oxygen molecule or a hydrogen ion—accepts them.
The site where the loss of electrons takes place is called the anode. The
site where the electrons are accepted is called the cathode. These sites
are often at different locations on the metal with the electrons being
shunted through the metal as shown in Figure 20.
For electron migration to occur, two other aspects are needed: (1) a con-
ductive phase, in this case the metal and (2) an electrolyte, which acts as
a medium for the electrolytic reactions and facilitates the removal of the
corrosion products from the corroding surface.
For corrosion to take place, these four components of the corrosion sys-
tem must coexist:
1. an anode—a susceptible area on the metal surface,
2. a cathode—oxygen or other electron acceptor,
3. a conductive path—the body of the tubing or casing, and
4. an electrolyte—field brine or CBF.
186
FIGURE 20. The Corrosion Process
OH–
H
+2
Fe O2
H+
H2
2e–
Anode Fe Cathode
Area Area
Anode:
Solubilization of Fe as Fe+2
Cathode:
Electron (e–) migrates to acceptor (O2), reacting to give hydroxide ion (OH–), or
Electron (e–) migrates to acceptor (H+), reacting to give hydrogen (H or H2)
An important facet of inhibiting or minimizing corrosion is controlling

the electrode processes—the phenomena occurring at the anode and
cathode. If these processes can be interrupted in some manner, the cor-
rosion rate will be dramatically reduced. Since the anode and cathode
reactions depend on one another, any means which hinders either reac-
tion will also hinder the corrosion. Removing or reducing the effective
concentrations of one or more of the reactants will accomplish this.
One can decrease corrosion by covering the surface of the metal with a
physical barrier such as a chemical coating or by reducing the reactivity
of the iron by what is called passivation.
Inhibiting the cathodic reaction is accomplished by reducing the concen-

trations of corrosion accelerators such as oxygen molecules, hydrogen
ions, and other metallic ions.
The cathodic reaction can be interrupted by:

1. keeping oxygen out of the system,
2. reducing the concentration of hydrogen ions by increasing the system
pH, and
3. removing accelerators like ferric ions.
Oxygen Control
The addition of one of TETRA’s oxygen scavengers, like OxBan or OxBan
HB, can reduce corrosion dramatically by limiting the reaction of oxygen
at the cathode—less oxygen, less reaction. With respect to corrosion
control, oxygen can be entrained in brine fluids and pumped as small

SPECIAL TOPICS 187
CORROSION CONTROL
bubbles (or foam) during recirculation and filtration procedures. There-
fore, generation of foam during these operations should be minimized.
Additionally, small amounts of an oxygen scavenger can be added con-
tinuously just before the fluid goes downhole. More effective corrosion
inhibition is achieved by employing a combination of one of the oxygen
scavengers and a corrosion inhibitor like TETRAHib or TETRAHib Plus.
If the fluid is not under pressure, oxygen solubility in brines is reduced

with an increase in temperature. However, with applied pressure, oxy-
gen cannot escape from the fluid as the temperature rises.
Oxygen control is extremely important in minimizing environmentally

assisted cracking. Consequently, the scavenger and treatment level must
be chosen carefully. For more information, see “Environmentally Assisted
Cracking” on page 189.
OxBan should not be used with calcium or zinc containing brine fluids
Ì
! and should be avoided with CRAs. OxBan HB is an excellent alternative
that avoids potential precipitation and acidity issues.
Hydrogen Ion Reduction

The hydrogen ion is a corrosion accelerator, and the concentration of
hydrogen ions can be controlled during the manufacturing process. All
TETRA clear brine fluids are carefully monitored to control pH during
manufacturing.
Other Contributors to a Corrosive Environment

• High Pressure/High Temperature
• Scale (e.g., CaCO3, CaSO4, FeS, ZnS)
• Sulfur Producing Species/Bacteria (e.g., H2S sources)
• Metallurgy
• Stress
• Mechanical Deformations/Crevices
Major Types of Corrosion

Corrosion is a complex subject involving a broad spectrum of materials,
chemistries, and practices. A brief discussion of some of the more perti-
nent types of corrosion follows. Two major types of corrosion are general
(or uniform) corrosion and localized corrosion. These are discussed in
the following sections.
188
General Corrosion
Uniform or general corrosion is corrosion that is uniformly or widely dis-
tributed across the surface of the metal. With the loss of metal occurring
across a large (if not the entire) surface of the metal, uniform corrosion
rates are much higher than local corrosion rates. Perhaps the most seri-
ous general corrosion type, since it is often not anticipated, is galvanic
corrosion, which occurs due to the interfacing of two different metals.
The potential or galvanic difference between the two metals—the ease
with which they give up electrons—induces a cathodic/anodic reaction
between the two metals.
Localized Corrosion
Localized corrosion is corrosion that is confined to small, specific sites on
the surface of the metal. This type, although limited to a small region,
can be especially insidious. Localized corrosion can proceed inward
from the surface of the metal. In extreme cases, it can ultimately lead to
cracking or failure of the metal. Localized corrosion, which leads to
small dot-like regions or cavities on the surface of the metal, is called pit-
ting. Pitting may have serious consequences, since corrosion may easily
continue deeper into the metal, owing to the development of a concen-
tration cell.
More specific types of localized corrosion are described in detail below,

including:
• Concentration Cell Corrosion (crevice, etc.)
• Hydrogen Embrittlement (hydrogen induced cracking)
• Environmentally Assisted Cracking
Concentration Cell Corrosion

Concentration cell corrosion results from differences in electrical poten-
tial that develop due to differences in the concentration of dissolved ions
in CBFs. This is perhaps the most common type of corrosion because,
invariably, small concentration differences exist in different locations
throughout the fluid due to factors like temperature variations and mix-
ing limitations. Crevice corrosion is a specific type of concentration cell
corrosion that results from different concentrations of species inside and
outside the crevice. The key species are often oxygen or hydrogen, but
they can also be nonreactive ions. Corrosion due to concentration differ-
ences can be severe in the bottom of a pit or cavity.
Hydrogen Embrittlement—Hydrogen Induced Cracking

Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) results from the migration of hydrogen
atoms from the metal surface into the metal lattice, followed by the

SPECIAL TOPICS 189
CORROSION CONTROL
recombination of hydrogen atoms to form hydrogen gas. The gas either
causes blistering on the metal surface or induces cracking along weak
matrix elements, such as inclusions or grain boundaries. The probability
of induced cracking can be enhanced by stress, leading to a stacking of
cracks, transgranular cracking, and possible tubing failure. Reduced
acidity and reduced sulfur content decreases the metal’s susceptibility to
hydrogen induced cracking.
Environmentally Assisted Cracking

The term, environmentally assisted cracking (EAC), encompasses all of
the forms of stress corrosion, whether such corrosion is induced by
hydrogen embrittlement, chlorides, other halides, or sulfides. To initiate
EAC, three essential conditions must be present: (1) stress in the tubing,
(2) a sensitive metallurgy, and (3) a corrosive environment. Minimizing
the potential for catastrophic failure in today’s HPHT wells is a difficult
challenge, because all three conditions necessary to initiate EAC are
often present in such wells.
It should be noted that the tensile stress needed to induce cracking and
potential tubing failure can be substantially below the metal’s indicated
tensile strength. Moreover, the stresses that may contribute to a cracking
event can come from either the external forces acting on the pipe, such
as the mechanical stresses generated as a result of its service in the well,
or from internal stresses residual from any of the metal’s manufacturing
processes, such as cold working, drawing, rolling, or annealing. Crack-
ing is not normally accompanied by general corrosion of the tubing’s
surfaces; instead, it often emanates from deep invasive pitting. In some
cases, the propagation of cracking can be extremely rapid with cata-
strophic failure occurring in as little as a few days. However, cata-
strophic failure can also take months or even years to occur.
The use of corrosion resistant alloys has markedly increased with the
growth in drilling HPHT wells. Where general corrosion was the concern
with carbon steel tubing, environmentally assisted cracking has become
the blight of the stainless steels. The austenitic 300-series stainless alloys,
such as 304 SS and 316L SS, are particularly susceptible to EAC. Even
the normally greater corrosion resistant martensitic 13 chrome and
duplex (ferritic/martensitic) chrome alloys have experienced failure
when stressed in company with certain corrosive fluids. The threat of
EAC has become a significant problem since most of the CRA materials
in use today are martensitic 13 chrome alloys of various composition.
Many of the tubing failures in the last five to 10 years have been attrib-
uted to stress cracking or EAC that has been induced by the corrosive
environment in the annulus (from the back or packer fluid side). This type
of cracking can more precisely be termed annular environmentally
190
assisted cracking (AEAC) to distinguish it from the EAC that is induced

by the production fluids on the inside of the tubing.
EAC or AEAC events are usually categorized as being either of two

types: (1) stress corrosion cracking (SCC) or (2) sulfide stress cracking
(SSC). By examining crack patterns and debris deposited in cracks, met-
allurgists can often identify the cracking type. In some cases, however,
the cracking mechanism appears to involve a blend of the two. Over-
views of these two types are provided in the following section:
Stress Corrosion Cracking. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC), often

referred to as halide or chloride stress cracking, depends upon a variety
of factors such as the metallurgy; the pH; concentration levels of CO2,
oxygen, and sulfur; the temperature; the halide (chloride or bromide)
content; and applied or residual stresses. As a general rule, the suscepti-
bility for this type of cracking increases with higher oxygen content,
increased halide concentration, and elevated temperature. In view of the
complexity of the interaction of these factors, TETRA does not specify
general halide concentration maximums, but takes a total system
approach to minimizing this type of corrosion.
With respect to pH, the presence of high concentrations of chloride or

bromide ions can locally enhance the acid concentration by reaction of
the halide ions with metal ions in crevices or under scale. Such concen-
tration effects can then initiate concentration cell corrosion and pitting—
the latter often being the genesis of cracking. For additional discussion of
the effect of the halide ion, see “Salinity Concentration“ in the “Key Cor-
rosion Factors” section, beginning on page 191.
Sulfide Stress Cracking. Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) results from the
presence of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the fluid environment. This toxic
gas elevates the acidity of the fluid, increasing its corrosivity. It also sup-
plies a sulfide ion that can either be readily oxidized to elemental sulfur
or can react with various heavy metals to precipitate metal sulfide scale.
The insolubility of the sulfides and elemental sulfur can lead to localized
corrosion or concentration cell corrosion with high acid concentrations
being trapped under the solid deposits. Sulfur is invariably found in
association with high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide. Moreover,
hydrogen sulfide has been found to react with elemental sulfur to form a
particularly corrosive species.
SSC is a specialized form of hydrogen induced cracking or embrittle-

ment. The presence of H2S promotes the movement of hydrogen atoms
from the metal’s surface into the metal’s matrix. This induces the hydro-
gen atoms to form hydrogen gas (H2) at points of stress in the metal, for
instance, at the grain boundary or at an inclusion in the metal’s matrix,

SPECIAL TOPICS 191
CORROSION CONTROL
which can then lead to cracking. The hydrogen embrittlement component
is more prominent in the carbon and low alloy steels than in the marten-
sitic CRA steels. As a general rule with low alloy steels, reducing the
acidity will inhibit SSC. High temperatures will also lower the chance for
SSC. Maximum susceptibility for SSC in martensitic stainless steels occurs
at approximately 68°F.
Fluid/Metal Compatibility Testing—MatchWell Fluid

Compatibility Selector
Because the use of CRA tubular materials is a relatively new practice,
there is little empirical data to draw upon when making completion deci-
sions. Most of the conventional wisdom on the matter comes from the
extrapolation of data from conventional completions, miscellaneous
observations of failures, and a minimum of test data. In an effort to bet-
ter serve our customers, TETRA has participated in extensive testing to
learn more about AEAC and how to reduce its probability.
In this research effort, TETRA has conducted comprehensive matrix test-

ing under a variety of downhole conditions: e.g., select chrome tubing
under high stresses, temperatures up to 400°F, typical completion and
packer fluids across the full density range from 9.0 lb/gal to 19.2 lb/
gal. The testing also examined the impact contamination from corrosive
gases and other materials would have. Using the test findings, TETRA
created the MatchWell fluid compatibility selector, which can be used to
match any tested CRA tubing metallurgies with TETRA CBFs. This com-
puter program provides cracking susceptibilities indices (CSIs) for vari-
ous metallurgy and fluid combinations. The MatchWell program allows
TETRA to provide operators with the information and opportunity to
select tubing and fluids that have been tested and matched for optimal
performance and cost effectiveness.
Key Corrosion Factors

With respect to AEAC, careful attention must also be given to several
properties of the CBFs. Four factors are of primary importance: (1) the
salinity concentration, (2) the oxygen content, (3) the pH, and (4) the
presence of CO2, H2S, or sulfide levels.
Salinity Concentration. The salinity, or halide concentration, is signifi-

cant to the potential for AEAC, particularly stress corrosion cracking, in
that it is implicated in the formation of localized corrosion (pitting). As
this corrosive process proceeds, due to the presence of halides, very low
pH can be developed within the pit, leading to more severe pitting and
possibly to cracking of the metal. Although there have been attempts to
assign definitively safe halide concentrations for corrosion resistance,
192
this practice is best avoided, since TETRA’s test findings point to the
importance of other minor variables such as contaminants, metallurgical
variations, and other unexpected factors as contributive to SCC.
Chlorides, and not bromides, are frequently implicated in SCC events.

However, our testing indicates that, in certain conditions, bromide fluids
can exhibit SCC, while fluids containing chlorides can perform excep-
tionally well.
For a given metallurgy and stress level, the halide ion concentration that
becomes pernicious with respect to stress cracking depends on tempera-
ture and the concentration of CO2 and/or H2S. At temperatures of
~200°F and greater, the potential for cracking becomes highly depen-
dent on the halide concentration. Regardless of the halide concentration,
increased hydrogen sulfide and/or CO2 intensifies the potential for
cracking.
Oxygen Content. There is no indicated minimum limit for oxygen con-

tent that will ensure that there is no risk of AEAC. Cracking has been
reported in fluids with less than 0.5 ppm oxygen; however, our extensive
testing suggests the detrimental influence of other substances in these
failures. This conclusion stems from the fact that, in a number of our tests,
high levels of oxygen were present but no failures occurred. In general,
many studies have concluded that minimizing oxygen content in the fluid
is advisable. The combination of oxygen with H2S, or more significantly
the S-2 (or HS-1) ion found in neutral to alkaline H2S solutions, is espe-
cially dangerous with respect to AEAC.
Due to the potential for pitting and severe localized corrosion, strict oxy-
gen control by the application of oxygen scavengers should be viewed
as imperative to AEAC inhibition. As a general rule, it is always advis-
able to ensure that oxygen scavenger levels are optimized during final
circulation prior to setting the packer.
pH. At low pH (pH <7), the hydrogen ion (H+) can be converted at
cathodic sites to atomic or molecular hydrogen and, coupled with stress,
can lead to HIC. Additionally, at low pH, highly localized, strongly
acidic sites can develop and lead to pitting. As a consequence, the pH of
the brines should be kept alkaline (pH >7), if possible, to prevent these
occurrences.
CO2, H2S, or Sulfide Level. It is important to minimize the H2S or sulfide

level to avoid the formation of sulfur and related species at pitted sites.
The use of sulfide scavengers or biocides to inhibit sulfate reduction can
be enormously helpful. Similarly, an increase in CO2 concentration also

SPECIAL TOPICS 193
DISPLACEMENT
heightens the potential for cracking. The most likely influence of the CO2
is its propensity to lower the pH of the fluid environment.
Metallurgical Issues
Acting on generalizations about metallurgies that will resist AEAC can
be dangerous. Our testing program has identified a number of combina-
tions of chrome tubing and CBFs that are compatible in the harshest of
downhole conditions. Higher chrome or other exotic alloyed materials
are often selected for use with the hope that these will be impervious to
the assault of halide ions and other corrosive substances. Testing, how-
ever, has shown that this practice does not always result in the best tech-
nical solution; it also can be very expensive.
Even at high temperatures and in the presence of known corrosion

enhancers like H2S and oxygen, lower order CRAs and chloride fluids
can perform as well as exotic alloys and bromide fluids. In many cases,
small concentrations of contaminants, formerly considered insignificant,
contribute to AEAC. Often, it is a combination of two or more factors
working synergistically to the metal’s demise. TETRA’s comprehensive
matrix testing has identified many significant factors that can provide
guidance when making completion decisions and selecting materials.
Displacement
The term, displacement, as it pertains to the transition from drilling to
completion operations, has come to encompass the entire process of
removing the solid laden drilling fluid and replacing it with a solid free
completion fluid. In reality, there are three separate processes involved in
a successful displacement:
1. removal of the bulk of the drilling fluid from the wellbore,
2. wellbore cleanup during which the remainder of the drilling fluid resi-
due is removed, and
3. installation of the solid free completion fluid.
An efficient displacement completely removes the mud from the well-

bore, maintains the integrity of both the brine and the mud, establishes a
solid free environment, and minimizes filtration time. All of these criteria
must be met in the most cost efficient manner.
Ì
! It is imperative that incompatible fluids always be separated.
194
Heavy brines are incompatible with water based and oil based muds.
This incompatibility can produce a viscous, unpumpable mass due to
flocculation of the mud by high salt content of the brines. Should this
reaction take place downhole during the displacement, the friction pres-
sures will increase dramatically. As additional commingling takes place,
a point may be reached where pumping operations have to be sus-
pended due to excessive downhole casing, tubing, or pump pressures.
The contamination of completion fluids by solid laden drilling fluids can
result in the inability to process the fluid through filtration equipment,
making it impossible to maintain the required solid free environment.
Displacement Methods
Generally, there are two techniques available to achieve a successful dis-
placement. These methods are referred to as indirect displacement and
direct displacement.
Indirect Displacement. The indirect displacement method displaces the

mud using water. Seawater is circulated downhole one time and is dis-
carded upon its return to the surface. This rinsing process continues until
drilling mud residue in the returns is minimal. At this point, one or more
chemical sweeps are circulated through the hole. These sweeps are
designed to dislodge any drilling mud that remains on the surfaces of the
wellbore. Once this residue has been dislodged from the surfaces, vis-
cous fluid is circulated through the wellbore to aid in its removal from the
well. Indirect displacements yield good results at low cost. However, sev-
eral factors can limit their application, including:
• an inadequate supply of available water,
• an inability to discharge water due to environmental regulations (zero
discharge),
• discharge volume limitations,
• environmental contaminant levels,
• pressure and integrity considerations, and
• rig time cost.
Direct Displacement. A direct displacement differs from an indirect dis-

placement in that it accomplishes all three displacement processes in one
circulation or sequence. In effect, you are able to go directly from the
drilling fluid, into the cleanup system, and then into the completion fluid
without the interruption of a rinsing process, which can be time consum-
ing. Some of the benefits of a direct displacement are: minimizing rig
time spent in pumping, reducing generated waste, and maintaining
required wellbore pressures.

SPECIAL TOPICS 195
DISPLACEMENT
There are five major points to consider prior to conducting direct dis-
placement operations:
1. chemical displacement system design,
2. condition of surface equipment,
3. predisplacement condition of mud,
4. condition of flow path, and
5. pressure differentials.
Chemical Displacement Systems

TETRA’s highly engineered chemical displacement systems are designed
to disperse solids and water wet all metal surfaces. Components of the
system can be designed for indirect or direct displacement of water
based, diesel oil based, and synthetic oil based muds.
TDSP Displacement System

The TDSP spacer system requires the pumping of a minimum of three
spacers. Each spacer is specifically designed by your TETRA fluids spe-
cialist to perform one of the three displacement processes and maintain
compatibility with the fluids it contacts.
TETRA developed this multistage system to separate the drilling fluid from
the brine. The system consists of the TDSP I weighted spacer, the TDSP II
surfactant wash, and the TDSP III viscosified sweep. The overriding
design consideration for this system is to maintain compatibility of all flu-
ids which contact each other.
TDSP I. The mud displacement stage, TDSP I is a weighted spacer

designed to act as a piston within the wellbore to push the drilling fluid
ahead of it. A TDSP I weighted spacer relies on yield point, gel strength,
density, and apparent viscosity to maintain its integrity as it travels
through the wellbore. By acting as a piston, the TDSP I pill effectively
prevents the channeling of fluids.
TDSP II. The surfactant wash stage, TDSP II is a turbulent flow spacer
with concentrated surfactants that is specifically designed for the mud
type. This stage works to disperse any residual mud from the tubular sur-
faces. The TDSP II spacer is designed to provide a minimum of 2,000
feet of coverage and a minimum of 10 minutes contact time in the largest
annular section of the wellbore. While maximum pumping rates are
often limited by pump capabilities, an annular velocity of 180 ft/min is
recommended in each annular interval.
Another essential design factor in the TDSP II spacer is to ensure that suf-
ficient TDSP II is available to incorporate the entire volume of anticipated
196
drilling mud residue that may be present. In some cases, this consider-
ation overrides the annular coverage and contact time recommendations
mentioned above. This consideration requires extensive testing of the
TDSP II spacer for its maximum residue capacity. It is always desirable to
perform these tests on a sample of the mud from the wellbore for which
you are planning the displacement.
TDSP III. The viscosified sweep stage, TDSP III is the spacer used between
the surfactant wash spacer and the CBF. This stage is designed to remove
any residual materials that are dispersed by the surfactant wash and to
provide warning of the returning brine. This warning allows time for per-
sonnel to divert returns once the spacer system has been circulated out of
the well. Like TDSP I, TDSP III should exhibit rheological properties that
allow it to maintain its integrity while traveling through the wellbore. This
integrity is essential in minimizing the commingling of the TDSP III and
the CBF. Individual stage volumes shown in Table 51 are designed with
three goals in mind:
1. to allow physical separation to protect brine from mud contamination,
2. to provide sufficient contact time for efficient cleaning of the wellbore,
and
3. to carry residual solids out of the wellbore.
TABLE 51. TDSP Displacement System
Guidelines for Individual Spacer Stage Annular Coverage

Stage Feet1 Contact Time (min)
TDSP I 1,000 5
TDSP II 2,000 >10
TDSP III 1,000 5
1Recommended feet of coverage in largest annular volume in well

SPECIAL TOPICS 197
DISPLACEMENT
TETRAClean Displacement System
Environmental regulations in some oil and gas provinces, such as the
North Sea, may suggest the TETRAClean™ displacement system. This
alternative product has found wide acceptance because:
1. it is a one pill-one pit system that conserves scarce pit capacity on off-
shore platforms,
2. it consists of components that have earned a Gold designation in
accordance with Chemical Hazard Assessment and Risk Management
(CHARM) regulations promulgated by the OSPAR Commission for the
Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, and
3. the recommended higher annular velocity used in TETRAClean dis-
placements results in a much shorter displacement time.
One Pill–One Pit. As pit volume is a scarce commodity on any offshore

platform, the TETRAClean displacement system was designed around the
concept of one pill-one pit. The TETRAClean displacement pill is typically
made up in the range of 200 to 250 bbl. In actual practice, the volume is
designed around achieving a contact time of 10 minutes. For maximum
benefits, a minimum annular velocity of 250 ft/min is recommended (if
practiceable) to promote the scouring and suspending action associated
with highly turbulent flow. This higher annular velocity has the added
benefit of shortening the time of displacement operations.
In monovalent brines, such as those based on sodium or potassium salts,

the TETRAClean pill is mixed in a volume of working brine that has been
viscosified with TETRA BioPol viscosifier. A yield point of more than 50
lb/100ft2 is recommended for the viscosified pill. The two active compo-
nents are TETRAClean 105 surfactant and TETRAClean 106 activator.
In calcium based fluids, TETRAVis L HEC viscosifier is the preferred vis-

cosifying agent. In those cases, TETRAClean 105 surfactant is used
alone, but at a higher dosage rate because of the chelating tendency of
TETRAClean 106 activator toward divalent ions.
Environmentally Friendly. Offshore oil and gas activities in the North

Sea are guided by stringent environmental regulations. Under the inter-
nationally recognized OSPAR Commission, all chemicals used must com-
ply with standards set under the CHARM program. TETRAClean 105
surfactant has earned a Gold designation under this classification sys-
tem. TETRAClean 106 activator has been shown to “present little or no
risk” (PLONOR) of environmental damage.
General Applications. The TETRAClean one pill displacement system can

be run after water based, diesel oil based, or synthetic oil based drilling
fluids, provided a compatible spacer is run between the mud and the
TETRAClean pill. Recommended practice for the TETRAClean pill involves
198
circulating down the working string. Wells with large or abrupt changes
in diameter may require special attention to ensure that mud residue is
not left on the shoulder of the liner top. Additional cleaning action may
be accomplished with a bypass circulating tool (e.g., TETRA’s Selective
Rotation Circulating Tool) to ensure there is adequate fluid circulation at
the liner top.
The principles of good displacement outlined in the following sections

are equally important when using either of TETRA’s chemical displace-
ment systems.
Displacement Modeling Software

When planning displacement operations for our customers, TETRA uses
modeling software to determine product applications and whether high
pressure pumping equipment may be required. The software programs
and their uses are explained below.
CV-Pro™ circulating volume and displacement modeling software is

used to calculate well volumes and displacement data (i.e., spacer vol-
umes, spacer coverage, and spacer contact time as a function of pump
rate), which are values used in well displacements. The program also
calculates surface area, individual well capacity, and annular velocities.
The CV-Pro program is also useful in providing information necessary
for spotting balanced plugs or pills. Additionally, the program is a useful
tool when planning the minimum pill volume and the necessary pump
rate for optimal displacement spacer performance.
DIS-Pro™ hydraulic modeling software is used to model a specific dis-

placement operation and provide detailed information on anticipated
pump pressures, hydraulic horsepower requirements, equivalent circulat-
ing densities, and other pressure calculations in a displacement timeline
format. The program is designed to simulate all configurations of the
wellbore, as well as forward and reverse fluid circulation options,
bypass flow (downhole bypass circulating valves), and two stage open-
hole displacements at all given pump rates. The DIS-Pro program can
also calculate a backpressure schedule to maintain a constant bottom-
hole pressure when necessary. The program will also identify freefall
events and calculate downhole pressure losses. A DIS-Pro simulation is
recommended to optimize and define appropriate displacement opera-
tion parameters.
Condition of Surface Equipment

Prior to the arrival of the brine at the rig site, personnel should be
directed to check the cleanliness of the fluid handling tanks, flowlines,
pump suction, manifolds, and gun lines. There should be no visible

SPECIAL TOPICS 199
DISPLACEMENT
water, dirt, rust, or scale deposits. Pressure washers and surfactants
should be employed to thoroughly clean all surfaces. The surfactant used
should be chosen on the basis of being the most effective for the particu-
lar drilling mud involved.
It is also important to check for possible leaks at hose connections, dump

valves, tank inspection plates, pumps, flowlines, and bell nipples. Some
completion fluids are considered marine pollutants and must not be
released into the environment. In these cases, all dump valves should be
closed. Secondary sealing methods (for example, applying silicone
sealer or welding the valves) are recommended. Valve handles should be
locked out and tagged out to prevent inadvertent opening.
All active pits should be covered. Fully enclosed tanks are essential for
spike fluid storage due to the hygroscopic nature of high density brines.
Sources of water, such as hoses, drains, sinks, and water addition lines,
should also be locked out and tagged out. Other sources, such as eye
wash stations, should be checked regularly for leaks, and repairs should
be made as they become necessary.
The condition of surface equipment must be given serious consideration.

In many cases, the completion fluid system represents a substantial
investment. Any preventative action which costs less than the value of the
fluid system or the cost to remove contamination is always justified.
Predisplacement Condition of Mud

Prior to displacement operations, the drilling fluid should be circulated a
minimum of one annular volume (bottoms up) and the properties
checked. Regardless of the mud type, good rheological properties are of
the utmost importance. In addition to optimum mud properties, recent
movement of the mud is essential.
Oil based muds generally maintain good rheological properties and sel-
dom present any problems. A good mud check after circulating one
annular volume (bottoms up) is still recommended to verify acceptable
rheological properties.
Condition of Flowpath
Mud mobility is essential to a successful displacement. Obviously, the
first thing to do is to obtain circulation to the required depth. If the mud is
in good condition, it may only be necessary to circulate several hole
cycles to distribute the solids. In less than ideal circumstances, it may be
necessary to wash through or even drill out settled solids. If at all possi-
ble, the mud should be circulated until the displacement begins. Clean-
ing rig pits prior to introducing completion fluids into them may take
200
many hours. During this time, even the best muds may develop high gel
strengths or barite settling may occur in the wellbore.
The most effective and least expensive method of removing mud solids
from tubular goods is to use TETRA’s specially designed scraper and
brush tools. While going in the hole, these tools physically disrupt the fil-
ter cake that forms in the wellbore. This mechanical removal eases the
burden on the TDSP II surfactant sweep. After the completion fluid has
been circulated into the wellbore, it is advisable to short trip (re-scrape)
the wellbore to remove any residual mud materials. This step should then
be followed by circulation and filtration of the completion fluid.
Pressure Differentials
DIS-Pro hydraulic modeling software can be used by fluids specialists to
analyze displacement hydraulics so that pressure differentials can be
minimized through proper adjustment of individual spacer densities
and/or rheology. Minimizing excessive pressure differentials is impor-
tant, as they can interrupt pumping due to elevated pump pressures or
tubular strength limitations.
Another point regarding pressure differentials relates to displacing a

light fluid with a heavier fluid. As the fluid enters the wellbore, the
heavier fluid may force the lighter fluid from the hole more rapidly than
good judgment would dictate. This u-tube effect should be controlled by
maintaining back pressure with the choke. If this is not done, interfacial
losses tend to be high due to poor fluid hydraulics. This situation often
results in density loss as well. Fluid economics aside, safety is compro-
mised any time the wellbore is not under control.
Factors Influencing Displacement Efficiency
Rheology
The rheology of the mud and the spacer system is a major factor affect-
ing displacement efficiency. Consider the behavior of a fluid flowing
through a pipe. If the velocity of the fluid is very low, individual particles
of fluid tend to move in straight lines parallel to the direction of flow. The
flowing fluid consists of very thin, cylindrical layers of fluid concentric
with the tubing walls. These layers, or lamina, give rise to the term lami-
nar flow.
The particles of fluid in an individual layer move at the same velocity.

However, the different layers will ordinarily move at different velocities.
Theoretically, the layer next to the wall is stationary, layers close to the
wall move slowly, while those close to the center move more rapidly. If

SPECIAL TOPICS 201
DISPLACEMENT
you think of the layers as sliding by one another, the relative velocity
between two adjacent layers is known as the shear rate.
Fluid tends to resist having its individual layers move at different speeds.
The resistive force that a layer offers to prevent nearby layers from slid-
ing by is called the shear stress. At higher velocities, fluid is not ordi-
narily in laminar flow. Instead, individual particles tend to bounce and
tumble along in an almost random way. This type of flow is called turbu-
lent flow.
When very low velocities are combined with relatively high viscosities, a
situation occurs whereby the fluid flow almost resembles a solid. Particles
tend to remain relatively stationary with respect to one another, and the
fluid travels down the tubing as an almost solid mass. This occurrence is
called plug flow.
The removal of solids from casing walls by scrubbing action is best

; accomplished by highly turbulent flow. High velocity is characterized by
high turbulence and good scrubbing action. A velocity of 180 ft/min in
the largest annular section of pipe is recommended.
In order for the various spacers in the TDSP system to work properly, it is
imperative that the drilling fluid rheology be controlled. In simplistic
terms, the yield point is a measure of the ability of a fluid to hold
together under applied stress. Ideally, we reduce the yield point of the
mud to the bare minimum that is required to support barite. If the yield
point of the mud removal spacer is less than the yield point of the mud,
then the spacer will channel through the mud and hole cleaning capabil-
ity will be severely reduced.
Direction of Circulation
Another major factor affecting displacement efficiency is the direction or
type of circulation employed. The densities of the brine and the fluid
being displaced influence the flow path to be used. The lighter fluid
should be above the heavier fluid in the annulus. Under static conditions,
high density fluids tend to sink through low density fluids due to the effect
of gravity. Because of this, even with spacers to separate incompatible
fluids, intermingling and flocculation is possible.
Reverse circulation offers several advantages over standard circulation

when conditions permit. The direction of the flow path is a primary fac-
tor in determining individual stage volumes. When reversing, higher
fluid velocities in the tubing prevent solids from slipping back down the

202
wellbore by maximizing the lifting capacity of the fluid. Therefore, less

physical separation is required.
Whenever possible, the lead spacer should be 0.5 lb/gal to 1.0 lb/gal
heavier than the mud being displaced.
Wellbore Eccentricity FIGURE 21. Wellbore Eccentricity

Wellbore eccentricity occurs
when the working string passes
through a section of cased hole
that deviates from the vertical
axis. Virtually all wellbores
have some deviation; some of
this deviation is intentional and
some is not. The number of
deviations and the severity of
the individual deviations will
greatly affect the displacement.
If a typical vertical wellbore

profile is examined, where no
individual deviation angle is
greater than 3°, it is apparent
that even with the small amount
of vertical deviation, hundreds
of feet of working string are in
contact with the casing. The
casing/working string inter-
face causes static mud stringers
that are extremely difficult to
remove.
The degree of eccentricity in the annulus is defined by the term percent

standoff. When the working string is perfectly centered in the wellbore,
the percent standoff is 100%. If a working string creates an annulus with
a one inch gap when centered and is then set off 0.5 inches from the
casing wall, the resulting annulus has a 50% standoff. Percent standoff
decreases as the eccentricity in the annulus increases. Percent standoff
and displacement efficiency are directly related. As percent standoff
decreases from 100% with all other parameters kept constant, the dis-
placement efficiency decreases and larger spacers are required.
Pipe Movement
The ideal situation would be to centralize the working string, but this is
not typically done in practice. Rotation of the working string is an effec-

SPECIAL TOPICS 203
REDUCTION
tive alternative. By rotating slowly during the displacement, mud chan-
nels can be broken up and removed efficiently.
OF
It is not uncommon to be unable to rotate the pipe when rigged up for
FLUID LOSS
reverse circulation. Reverse circulation requires either the Hydril® or pipe
rams to be closed, and many operators are unwilling to subject the
Hydril to any extra wear.
If the well design will allow setting 4,000 to 5,000 lb of weight on the
bit, an alternative to pipe rotation is to pick up and slack off string
weight. This action causes pipe movement, which aids in the removal of
mud stringers.
Exaggerated pipe reciprocation should be avoided while introducing the

brine. In addition to pressure fluctuations, there is a tendency for inter-
face sizes to increase due to increased movement in the annulus. Recip-
rocation can be beneficial during predisplacement mud conditioning or
while circulating seawater in the well. The physical motion of the pipe
helps remove solids that are adhering to the tubular surfaces.
It is important to remember that the pumps must not be shut down

Ì
! during the displacement operation. If the pumps are prematurely
stopped, the displacement system may string out and cause a decrease
in hole cleaning effectiveness. This could possibly lead to contamination
of the brine with particulate solids.
When weighted spacer systems are designed to incorporate all down-

hole conditions and are engineered with all available technologies,
overall well costs can be reduced. This reduction will be seen in reduced
filtration requirements, reduced rig time associated with filtration, and in
the reclamation of contaminated fluids.
Reduction of Fluid Loss

Two types of fluid loss to the formation can occur. These are seepage and
lost circulation. The most common brine fluid loss is seepage. Seepage is
the slow and steady flow of brine into the formation. Lost circulation,
which does not occur often with brines, generally implies a fracture or
breakdown of the formation, resulting in rapid fluid loss. The focus of this
section is prevention of seepage losses to the producing formation.
Seepage loss occurs when the hydrostatic pressure head on the fluid is
greater than the formation pressure. Seepage can range anywhere from
near zero to as much as several barrels per hour. Seepage into the com-
pletion interval should be controlled for several reasons. Well pressure
204
FLUID LOSS CHAPTER 8
control is difficult when the wellbore fluid is seeping into the formation.
In some cases, there are brine losses to one formation section and gas
influx into the wellbore from another formation section. The influx of gas
OF
may be stopped by limiting the brine loss rate to the point where gas is
REDUCTION
not able to flow into the wellbore. Even though brines are designed to
minimize formation damage, they are foreign to the formation. There-
fore, uncontrolled brine penetration to the formation may disrupt the
chemical balance and cause damage. One method of reducing exces-
sive seepage loss is to decrease the pressure differential by reducing the
density of the brine. Other solutions to seepage loss include raising the
viscosity of the brine and adding sized bridging particles.
Fluid Loss Strategies

The most apparent method of fluid loss control is reducing density to
lower the hydrostatic head against the formation pressure. However, well
control and safety must be taken into consideration before reducing the
fluid density.
The most common form of fluid loss control is to pump a viscous pill into
the thief zone. This viscous pill consists of the CBF with the addition of
polymer viscosifiers. The viscous fluid pill reduces the seepage rate. The
rate of fluid influx to the formation depends on the pill viscosity and
hydrostatic head exerted on the column of the brine. The two most com-
mon viscosifiers are:
• TETRAVis L Plus, prehydrated HEC (hydroxyethylcellulose) and
• BioPol L, prehydrated xanthan gum.
Viscous pills are the ideal first option to slow down the fluid loss rate and
are applicable in formations with permeabilities less than one darcy and
temperatures within the limits of the polymer selected. These pills are
solid free and degrade with respect to temperature, losing fluid viscosity
with time. Therefore, well flowback will remove the remains of the vis-
cous fluid from the formation.
In cases of extremely high fluid loss, bridging solids may be used in com-
bination with increased viscosity to stop the seepage. Usually two types
of bridging solids are used. These are calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and
sized common salt (NaCl). Calcium carbonate may be added to any vis-
cous fluid. Sized salt pills must be saturated with sodium chloride to pre-
vent dissolution of sized salt into the brine.
In order to select the proper sized bridging agent, the size of the pore
holes to be bridged must be known. In general, particles will bridge an
opening three to five times larger than the bridging particle diameter.
Using this rule of thumb, a formation with an average pore size of 10

SPECIAL TOPICS 205
FILTRATION
microns would require a bridging agent with particles averaging two to
three microns in diameter. Proper bridging agents have a particle size
distribution which allows a much tighter seal on the formation face,
resulting in better fluid loss control. For example, the two to three micron
bridging agent mentioned previously would most likely have a particle
size distribution ranging from one micron to 20 or 30 microns. This
material would have particles sufficiently large enough to bridge off the
pore throats as well as particles small enough to form an impermeable
cake. Bridging materials range in size up to fractions of an inch in order
to handle the full range of fluid loss problems encountered in the field.
The fluid loss pill design must include planning for the cleanup of bridg-
ing solids after the completion process. When perforations are sealed or
the open hole is bridged off, the removal of the bridging solids is not
likely to be uniform. Even though a dissolving fluid is passed from the
wellbore to the formation (acid, brine, or solvent washes) or from the for-
mation to the wellbore (produced fluids), some perforations or sections
of the formation face could remain sealed off, regardless of the type of
bridging solids. If sections of the formation remained sealed at the well-
bore, then the flow dynamics of the formation may be dramatically
altered, and, as a consequence, production can be impaired.
The two methods for removing bridging materials are:

1. CaCO3 spontaneous cleanup when the formation is allowed to flow-
back or by acid treatment with 15% hydrochloric acid, and
2. salt removal by pressure differential during flowback, dissolution by
formation water, or washover with undersaturated brine.
Filtration
The purpose of filtering completion/workover fluids is to prevent dam-
age to the producing formation. If dirty fluid is used, it can result in irrep-
arable damage to the permeability of the formation. Not only do dirty
fluids reduce formation permeability, they also reduce the permeability
in gravel packs. In order for a fluid to be nondamaging to the producing
formation, the solids must be removed. The contaminating solids can
come from mud residue left by ineffective displacement or perforation
debris. All of these contaminants can and will plug perforations.
Filtering involves the screening or mechanical separation of solids from

fluids. Clear brine fluid filtration is, essentially, a protective process. In
order to arrive at a satisfactory degree of filtration, an evaluation of the
contaminants involved is necessary. The critical factor in the case of solid
contaminants in the fluid is the particle size distribution.
206
FILTRATION CHAPTER 8
Filtration Equipment Sizing

Estimating the properly sized filtration unit is an approximation at best,
but some useful guidelines can help. The main objective is to have the
longest runtime or filter unit operating time (least amount of downtime)
achievable within the limits of the physical equipment size. The two most
important criteria are the flow rate and solid content of the fluid. Realisti-
cally, deck space may also be a factor in the decision.
Flow Rate. The range of flow rates anticipated should be the primary
selection criterion. Flow rates for plate and frame filters are normally
between 0.8 bbl/min and 1.0 bbl/min per 100 ft2 of filter area. A value
on the upper end of that range suggests the need for a larger unit to
allow for some flexibility when handling surges in flow.
TABLE 52. Typical Filtration Equipment
TETRA Filtration Equipment

Unit Filter Area Flow Rate Footprint
ft2 bbl/min LxW
SafeDEflo 600 600 6 - 8 22 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo C600 600 8 - 10 16 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1100 1,100 8 - 12 24 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1300 1,300 12 - 14 26 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1500 1,500 14 - 20 26 x 15 feet
Fluid viscosity will also vary with salt composition. A highly saturated
summer blend fluid may have viscosity as high as 30 cp. The viscous
drag of such a fluid in the filter cake will reduce filter throughput.
Solid Removal Rate, vsol. There are several ways to measure the solid
content of a brine, and they have varying degrees of accuracy. Percent
by volume (psol) will be used in this discussion. The upper limit of sus-
pended solids for efficient filtration is about 2% by volume. Any filter will
only operate efficiently at this rate for short periods of time. More realis-
tic levels of solids will probably range from 0.05% to 0.5% by volume.
Using volume percent is subject to many assumptions, but this discussion
is provided to give only general guidelines.
Use Equation 31 below to estimate the rate in ft3/min that solids will be
removed by the filter, using the brine flow rate (Q) in bbl/min and solid
content in percent by volume (psol).

SPECIAL TOPICS 207
FILTRATION
EQUATION 31.
vsol = Q * psol * 0.056
vsol = volume of solid removal rate, ft3/min

Q = flow rate, bbl/min
psol = solid content, vol %
0.056 = ft3/(bbl-%)
EXAMPLE O. Solid Removal Rate
Find:
vsol, solid removal rate
Given:
Q = 10 bbl/min
psol = 0.35% by volume
vsol = Q * psol * 0.056
vsol = 10 bbl/min * 0.0035 * 0.056
Answer:
vsol = 0.002 ft3/min
Then, to estimate runtime, locate that solid removal rate on the bottom
axis of Figure 22 and move up to the filter curves to see the various run-
times for each filter. We have drawn a line for our example solid
removal rate (vsol) of 0.196 ft3/min. Filter size is indicated in square feet
of filter area for four different filter sizes. Clearly, the larger the filter
area, the longer the runtime. It is worth noting that if your target is a two
hour runtime, you will need to determine your solid removal rate and
then select your filter size accordingly. As you can see in Figure 22, solid
removal rates between 0.18 ft3/min and 0.45 ft3/min will allow you to
achieve a filtration unit operating time of two hours (120 min) if you
select the appropriate filter.
208
FIGURE 22. Approximate Filter Runtime
Solid Removal Rate of 0.196 ft3/min

400
300
Runtime (min)
200
2 Hours
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Solid Removal Rate (vsol ft3/min)
600 ft2 1100 ft2 1300 ft2 1500 ft2
Opening a filter press to discharge solids and precoat takes between 30

and 60 minutes each time. A runtime of 120 minutes with a 45 minute
cleaning and precoat cycle would mean that you could accomplish
roughly nine complete cycles in a day, resulting in six to seven hours of
downtime for precoating each day.
Larger filter units mean fewer downtime cycles per day. Using the filtra-
tion removal rate of 0.196 ft3 from the previous example, runtimes for
the different size filter units are shown in Table 53.

SPECIAL TOPICS 209
FILTRATION
TABLE 53. Filtration Runtime Examples
(10 bbl/min and 0.35% by vol solid content or Vsol 0.196 ft3)
Filtration Unit Runtime/Cycle Cycles/Day Downtime/Day

2 min hr
ft
SafeDEflo 600 and C600 111 9.2 6.9
SafeDEflo 1100 204 5.8 4.3
SafeDEflo 1300 241 5.0 3.8
SafeDEflo 1500 278 4.5 3.3
This brief overview was intended to show how to size a filter and explain
the effects of high solid loading. The following paragraphs explore some
of the finer aspects of filtration theory.
Filtration Theory
Filter Rating Systems. There are several ways to rate the efficiency of a
filtration operation. Capabilities are often provided for cartridge filtra-
tion units. Cartridge filters either have a nominal rating or an absolute
rating.
Nominal Rating. A particle size, in microns (a one-thousandth of a milli-

meter), may be provided for a particular filter element or cartridge such
as a 10 micron cartridge. This value implies that the filter is capable of
removing particles as small as 10 microns. These values are very depen-
dent on test methods; they are meant to provide a helpful guideline, but
are difficult to use when comparing one filter to another.
Absolute Rating. The size, in microns, of the largest spherical particle that
will pass through a filter element. The efficiency of an absolute rated car-
tridge is measured in terms of Beta Ratio. A standardized ANSI (Ameri-
can National Standards Institute) test is used to measure the beta ratio—
the number of particles of a particular size that are entering a filter, over
the number of the same size particles that are leaving a filter in the fil-
trate (upstream divided by downstream). A beta ratio will always specify
the micron size of the particles with which the test was conducted. A beta
ratio of B10 = 50 means that there were 50 times more 10 micron parti-
cles in the influent than in the effluent from the filter.
Below a certain threshold particle size, each filter will have a different
beta ratio for each particle size. A curve can be drawn for a particular
cartridge or filter element showing beta ratios at various particle sizes.
Surface Filtration. Surface filtration works largely through direct inter-

ception. This means that particles larger than the pore size of the
medium are stopped at the upstream surface of the filter. The particle
210
size prevents them from entering or passing through the pores. Surface
type media are not perfectly smooth on their upstream surfaces, nor are
their pores perfectly uniform in shape or direction.
Typically, when surface type filters are exposed to the flow of contami-
nated fluid, two effects—the gradual reduction in effective pore size and
the building of a cake bed—start to take place almost immediately.
Gradual Reduction in Effective Pore Size. The effective pore size of the
medium is gradually reduced, as some of the pores become partially
blocked by particles. This reduction makes the filter become more effec-
tive in removing fine particles. Pore size reduction can be caused by the
retention of extremely small particles within the pores by absorptive
forces. It can also occur due to the partial intrusion of soft, deformable
particles into the pores, acting under the forces generated by fluid flow,
so that those pores are effectively reduced in size. Deformable particles
have the ability to conform more closely to the shape of flow passages,
thus blocking them to a greater degree than hard particles might. They
can also form a slime or gel that can completely clog the filter.
Building of Filter Cake. A cake or bed of filter aid (DE) particles starts to
build on the surface of the filter element (filter cloth). This build up of filter
aid (filter cake) actually does the filtering. As operating time continues,
this filter cake becomes progressively finer due to the same clogging or
trapping mechanism noted previously. The filter cake then becomes com-
pletely clogged, restricting the flow of fluids through the medium. This
effect can be noted by an increase in pressure differential through the fil-
ter press.
The pleated paper filter element is a typical example of surface filtration.

Dirt retention is directly related to surface area. It is here that the theory
of absolute filtration is applied.
The absolute rating of a filter is a frequently misunderstood and misused

concept. The largest particle passed by a filter is not a function of the
size of the openings in the filter medium; it is a function of the flow
through the filter, the particles, the filter medium, the pressure and flow
pulsations, and many other factors. The zeta potential, electrostatic
charge connection of the particles, fluid, and filter media all interact to
determine the size of particles captured under a given set of conditions.
Any change in these factors will affect filtration conditions, which will, in
turn, affect particle distribution downstream of the filter.
Over time, the absolute rating has mistakenly come to mean attempting
to define the largest particle found downstream of a filter under operat-
ing conditions. The absolute rating is actually a measurement of the larg-
est glass sphere the filter will allow to pass when exposed to a low

SPECIAL TOPICS 211
FILTRATION
pressure differential and nonpulsating flow. Under actual operating con-
ditions, with the infinite array of variables mentioned above, there is no
strict relationship between absolute rating and the particle size distribu-
tion in the effluent. However, when used as a qualitative measurement
for filter selection, the absolute rating is the best guideline available.
Depth Filtration. This type of filtration employs a deep, porous structure.

The mechanism of filtering then becomes much more complex. The path
through the filter is much longer and more random, providing greater
possibility for both direct interception and dirt retention. In general,
larger particles will tend to be trapped in the surface layers with the finer
particles trapped by succeeding layers. If necessary, the structure of the
filter can be density graded. This can be particularly advantageous
where the particle sizes or the contaminants are widely distributed.
When contaminants are of a more or less uniform size, a surface filter
may be equally effective. Depth filtering also gives a higher pressure
drop than a surface filter.
It is possible for the overall performance of a depth type filter to be better

than that given by the purely mechanical action of direct interception.
The inertia of particles that are impinging directly onto the filter medium
may generate absorptive surface forces. As a result, the depth filter may
trap and retain particles finer than those trapped by pure mechanical fil-
tration alone.
Nominally rated filter elements (cartridges) are typical examples of

depth type media. Cartridge filters are produced by using a wide variety
of configurations and materials of construction. Filter media include
yarns, felts, papers, resin bonded fibers, and woven wire cloths. The fil-
ter element is normally designed as a disposable component and is
meant to be replaced with a new cartridge when clogged. Cartridge fil-
ters are compact, reliable, easy to operate, and require less operator
training than most other types of filtration equipment.
In heavily contaminated systems, cartridge filters are most often used

downstream of other types of filtration devices for final product clarifica-
tion. The system most commonly seen in the oil industry utilizes a plate
and frame filter press that is precoated with diatomaceous earth (DE) for
primary filtration and a downstream cartridge unit, which functions as a
guard/polishing filter.
Cake Filtration. Cake type media are generally employed for removal of
solids in significant bulk. Usually, the action of fluid flow will cause sepa-
rate, loose, discrete particles to form into a cake on a supporting screen.
The voids between the particles form the pores and flow passages
required for filtration. One typical material used to form a cake is diato-
maceous earth.
212
Brine Filtration
Plate and frame filters are large multiplate pressure filters that can treat
up to 20 bbl/min. To enhance the filtration process, a filter aid is utilized
to precoat the filter cloths that are supported by the plates. The plates
and filter cloths merely provide a support for the filter aid which does the
actual filtration. A number of precoating materials are available. The
most common filter aid in CBF applications is diatomaceous earth (DE).
From this, the term DE Filtration was derived.
When this type of filtration system is utilized, certain parameters are

controlled that greatly influence the effluent quality of a filtrate. Some of
these parameters are porosity, permeability, and pressure differential.
Some of the limiting parameters in determining the optimum filtration
system for a particular job are: rig space, equipment size and weight,
volume capacity, flow rates, desired effluent quality, equipment flexibil-
ity, and cost.
In this industry, our goal is to achieve the most efficient and cost effective
means of filtration that fits within the specific parameters of a given
application. As previously mentioned, the most commonly used filtration
system in the area of completion/workover fluids utilizes a filter press as
a primary filter with a cartridge filter downstream. The main function of
the filter press is to remove all suspended solids; the function of the car-
tridge filter is to serve as a guard, or polishing filter, and to guard
against the loss of DE into the formation should a filter cloth tear.
The filter presses available in the field consist of a series of vertical cham-
bers arranged in parallel. Frame filter presses are produced by stacking
flush plates with distance frames separating them. A chamber filter press
is produced by stacking a series of recessed plates. In either case, each
plate carries a filter cloth, or other suitable filter medium, and the stack
of plates is compressed. Most commonly, a hydraulic system is used to
expand and retract the ram of the filter press.
The product to be filtered is fed into the press under pressure. The filtrate
passes through the filter media and out of the press. At the same time,
solids are retained in the form of a cake on the filter media with each
chamber of the press performing as a separate unit. Initially, the cloth
and DE precoat act as the filter, but as solids and additional DE are col-
lected and built up on the surface, they gradually assume the function of
the primary filter medium. Filtering then continues with increasing effi-
ciency until the cake has built to an optimum thickness.
Pumping pressure progressively builds up to compensate for the loss of

flow rate until, eventually, the cake is fully formed and filtrate flow is neg-
ligible. Pumping is stopped and the fluid is displaced from the filter by
compressed air (blow down). The press is then discharged; this is accom-

SPECIAL TOPICS 213
FILTRATION
plished by separating the plates and allowing the cakes to drop out.
After being discharged, the press is washed out, closed, and made
ready for the next cycle.
Filter Cloths. Filter cloths, often referred to as septums, provide the sup-
port for the filter aid. A wide variety of filter cloths may be used,
although the most common woven materials are nylon and polypropy-
lene. The smooth surface and good flexibility of these cloths promotes
easy cake removal. Weave also affects the tendency for the cake to clog
the cloth so that satisfactory performance can only be established on
empirical lines. Economical operation may depend upon usage of a rel-
atively expensive filter cloth with proper attention given to cleaning so
that individual cloths are not damaged.
Diatomaceous Earth. Diatomaceous earth (DE) is a nonmetallic mineral

composed of the skeletal remains of microscopic, single celled aquatic
plants called diatoms.
Diatomaceous earth is predominantly amorphous silica (noncrystalline

silicon dioxide). It may also contain small amounts of crystalline silica
quartz; oxides of calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum; and certain
trace elements, which occur naturally in the Earth’s crust. Physically, the
diatom skeletons are intricate structures having many submicron pores.
They occur in a large variety of shapes, much like snowflakes. These rel-
atively noncompressible structures occur mainly in particles of 10 to 200
micrometers in diameter. One of the major uses of various grades of pro-
cessed diatomite is as filter aids.
The primary functions of filter aids are improved filter efficiency,

increased filter life, and improved flow rates. In order for a filter aid to
perform, it must: (1) form a porous cake, (2) have a high surface area
and a narrow particle size distribution, and (3) have an irregular shape.
Automated DE Delivery Systems. Automated DE delivery systems were

originally developed in response to the Control of Substances Hazardous
to Health (COSHH) regulations regarding airborne crystalline silica.
Automated DE delivery systems are designed to reduce the risk of per-
sonnel exposure to airborne crystalline silica, which can be found in nat-
urally occurring diatomaceous earth.
Automated DE delivery systems have numerous other HSE benefits. For

years, diatomaceous earth has been supplied to filtration locations in
pallets containing 50-pound paper sacks. To introduce the DE filter aid
into the filtration process, filtration personnel were required to handle
individual sacks of DE, opening each sack and emptying it into the DE
slurry (Add Mix) tank. This process required lifting and carrying the
heavy sacks and using cutting devices to open them. This process also
214
created dust and resulted in solid waste requiring disposal. To address

these HSE issues and automate the DE introduction process, TETRA
recently introduced the SafeDEflo™ diatomaceous earth automated
delivery system for use in Gulf of Mexico filtration operations.
The SafeDEflo delivery system utilizes intermediate bulk carriers (IBCs),

which hold 1,000 pounds of DE material. The IBCs are filled with DE and
then transported to a filtration location where they are paired with a dis-
pensing system that is operated through a pneumatic control panel. The
SafeDEflo system provides accurate DE dispensing and a safer, cleaner
work area without the need for disposal of sacks, shrink wrap, or pallets.
Precoating
The first step in preparing a plate and frame filter for operation is to
build up a precoat of filter aid on the filter cloth (septum).
The purpose of the precoat is:

1. to prevent the filter septum from becoming clogged by impurities, thus
prolonging septum life,
2. to produce immediate clarity, and
3. to facilitate the cleaning of the septum at the end of the cycle.
Precoating is accomplished by circulating a slurry of filter aid and fil-

tered or clear liquid between the filter and the precoat tank. Since most
of the filter aid particles are smaller than the openings in the septum,
they form a thin filter cake by bridging these openings. This filter cake
can be upset by air bubbles, sudden changes in pressure, or vibrations.
This causes the filtrate to become turbid until the upsetting influences
have been corrected.
Amount of Precoat. The amount of precoat is generally 10 to 15 lb of fil-

ter aid per 100 sq ft of filter area. The greater amount is used when dis-
tribution of flow in the filter is poor or when breaking in new filters. If it is
perfectly distributed, 10 lb of filter aid per 100 sq ft of filter area will
give a precoat of approximately 1/16 inch in thickness. Precoat slurry
concentration depends primarily on the ratio of filter area to filter and
piping volume.
Precoat is added to a quantity of working fluid in the precoat mix tank.

Vigorous mixing is required to get the light DE adequately mixed. The
precoat slurry is then circulated in a closed loop through the filter until
the returning fluid is once again clear.
Precoating Rate. The precoat rate depends primarily on the viscosity of

the fluid used. The rate should be sufficient to maintain filter aid suspen-
sion, but not so fast as to cause erosion of precoat in the filter. For water,

SPECIAL TOPICS 215
FILTRATION
a typical rate is one to two gal/sq ft of filter area per minute. Extremely
viscous liquids may require rates as low as five gal/sq ft per hour. A
general rule for precoating is to precoat at that rate which gives a pres-
sure differential of approximately two psi. For water, an upward velocity
of at least four ft/min is required for proper filter aid suspension.
Filtering
After the precoat filtrate has cleared up, the filter is put on stream by:
1. starting the body feed pump,
2. opening the line from the filter feed pump, and
3. simultaneously closing the line from the precoat circulating pump so
that flow through the filter is continuous and without sudden fluctua-
tions in pressure.
If the filter is precoated using filtered liquid, it is best to refill the precoat
tank immediately by directing all or part of the filtrate to it. Filling the
precoat tank at the end of the cycle may cause problems. Since flow
through the filter may drop suddenly, the time required for filling may be
excessively long.
Body Feed Addition. Insufficient body feed decreases active filtration

time. The body feed is completely surrounded by undissolved solids and
does not, therefore, increase cake permeability. Cake permeability only
increases the cake thickness without adding anything to its permeability.
From this point, as body feed is increased, throughput increases slowly
and then rapidly for a short span of time. The rate increases and then
tapers off; throughput stabilizes and then actually decreases once again,
because cake permeability is no longer increased with additional
amounts of body feed. Excessive body feed results in a sudden increase
in pressure as the cake bridges between the plates. This increase causes
a sudden decrease in filter area, and can also result in severe damage to
the plates and loss of clarification. In general, proper body feed main-
tains high permeability of the filter cake and characteristics similar to
depth filtration.
Several grades of diatomaceous earth are available as filter aids. In

general, the coarser grades provide higher flow rates and lower effluent
clarity. The opposite also holds true with the finer grades resulting in
lower flow rates and higher effluent clarity.
Rig Practices and Filtration Performance

While a two micron filtration level is generally used as an acceptable
standard, the total suspended solids left in the effluent should be of great
concern. No fluid containing more than 1,000 ppm should be consid-
ered clean. Efforts should be made to reduce solid content to a level as
216
CLARITY CHAPTER 8
low as practically possible. Strict adherence to sound rig practices, care-

ful fluid management, and competent operators will produce worthwhile
results, paying off in improved production rates and extended well life.
In addition to occurring in the well itself, fluid contamination can occur in

storage facilities, during transportation, and in surface circulating sys-
tems. Utmost care should be taken to minimize the possibility of fluid
contamination. It is most important that the entire surface system be
cleaned before the clear brine fluid is brought in. It is important that the
flowline, shale shaker, sand traps, solid control equipment, return line,
pits or tanks, equalizing lines, hopper, mud pumps, mud manifolds,
kelly, kill line, choke, and manifold be flushed and cleaned prior to tak-
ing on the brine. Although rig time and associated costs are inarguably
expensive, it is invariably more cost effective to prevent fluid contamina-
tion than it is to remove solids by filtration after they have occurred.
One of the major difficulties in evaluating a filtration process is carrying

out onsite determinations of effluent quality. The following components
should be considered when analyzing a filtration process for clear brine
fluid applications:
1. total suspended solids,
2. maximum size of particles at specified solid content, and
3. cost per barrel.
It is important to understand the different variables that are encountered

during the filtration of brines. Some of those variables are flow rate,
pressure differential, cycle life, solid content, and fluid viscosity. During
the filtration process, the filtration operator has almost absolute control
over the variables mentioned above; it is up to the operator to get the
maximum efficiency out of the filtration equipment.
Clarity
The clarity or solid free nature of brines is the most important aspect of
their use as completion fluids. Brine clarity is measured by the quantity of
the total suspended solids in a brine.
Briefly, two parameters can be determined which relate to clarity: (1) tur-
bidity and (2) solid content in milligrams per liter (mg/l) or parts per mil-
lion (ppm). These two parameters do not always correlate well. If
absolute solid content is required, calibration curves must be determined
in order to relate turbidity units to solid content in mg/l, ppm, or percent
by volume. Procedures to prepare these curves are detailed in “API RP
13J: Recommended Practice for Testing Heavy Brines.”

SPECIAL TOPICS 217
CLARITY
In certain situations, turbidity is used as a relative measure of clarity. For
example, turbidity measurements can be taken upstream and down-
stream from a filter unit and then compared to one another. If the turbid-
ity of the downstream (effluent) sample is lower than that of the upstream
(influent) sample, then the general conclusion is that the effluent sample
contains fewer solids. Test filters may also be used for this purpose. If the
effluent sample filters more quickly through a test filter than the influent
sample does, the conclusion is that the effluent contains less solids.
Standards or specifications for clarity are difficult to set. Ideally, a brine

should have a near zero turbidity or a solid content of near zero mg/l. A
common means of measuring turbidity is by the light scattering ability of
suspended solids. Turbidity measurement is reported in nephelometric
turbidity units (NTUs). A value of 20 NTUs is considered the upper limit
of acceptable brine clarity.
Clarity Problems—Contaminants and the

Formation of Solids
The presence of contaminants, either solid or gaseous, can have a seri-
ous impact on the potential for localized corrosion, especially on the
probability that environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) could initiate a
catastrophic cracking event. The presence of solids or scale can lead to
the establishment of a concentration cell, or crevice corrosion, which
may initiate pitting or cracking of the metal. Additionally, acidic gaseous
contaminants, like CO2 and H2S, can induce pitting or cracking, espe-
cially when CRA metallurgies are used. As a consequence, the impact of
the following contaminants on both general and localized corrosion,
given susceptible combinations of specific fluids and metallurgies, must
be considered.
Miscellaneous Contaminants
Iron. When additives like corrosion inhibitors are introduced into fluids,
turbidity will often increase even though no solids have been added.
Also, meta-stable dissolved solids, such as ferrous chloride (FeCl2) or fer-
ric chloride (FeCl3), may not show up on turbidity or suspended solid
tests. However, these compounds may precipitate as insoluble solids
when the brine chemistry changes. More significantly, these contami-
nants or the presence of iron, in general, may lead to precipitation of
solids, owing to the ease with which hydrated iron species are formed.
The formation of these hydrated species leads to a lowering of the pH

(increase in acidity). This is especially true with ferric compounds. As a
consequence, the issue of enhanced corrosion may have to be
218
CLARITY CHAPTER 8
addressed. Once formed, these hydrated iron species at pH levels of ~3

or higher can yield gelatinous hydrated oxide, ferrous Fe(II), or ferric
Fe(III) hydroxides that precipitate depending on the pH.
Carbon Dioxide. The introduction of carbon dioxide into divalent brines

(calcium or zinc) can lead to increased turbidity and solid formation,
owing to the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or zinc carbonate
(ZnCO3), both of which are insoluble in aqueous media.
Dissolved bicarbonate ions, present in most naturally occurring sources

of water, will react with calcium or zinc ions in brines to form calcium or
zinc carbonate. Precipitation of carbonate salts will lower the pH of the
fluid, raising corrosion concerns.
Hydrogen Sulfide or Sulfides. The presence of the sulfide ion from

hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can lead to turbidity or solid deposition problems
due to three different phenomena:
1. the formation of insoluble iron sulfide salts,
2. the formation of insoluble zinc sulfide salts (in zinc brines), and
3. the formation of free elemental sulfur by the slow oxidation of the sul-
fide ion.
Invariably, the metal sulfides that precipitate in the presence of hydrogen

sulfide are really polysulfides (MSx) in which elemental sulfur is chemi-
cally bound to the sulfide.
Like CO2, H2S is a weak acid in water. As a consequence, formation of

insoluble metal sulfide salts will lower the fluid pH and have the effect of
accelerating corrosion.
H2S itself is a strong promoter of hydrogen embrittlement, which can be

manifested as EAC. See “Sulfide Stress Cracking,” beginning on
page 190.
Bacteria. Although normally bacteria do not survive in basic media or

highly concentrated brines, the potential danger of certain bacteria in
dilute brines must be recognized. Sulfate reducing bacteria can produce
H2S from trace amounts of the sulfate ion, which can lead to increased
turbidity and/or insoluble matter.
Seawater. If a CBF containing calcium comes into contact with seawater,

the levels of bicarbonate ions and sulfate ions that are routinely present
in seawater may result in the formation of solid calcium carbonate and
calcium sulfate. In addition, the high chloride concentration in most
brines will result in the formation of sodium chloride crystals. Seawater is
a rich source of bacteria and other microorganisms.

SPECIAL TOPICS 219
CONCLUSION
Formation of Solids
Sulfide Precipitation. As in the case of carbonate precipitation, the for-
mation of insoluble sulfides leads to an increase in acidity. This is illus-
trated below in the formation of hydrobromic acid (HBr) from the
reaction of H2S with zinc bromide (ZnBr2).
ZnBr2 + H2S ZnS + 2HBr
The increased acidity with the introduction of a large amount of H2S at

some point redissolves the formed zinc sulfide (ZnS), i.e., the reaction
becomes reversed. This process lessens the amount of solid formed, but,
clearly, it also may have health, safety, and environmental consequences
due to a greater release of H2S.
Calcium or Zinc Hydroxide Precipitation. With an increase in pH, diva-

lent brines may form hydroxides and increase turbidity, since these spe-
cies are rather insoluble. As a consequence, the practice of increasing

the alkalinity of calcium or zinc brines to reduce the brines’ susceptibility
to corrosion must be undertaken with great care. Otherwise, filtration
and fluid weight up will be needed, owing to the density loss which will
occur as a result of the precipitation of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) or
zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2).
Contact a TETRA fluids specialist if you have concerns about zinc

precipitation. TETRA has developed a number of solutions to address
this problem.
Sodium Chloride Precipitation. The precipitation of sodium chloride

from brine mixtures containing high concentrations of sodium and
chloride ions can lead to solid control problems. Being soluble only to an
extent of ~26%, sodium chloride (NaCl) is the least soluble of the
common brine salts. Furthermore, in contrast to most other soluble salts,
its solubility does not increase significantly with a rise in temperature,
and it decreases in the presence of other salts. As a consequence, care
needs to be exercised when calcium chloride (CaCl2) is added to
solutions containing sodium bromide (NaBr).
Conclusion
Each of the sections in this chapter represents a small sampling of a field
of applied science or technology. Only those aspects that are directly
220
CONCLUSION CHAPTER 8
applicable to clear brine fluids and their application to oil and gas well
completion and workover operations have been presented here. A vast
body of literature exists for each of these disciplines outside the context
of this manual. The best sources of additional information are the publi-
cations of professional societies such as the following:
Organization Website
American Petroleum Institute (API) http://api-ec.api.org
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) http://www.spe.org
NACE International—The Corrosion Society (NACE) http://www.nace.org
The Filtration Society http://www.filtsoc.com
American Filtration & Separations Society (AFS) http://www.afssociety.org
The previous list represents only a few of the many valuable energy
industry resources available. If you have a deeper interest in a particular
field, these organizations will be your best starting point.
In addition, TETRA will endeavor to improve and update the online edi-
tion of the Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids and Filtra-
tion, Second Edition. All of us who have invested time and energy
developing this manual hope you will find it the preferred guide when
you are planning a well or heading for the field. Your corrections, com-
ments, and suggestions regarding this document are always welcome,
as we realize that a work such as this can always be improved.
Suggestions, Corrections, or Updates

Please send any editorial suggestions, corrections, or updates to the fol-
lowing address:
The Woodlands, Texas 77380
or e-mail them to: solutions-guide@tetratec.com.

SPECIAL TOPICS 221
Notes:
222 CHAPTER 8
Notes:

223
CHAPTER 9 References
The following reference information is provided to assist readers in locat-

ing supporting information for various sections of this guide.
References
American Petroleum Institute. “Specification for Drill Pipe.” American
Petroleum Institute (2001).
American Petroleum Institute. “Specification for Casing and Tubing, API

Specification 5CT,” Seventh Edition. American Petroleum Institute
(2001).
American Petroleum Institute. RP 13J: “Recommended Practice for Test-

ing Heavy Brines,” Second Edition. American Petroleum Institute (March
1996).
Bridges, K. L. “Completion and Workover Fluids.” Monograph Volume

19, Society of Petroleum Engineers (2000).
Butler, B.A., Sharp, K.W., McDaniel, D.R., and Bump, D.M. “New Gen-
eration Drill-In Fluids and Cleanup Methodology Lead to Low Skin Hori-
zontal Completions.” SPE 58741 Paper presented at the Society of
Petroleum Engineers International Symposium on Formation Damage,
Lafayette, Louisiana, February 2000.
Butler, B.A., Gosch S.W., Bradford, D.W., Adkins, M.F., and Murphy,
J.R. “Stringent Drill-in Fluid Design Results in Prolific Deepwater Horizon-
tal Well — a BP Martin Case Study.” AADE-02-DFWM-HO-03 Paper
presented at the American Association of Drilling Engineers Technology
Conference, Houston, Texas, April 2-3, 2002.
www.tetratec.com
224 CHAPTER 9
Notes:

225
CHAPTER 10 Useful Lists
The list of tables and figures have been included to provide an alternate
way of locating tables and figures throughout the guide. The list of sym-
bols used in equations provides all of the symbols used in equations
within the book and gives the definition and unit as it appears in the
identified equation.
List of Tables
1. General Density Ranges for Clear Brine Fluids ........................................ 14
2. Density Corrections for Temperature and Pressure .................................. 18
3. TP-Pro Example of Input Variables ......................................................... 20
4. TP-Pro Example of Output Variables ...................................................... 21
5. Typical Filtration Equipment Volumes ..................................................... 24
6. Specialty Brine Considerations ............................................................... 30
7. Typical Corrosion Control System Applications ....................................... 44
8. Filtration Equipment .............................................................................. 55
9. Surface Density Correction Factors ......................................................... 65
10. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)................................. 70
11. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ................................. 74
12. 19.2 lb/gal Zinc Bromide (ZnBr2) Cutback Table................................... 76
13. Units of Measurement—Symbols and Abbreviations ........................... 119
14. Common Minerals and Metals ........................................................... 120
15. Useful Conversion Factors.................................................................. 121
16. Hole Capacity ................................................................................... 130
17. API Drill Pipe Capacity and Displacement ........................................... 132
18. Casing and Liners — Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities .................. 132
19. API Tubing — Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities............................. 135
20. Annular Capacity .............................................................................. 138
21. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Density and Composition Table .............. 146
22. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ......................... 146
23. Ammonium Chloride (100% NH4Cl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) ............. 146
24. Potassium Chloride (KCl) Density and Composition Table .................... 147
www.tetratec.com
226
FIGURES CHAPTER 10
25. Potassium Chloride (KCl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ............................... 147

26. Potassium Chloride (99% KCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)...................... 148
OF
27. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Density and Composition Table ...................... 148
LIST
28. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)................................. 149

29. Sodium Chloride (99% NaCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) ....................... 149
30. Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) Density and Composition Table................. 150
31. Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ........................... 150
32. Sodium Formate (99% NaO2CH) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl).................. 151
33. Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Density and Composition Table ............... 152
34. Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) .......................... 153
35. Potassium Formate (98% KO2CH) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) ................ 154
36. Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Density and Composition Table...................... 155
37. Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)................................. 156
38. Sodium Bromide (98% NaBr) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) ....................... 157
39. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Density and Composition Table .................... 158
40. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ............................... 159
41. Calcium Chloride (95% CaCl2) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)...................... 160
42. Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) Density and Composition Table .................... 161
43. Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ............................... 162
44. Calcium Bromide (95% CaBr2) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)...................... 162
45. CBF Constituents and Chemical Abstracts Service Numbers ................. 168
46. NPDES Permit Effluent Limitations for Completion Fluids ...................... 172
47. NPDES Permit Effluent Limitations for Drilling Fluids ............................ 173
48. CBF RQ Information........................................................................... 173
49. TETRA Additive RQ Information.......................................................... 175
50. Least Soluble Component in Multiple Salt Brines ................................. 183
51. TDSP Displacement System ................................................................ 196
52. Typical Filtration Equipment ............................................................... 206
53. Filtration Runtime Examples............................................................... 209
List of Figures
1. Fluid Selection Process.............................................................................. 9
2. Fluid Categories ..................................................................................... 11
3. TVD-BHP Fluid Density Chart................................................................... 13
4. Clear Brine Fluid Density Ranges............................................................. 15
5. Combined Casing and Tubing ................................................................. 23
6. Selecting and Using Spike Fluids ............................................................. 26
7. Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Low Density CBFs ............................................ 79
8. Yield Point of Low Density CBFs .............................................................. 80
9. Plastic Viscosity of Low Density CBFs ....................................................... 81
10. Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Calcium Brines .............................................. 82
11. Yield Point of Calcium Brines ................................................................ 83
12. Plastic Viscosity of Calcium Brines ......................................................... 84
13. Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines......................... 85

USEFUL LISTS 227
LIST
14. Yield Point of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines ........................................... 86
OF
15. Plastic Viscosity of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines ................................... 87
SYMBOLS USED
16. Annular Velocity ................................................................................ 144
17. Estimated RQs for Zinc Fluids.............................................................. 174
18. Crystallization Temperature — Aqueous Calcium Chloride ................... 182
19. Typical Crystallization Curve............................................................... 182
20. The Corrosion Process ........................................................................ 186
IN
21. Wellbore Eccentricity .......................................................................... 202
EQUATIONS
22. Approximate Filter Runtime ................................................................ 208
List of Symbols Used in Equations
Symbol Definition Unit EQ #

A thermal expansion factor lb/gal/100°F 3
B hydrostatic compression factor lb/gal/1000 psi 4
BHPs safe bottomhole pressure psi or lb/in2 1, 4
BHT bottomhole temperature °F 3
C capacity bbl/ft 25, 29
C capacity of hole or pipe bbl/ft 26
Can capacity of annulus bbl/ft 16, 17, 28
Can capacity of annular space per linear foot bbl/ft 27
Can+t combined annular + tubing capacity bbl/ft 6
CF correction factor (lb/gal)/°F 10
CP averaged pressure correction lb/gal 4, 5
CT averaged temperature correction lb/gal 3, 5
Ct capacity of tubing bbl/ft 16, 17, 18, 21
d density of fluid in well lb/gal 19, 20
d1 density of starting fluid lb/gal 7
d1 density of fluid 1 lb/gal 9, 11, 14, 15
d2 density of added fluid lb/gal 7
d2 density of fluid 2 lb/gal 9, 11
dc density corrected for T and P lb/gal 5
dc fluid density, corrected to 60°F lb/gal 10
ddil final desired density lb/gal 15
ddil density of diluted fluid lb/gal 12
df density of final target fluid lb/gal 7
df density of final fluid lb/gal 9, 11, 14
dn density of fluid n in annulus lb/gal 30
dslug density of slug fluid lb/gal 20
du fluid density, uncorrected for T and P lb/gal 2
du uncorrected density from Equation 2 lb/gal 5
dw density of fresh water lb/gal 10
228
EQUATIONS CHAPTER 10

grad pressure gradient psi/ft 2
IN
grads safe pressure gradient psi/ft 1

SYMBOLS USED
h total length of tubing ft 18

h length of hole or pipe ft 26
h length of annulus ft 28
hbal length of pill planned ft 16, 17, 18
hdry length of dry pipe ft 19
OF
hn true vertical length of coverage of fluid n in

ft 30
annulus
LIST
HR hydrometer reading at sample temperature unitless 10

hslug length of slug fluid required ft 20, 21
ID inside diameter in 25
ID inside (casing, liner) diameter in 27
IDcasing casing ID in 6
IDt tubing ID in 6
l liter l 22, 23
lbproduct total product added to the recipe lb/bbl 13
lbpure weight of pure salt (100% basis) per barrel of

lb/bbl 12
original brine
lbpure weight of pure salt (100%) lb/bbl 13
lbpure weight of salt product per barrel required to

lb/bbl 14
weigh up to final fluid density
mg milligram mg 22, 23
OD outside (work string, tubing) diameter in 27
ODt tubing OD in 6
Pan hydrostatic pressure psi 30
pct1 percent of dissolved salt in fluid 1 wt fraction 15
pctdil percent of pure salt (100% basis) in diluted

wt fraction 12
brine
pctdil percent of dissolved salt in final fluid wt fraction 15
pctf percent of pure salt (100% basis) in original

wt fraction 12
brine
Pdif pressure differential psi 19, 20
ppm parts per million –6 22, 23, 24
10
psol solid content vol % 31
purity weight percent as decimal fraction unitless 13
Q flow rate bbl/min 29, 31
SG specific gravity unitless 22, 23
surf surface temperature °F 3
TVD true vertical depth ft 1
v1 volume of starting fluid bbl 7, 8
v1 volume of fluid 1 bbl 9, 11
v1 volume (as a fraction of a barrel) of fluid 1 bbl 15
v2 volume of added fluid bbl 7, 8
v2 volume of fluid 2 bbl 11
van total volume of annulus with pipe/tubing in

bbl 28
well

USEFUL LISTS 229
LIST
OF
SYMBOLS USED
vchase volume of chase fluid bbl 18
Vel velocity ft/min 29
vf volume of final target fluid bbl 8
vf final volume bbl 14
vpill volume of balanced pill bbl 16, 17
IN
vslug volume of slug bbl 21
EQUATIONS
vsol volume of solid removal rate ft3/min 31
vsurf volume of empty lines from pit to drill floor bbl 18
vtot total volume of hole or pipe bbl 26
wt % weight percent 10–2 24
UT sample temperature – 60°F °F 10
0.052 units conversion factor gal/in2-ft 2, 19, 20, 30
0.056 units conversion factor ft3/(bbl–%) 31
1029.4 units conversion factor in2-ft/bbl 6, 25, 27
230 CHAPTER 10
Notes:

231
Index
A
AEAC. See corrosion, types of
air entrainment. See corrosion
annular capacity. See capacity
annular environmentally assisted cracking See corrosion, types of
annular velocity. See velocity
annular volume. See fluid volume
B
bacteria
clarity problems 218
corrosion 43
balanced pills 88
BHP. See bottomhole pressure
BHT. See bottomhole temperature
bottomhole pressure (BHP) 8, 11, 18, 59, 63
bottomhole temperature (BHT) 8, 18, 29, 43
C
calcium hydroxide precipitation. See clarity, problems
capacity
annular capacity 126, 137
hole capacity 126
tables 129–143
carbon dioxide. See clarity, problems
CBF 173
CERCLA. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act
CHARM. See Chemical Hazard Assessment and Risk Management
Chemical Hazard Assessment and Risk Management (CHARM) 50, 197
circulating volume. See fluid volume
clarity 53, 216–219
problems
bacteria 218
calcium or zinc hydroxide precipitation 219
carbon dioxide 218
hydrogen sulfide or sulfides 218
iron 217
seawater 218
sodium chloride precipitation 219
Clean Water Act (CWA) 171, 175
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA) 171, 175
concentration cell corrosion. See corrosion, types of
contamination
iron 217
Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids and Filtration www.tetratec.com
232
sulfide 218
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) 213
conversion factors 121–124
corrosion
acid formation gases
carbon dioxide 42
hydrogen sulfide 42
air entrainment 42
bacteria 43
brine acidity 41
control of 40–45, 185–193
hydrogen ion reduction 187
metallurgy 42
oxygen control 186
surface aeration 42
types of
general corrosion 188
galvanic corrosion 188
localized corrosion 188
concentration cell corrosion 188, 217
crevice corrosion 48, 188, 217
environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) 42, 48, 49, 189–191
annular environmentally assisted cracking (AEAC) 189–193
stress corrosion cracking (SCC) 190–191
sulfide stress cracking (SSC) 49, 190–191
hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) 188–189
COSHH. See Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
crystallization temperature 15–18, 181–185
eutectic point 181, 182, 184
first crystal to appear (FCTA) 182
formulation and specification 183
last crystal to dissolve (LCTD) 183
pressurized crystallization temperature (PCT) 17, 184
seasonal effects 17
true crystallization temperature (TCT) 15–17, 37, 183–184
cutback 37, 71–74, 145–162
calculations 71–72
cutback tables 72–74, 145–162
CWA. See Clean Water Act
D
DE. See diatomaceous earth
density. See fluid density
diatomaceous earth (DE) 212, 213
differential pressure. See pressure
discharge. See safety and environmental
displacement 193–203
direct 49, 194
indirect 48, 194
predisplacement activities 47
pressure differentials 200
displacement modeling software 198

233
dry salt weight material 37
E
EAC. See corrosion, types of
Emergency Planning & Community-Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA) 173
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 171, 176
environmental. See safety and environmental
environmentally assisted cracking. See corrosion, types of
EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA. See Emergency Planning & Community-Right-To-Know Act
eutectic point. See crystallization temperature
F
FCTA. See crystallization temperature
filtration 53–56, 205–216
body feed addition 215
equipment sizing 53–56, 206–209
precoating 214–215
viscosity 56
filtration theory 209–211
rating systems 209
fluid compatibility 28–31
elastomers 28
metallurgy 28
mineralogy 28
reservoir fluid chemistry 28
fluid density 11–15, 18–20, 35–40, 59–72, 145–163
density and composition tables 145–161
density ranges 15
maintenance
cutback 37, 71–74, 145–162
general density equations 59–72
single salt brines 36–38
three salt brines 39–40
two salt brines 38–39
weight up 37, 38, 63–71, 145–163
temperature and pressure effects 18–20
fluid loss 50–53, 74–91, 203–205
lost circulation 51, 53, 203
mixing viscosified pills 74–78
seepage 51–53, 203
spotting balanced pills 88–91
fluid volume 22–27, 67–72, 126–143
annular volume 127
calculation worksheet 27
capacity tables 129–143
circulating volume 22
estimating requirements 22–27
filtration equipment 24
holding tanks 23
surface piping 24
234
volume calculations 67–72

formation damage 28, 31, 51, 185, 204
G
galvanic corrosion. See corrosion, types of
general corrosion. See corrosion, types of
H
HIC. See corrosion, types of
hole capacity. See capacity
hydrogen induced cracking. See corrosion, types of
hydrogen sulfide. See clarity, problems
hydroxide precipitation, calcium or zinc 219
I
iron. See clarity, problems
K
kill weight fluids 63
L
localized corrosion. See corrosion, types of
lost circulation. See fluid loss
Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality 177
LSTD. See crystallization temperature
M
maintenance. See fluid density
MatchWell fluid compatibility selector software 10, 43, 191
measurement, units of 119–120
metallurgy. See corrosion
Minerals Management Service (MMS) 176
MMS. See Minerals Management Service
N
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) 172–173
National Response Center (NRC) 173, 176
NCR. See National Response Center
nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) 56, 217
NPDES. See National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NRC. See National Response Center
NTU. See nephelometric turbidity unit

235
P
PCT. See crystallization temperature
permitted discharge. See safety and environmental
precipitation
calcium or zinc hydroxide 219
sodium chloride 219
pressure
control of 36
differential 127
effect on crystallization temperature 17
effect on density 18–20
gradient 11
pressurized crystallization temperature. See crystallization temperature
production impairment 53
R
Railroad Commission of Texas 177
RCRA. See Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
release. See safety and environmental
reportable quantity (RQ). See safety and environmental
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 172
S
safety and environmental 5–7, 167–177
agency contacts 176–177
CBF chemical constituents 167
CERCLA. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA) 171
discharge 172
hazardous substance 171–172
heat of solution 169
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) 172–173
NPDES. See National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
permitted discharge 172
personal safety 6, 168
release 173
release to the environment 175
reportable quantity (RQ)
additives 174–175
clear brine fluids 173–174
safety equipment 170
toxic fumes 169
treatment recommendations 171
SCC. See corrosion, types of
seepage. See fluid loss
shut in bottomhole pressure (SIBP) 63
SIBP. See shut in bottomhole pressure
slug calculation 91–92
236
sodium chloride precipitation. See clarity, problems

specialty fluids
specialty completion fluids 29–31
spike fluid. See weight up
SSC. See corrosion, types of
stress corrosion cracking. See corrosion, types of
sulfide contamination. See clarity, problems
sulfide stress cracking. See corrosion, types of
surface aeration. See corrosion
T
TCT. See crystallization temperature
temperature, effect on
corrosion 41
crystallization temperature 16–17
density 18–20
Texas Commission on Environmental Quality 177
true crystallization temperature. See crystallization temperature
true vertical depth (TVD) 8, 11–13
TVD. See true vertical depth
U
U.S. Coast Guard 177
units of measurement. See measurement
V
velocity 127
annular velocity 144
viscosified pills 74
volume. See fluid volume
W
weight up 37, 63–71, 145–163
dry salt 37, 38, 40, 68–71
spike fluid 24–26, 37, 38, 40, 63–65, 199
volume increase 70
weight up tables 69–70, 146–163
Y
yield point 201
Z
zinc hydroxide precipitation. See clarity, problems
zinc sulfide 219

List of Figures
Fluid Selection Process.............................................................................. 9

Fluid Categories ....................................................................................... 11
TVD-BHP Fluid Density Chart..................................................................... 13
Clear Brine Fluid Density Ranges............................................................... 15
Combined Casing and Tubing................................................................... 23
Selecting and Using Spike Fluids............................................................... 26
Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Low Density CBFs .............................................. 79
Yield Point of Low Density CBFs ................................................................ 80
Plastic Viscosity of Low Density CBFs ......................................................... 81
Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Calcium Brines .................................................. 82
Yield Point of Calcium Brines .................................................................... 83
Plastic Viscosity of Calcium Brines ............................................................. 84
Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines............................. 85
Yield Point of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines............................................... 86
Plastic Viscosity of Zinc/Calcium Bromide Brines ....................................... 87
Annular Velocity ...................................................................................... 144
Estimated RQs for Zinc Fluids.................................................................... 174
Crystallization Temperature — Aqueous Calcium Chloride ......................... 182
Typical Crystallization Curve..................................................................... 182
The Corrosion Process .............................................................................. 186
Wellbore Eccentricity ................................................................................ 202
Approximate Filter Runtime ...................................................................... 208
Engineered Solutions Guide

1
Chapter 1

2
List of Tables
General Density Ranges for Clear Brine Fluids ........................................... 14

Density Corrections for Temperature and Pressure ..................................... 18
TP-Pro Example of Input Variables ............................................................ 20
TP-Pro Example of Output Variables ......................................................... 21
Typical Filtration Equipment Volumes ........................................................ 24
Specialty Brine Considerations .................................................................. 30
Typical Corrosion Control System Applications .......................................... 44
Filtration Equipment ................................................................................. 55
Surface Density Correction Factors ............................................................ 65
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)...................................... 70
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ...................................... 74
19.2 lb/gal Zinc Bromide (ZnBr2) Cutback Table........................................ 76
Units of Measurement—Symbols and Abbreviations .................................. 119
Common Minerals and Metals .................................................................. 120
Useful Conversion Factors......................................................................... 121
Hole Capacity .......................................................................................... 130
API Drill Pipe Capacity and Displacement .................................................. 132
Casing and Liners — Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities ......................... 132
API Tubing — Weight, Dimensions, and Capacities.................................... 135
Annular Capacity ..................................................................................... 138
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Density and Composition Table ..................... 146
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ................................ 146
Ammonium Chloride (100% NH4Cl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) .................... 146
Potassium Chloride (KCl) Density and Composition Table ........................... 147
Potassium Chloride (KCl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ...................................... 147
Potassium Chloride (99% KCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)............................. 148
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Density and Composition Table............................. 148
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl)........................................ 149
Sodium Chloride (99% NaCl) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) .............................. 149
Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) Density and Composition Table........................ 150
Sodium Formate (NaO2CH) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) .................................. 150
Sodium Formate (99% NaO2CH) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl)......................... 151
Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Density and Composition Table ...................... 152
Potassium Formate (KO2CH) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ................................. 153
Potassium Formate (98% KO2CH) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) ....................... 154
Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Density and Composition Table............................. 155
Sodium Bromide (NaBr) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ....................................... 156
Sodium Bromide (98% NaBr) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl).............................. 157
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Density and Composition Table ........................... 158
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ...................................... 159
Calcium Chloride (95% CaCl2) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) ............................ 160
Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) Density and Composition Table ........................... 161
Engineered Solutions Guide

1
Chapter 1
Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) Cutback Table (bbl/bbl) ...................................... 162

Calcium Bromide (95% CaBr2) Weight Up Table (lb/bbl) ............................ 162
CBF Constituents and Chemical Abstracts Service Numbers ........................ 168
NPDES Permit Effluent Limitations for Completion Fluids............................. 172
NPDES Permit Effluent Limitations for Drilling Fluids ................................... 173
CBF RQ Information ................................................................................. 173
TETRA Additive RQ Information................................................................. 175
Least Soluble Component in Multiple Salt Brines ........................................ 183
TDSP Displacement System ....................................................................... 196
Typical Filtration Equipment...................................................................... 206
Filtration Runtime Examples...................................................................... 209

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Production Editor: Stephanie Wiegand

CHAPTER 2 Fluid Planning: Fluid Selection

CHAPTER 3 Fluid Planning: Processes and Systems

CHAPTER 4 Field Applications and Brine Maintenance

Kill Weight Fluids ................................................................................. 63

CHAPTER 5 Product Quick Reference

CHAPTER 6 Tables, Formulas, and Planning Support

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Annular Velocity ................................................................................. 144

CHAPTER 7 U.S. Safety and Environmental Information

CHAPTER 8 Special Topics

CHAPTER 10 Useful Lists

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Engineering Services Filtration

Clear Brine Fluids

Brominated Products Calcium Chloride

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CHAPTER 2 Fluid Planning: Fluid

This chapter will cover:

Safety and the Environment

An overview of these topics is provided in Chapter 7, “U.S. Safety and

injury to those using these materials while conducting completion and

Clear brine fluids are highly concentrated mixtures of inorganic salts,

All precautions should be taken to prevent direct contact between clear

A properly completed Job Safety/Environmental Analysis (JSEA) will help

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Under EPA regulations, spills of completion fluids containing zinc bromide

See Chapter 7, “U.S. Safety and Environmental Information,” for more

The Planning Process

The planning process steps are arranged to enable you to:

Figure 1 provides a conceptual flow of the fluid selection process in nor-

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THE PLANNING PROCESS

Necessary Inputs Steps

Single Salt Fluids Two Salt Fluids Three Salt Fluids

Engineered Fluid Systems

Planning for Wells Requiring Corrosion

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14.0 Two Salt Fluids

True Crystallization Temperature (°F)

grads = safe pressure gradient, psi/ft

The pressure gradient can be converted to density in pounds per gallon

du = fluid density, uncorrected for T and P, lb/gal

0.052 = units conversion factor, gal/in2-ft

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True Vertical Depth (ft)

General Fluid Density Ranges

TABLE 1. General Density Ranges for Clear Brine Fluids