Anatomy Notes

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Ik”kq “kjhj jpuk foKku
 foKku dh og 'kk[kk ftlds vUrxZr i’kqvksa ds vaxksa ,oa Årdksa dh lajpuk o :i dk v/;;u
fd;k tkrk gS] mls i’kq ’kjhj jpuk foKku ¼Veterinary Anatomy½ dgrs gSaA
 dksf’kdk dk v/;;u & dksf’kdk foKku ¼Cytology½
 Årdksa dk v/;;u & vkSfrdh@Ård foKku (Histology)
 vfLFk;ksa dk v/;;u & vfLFk foKku (Osteology)
 tksM+ksa dk v/;;u & lfU/k foKku (Arthrology or Syndesmology)
 isf’k;ksa dk v/;;u & is’kh foKku (Myology)
 ’kjhj ds fofHkUu ra=ksa ds vkarfjd vaxksa dk v/;;u & Splanchnology
 raf=dk ra= dk v/;;u & Neurology
 KkusfUnz;ksa dk v/;;u & Aesthesiology
'kCnkoyh (Terminology)
 flj dh vksj dk Hkkx & Cranial
 iwaN dh vksj dk Hkkx & Caudal
 ukd dh vksj dk Hkkx & Rostral
 vkxs okys iSj dk og fgLlk tks [kM+h voLFkk esa tehu dks Nwrk gS & Palmer / Palmar
 ihNss okys iSj dk og fgLlk tks [kM+h voLFkk esa tehu dks Nwrk gS & Planter / Plantar
 og dkV tks ’kjhj dks nks leku Hkkxksa esa ckaVrh gS & Longitudinal Medial Plane
 og dkV tks ’kjhj dks i`"B o v/kj Hkkxksa esa ckaVrh gS & Frontal Plane
 og dkV tks ’kjhj dks vxz o i’p Hkkxksa esa ckaVrh gS & Transverse Plane
 eq[k ls nwj dk Hkkx & Aboral
 yEch v{k ls de nwjh & Proximal
 cM+k xksykdkj mHkkj & Tuberosity
 uqdhyk mHkkj & Spine
 yEch nwjh dk mHkkj & Crest
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 ?kqek gqvk lhax tSlk mHkkj & Cornu

 NksVh tqM+us okyh lrg & Facet
 NksVh xrZ ds :i esa tqM+us okyh lrg & Fovea
 nck gqvk LFkku & Fossa
 vfLFk esa fLFkr fNnz ftlesa ls jDr okfguh ;k raf=dk;sa xqtjrh gSa & Foramen
 vfLFk ds flj ij xksykdkj Hkkx & Head
 tqM+us okyk xksykdkj Hkkx & Condyle
 dks.MkbZy ds ikl u tqM+us okyk Hkkx & Epicondyle
 IysV tSlh piVh lajpuk & Lamina
 vfLFk dh xqgk ftlesa ok;q ;k gok Hkjh jgrh gS &Sinus
 ’kjhj dh lajpukRed o fØ;kRed bdkbZ & dksf’kdk
 dksf’kdk dk v/;;u dksf’kdk foKku ¼cytology½ ds varxZr fd;k tkrk gSA
 jkcVZ gqd dh iqLrd & ekbØksxzkfQ;k
 izdk’k lw{en’khZ ¼Light microscope½ dk vkfo"dkj TksM- TksUlu o ,p- tsUlu us fd;k FkkA
 dksf’kdk fl)kUr ¼Cell theory½ ’yhMu o ’oku us lu~ 1838 esa fn;k FkkA
 Father of Cytology - jkcVZ gqd
 Father of Modern Cytology - Lkh- ih- ’okulu
 dksf’kdk nzO; ds nks Hkkx & Hyaloplasm o Trophoplasm
 dksf’kdk dk futhZo lajpuk okyk Hkkx - Metaplast
 ;wdsfj;ksfVd dksf’kdk esa Cell wall o Capsule vuqifLFkr gksrs gSaA
 izksdsfj;ksfVd dksf’kdk esa bdkbZ f>Yyh ¼unit membrane½ ls f?kjs gq, dksf’kdkax ugha ik;s tkrsA
 izksdsfj;ksfVd dksf’kdk esa 70 S izdkj ds rFkk ;wdsfj;ksfVd dksf’kdk esa 80 S izdkj ds jkbckslkse
ik, tkrs gSaA
 lcls NksVh dksf'kdk - PPLO/Mycoplasma (0.2 Lks 0.6 micron)
 lcls cM+h dksf'kdk - 'krqjeqxZ dk v.Mk ¼15 lseh-½

 lcls yEch dksf'kdk - ftjkQ dh raf=dk dksf'kdk

 ekuo us= dh foHksnu {kerk - 0.1 mm
 bysDVªkfud lw{en'khZ dh foHksnu {kerk - 1 Ao ls 5Ao
 dksf'kdk f>Yyh dh [kkst & usxys h us dh FkhA
 dksf'kdk f>Yyh v)ZikjxE; ;k fof'k"V ikjxE; f>Yyh gksrh gS tks inkFkksZa ds vkokxeu dks
fu;af=r djrh gSA
 f=Lrjh;@fyfiM lS.Mfop ekWMy &Msfu;ky o Msolu
 bdkbZ dyk ekWMy & jkcVZlu
dksf'kdk dyk@f>Yyh esa QkWLQksfyfiM ds ty Lusgh /kzqoh; fljs (hydrophilic polar ends)
izksVhu Lrjksa dh rjQ rFkk ty&fojkxh v/kzqoh; fljs (hydrophobic nonpolar ends) ,d
nwljs dh rjQ fLFkr gksrs gSaA
 fe'ksyj ekWMy & fgysj o gkWQeku
 rjy ekstsd ekWMy & flaxj o fudkWYlu
blds vuqlkj f}Lrjh; fyfiM esa izksfVu ds v.kq /kals jgrs gSaA ;s izksVhu mHk; laosnh ekstsd ds
:i esa gksrh gSA
 Tight junction/Zonula occludens esa nks dksf'kdkvksa ds e/; vUrj dksf'kdh; LFky
(interstitial space) vuqifLFkr gksrk gSA
 Zonula adherens/belt desmosomes nks ijLij layXu dksf'kdkvksa dh dksf'kdk dyk esa
ladqpu'khy rarqvksa dh xqPNsuqek lajpuk gksrh gSA
 Macula adherens/Spot desmosome layXu dksf'kdkvksa ij cVu ln`'; lajpuk,a gksrh gSaA
 Gap junction/nexus ikbZiuqek lajpuk gksrh gS tks nks dksf'kdkvksa ds dksf'kdk nzO; esa lEca/k
LFkkfir djrh gSA
 vUr% iznzO;h tkfydk dh [kkst & K. R. Porter
 izksdsfj;ksV~l esa] RBC esa o v.Mksa dh Hkzw.kh; dksf'kdkvksa esa ER vuqifLFkr gksrh gSA
 js[kh; isf'k;ksa esa ER dks lkdksZIykfTed jsVhdqye dgrs gSaA

 [kqjnjh ER (rough ER) izksVhu la'ys"k.k ls lEcfU/kr gksrh gSA

 ER flLVuhZ] Vesicles o ufydkvksa ds :i esa ikbZ tkrh gSA
 fpduh ER (smooth ER) olk ds la'ys"k.k o fo"kgj.k (detoxification) ls lEcaf/kr gSA
 xkWYth dk; dh [kkst & dsfeyks xkWYth
 lzkoh o xzfUFky dksf'kdkvksa esa vR;f/kd fodflr dksf'kdkax & xkWYth dk;
 xkWYth dk; ,oa /kzqoh; dksf'kdkax gS ftlds nks fljs fuekZ=h fljk (formation/cis face) mÙky
rFkk ifjiDou fljk (maturation/trans face) vory gksrs gSaA
 xkWYth dk; ds dk;Z & Lkzko.k] gkeksZu la'ys"k.k] ,Økslkse] ykblkslkse] ;ksd dk fuekZ.k vkfnA
 ykblkslkse dh [kkst & Mh- Mqos
 dksf'kdk ds vkRe?kkrh FkSys (suicidal bags) & ykblkslkse
 ykblkslkse esa ty&vi?kVuh ,Utkbe (hydrolytic enzymes) ik, tkrs gSaA
 'osr :f/kj df.kdk (WBC) esa ykblkslkse cM+s vkdkj ds gksrs gSaA
 ykblkslkse esa cgq:irk (polymorphism) ikbZ tkrh gS ftlds dkj.k ;s fofHkUu :iksa esa ik;s
tkrs gSaA
 ykblkslkse tks dksf'kdkaxksa dk ikpu djrs gaS & LoHk{kh jl/kkuh (autophagosome)
 jkbckslkse@ekbØkslkse dh [kkst & DykWMs
 jkbckslkse dh nksuksa mi bdkb;ksa dk tqM+uk Mg+2 dh lkUnzrk ij (0.001M) ij fuHkZj djrk
gS
 jkbckslkse dk fuekZ.k dsfUnzdk (nucleolus) esa gksrk gSA
 izksdsfj;ksV~l esa 70S (50S+30S) rFkk ;wdsfj;ksV~l esa 80S (60S +40S) izdkj ds jkbckslkse
ik, tkrs gSaA
 jkbckslkse dk dk;Z & izksVhu la'ys"k.k
 dksf'kdk dh izksVhu QSDVªh ;k batu & jkbckslkse
 ekbVksdksf.Mª;k dh [kkst & fjpMZ vkYVeSu (bioplast uke)
 ekbVksdksf.Mª;k uke & C. Benda

 ekbVksdksf.Mª;k nksgjh bdkbZ f>Yyh }kjk f?kjs jgrs gSa ftudh vkUrfjd f>Yyh ij vaxqyhuqek
izo/kZ ik, tkrs gSa ftUgsa fØLVh (cristae) dgrs gSaA
 ikjlu dh mi bdkbZ;ka ikbZ tkrh gSa & ekbVksdksf.Mª;k esa
 ekbVksdksf.Mª;k dk DNA - dq.Mfyr o o`Rrkdkj (coiled & circular)
 dksf'kdk dk v)ZLok;Rr vax (semi autonomous organelle) & ekbVksdksfUMª;k
 dksf'kdk dk 'kfDr x`g (power house) & ekbVksdksfUMª;k
 'kqØk.kq ds e/; Hkkx dk fuekZ.k djrk gS & ekbVksdksfUMª;k
 dksf'kdk nzO;h; vkuqokaf'kdrk (cytoplasmic inheritance) ds fy, ftEesnkj dksf'kdkax &
ekbVksdksfUMª;k
 lsf.Vªvksy dh [kkst & oku cs.Mu
 nks lsf.Vªvksy dks feykdj ls.Vªkslkse@fMIykslkse dgrs gSaA
 Cart-wheel structure lsf.Vªvksy esa ikbZ tkrh gS tks (9+2) ljapuk ds dkj.k gksrh gSA
 lw{edk; - Peroxysome o Glyoxysome
 dsUnzd dh [kkst & jkcVZ czkmu
 dsUnzd dk v/;;u & Karyology
 ,d dksf'kdk esa vf/kd dsUnzd gksus dh voLFkk & Syncytium
 dsUnzd f>Yyh dkSulh voLFkk esa yqIr gksus yxrh gS & Prophase
 dsUnzd f>Yyh dkSulh voLFkk esa iqu% izdV gksrh gS & Telophase
 dsfUnzdk (nucleolus) dhs [kkst & Qks.Vkuk
 ØksesfVu lw=ksa ij ikbZ tkus okyh lajpuk & Chromomeres
 Chromosome 'kCn ^okYMs;j* us fn;k FkkA
 f}xqf.kr voLFkk (2n) & dkf;d dksf'kdk (Somatic cell) esa
 ls.Vªksfe;j dh fLFkfr ds vk/kkj ij xq.klw= 4 izdkj ds gksrs gSa &
Telocentric - fdukjs ij
Acrocentric - fdukjs ls dqN nqj

Sub-metacentric - e/; ls dqN nwj

Metacentric - e/; esa
 ,d dksf'kdk dk nks dksf'kdkvksa esas foHkDr gks tkuk & dksf'kdk foHkktu
 lkekU;r% dksf'kdk pØ dh lcls yEch voLFkk & vUrjkoLFkk (Interphase)
 ,d dksf'kdk foHkktu dh lekfIr ls nwljs foHkktu ds izkjEHk gksus ds chp dk vUrjky &
vUrjkoLFkk (Interphase)
 DNA dk la'ys"k.k & S voLFkk esa
 dsUnzd dk foHkktu & Karyokinesis
 dksf'kdk nzO; dk foHkktu & Cytokinesis
 dsUnzd f>Yyh o dsfUnzdk yqIRk gksus yxrh gS & Prophase esa
 xq.klq= e/; iV~V ij foU;kflr gksrs gSa & Metaphase esa (Metaphase Plate)
 rdqZ rUrqvksa dk iw.kZ fuekZ.k & Metaphase esa
 G2 voLFkk esa & RNA o izksVhu la'ys"k.k gksrk gSA
 lelw=h foHkktu esa lsUVªksfe;j ds yEcor~ foHkktu ds dkj.k dksesfVM~l i`Fkd gksrs gaSA
 foHkktu dh pkjksa voLFkkvksa dk Øe &
izksQts & esVkQst & ,ukQst & VhyksQst
 xq.klw=ksa dh la[;k leku cuh jgrh gS & lelw=h foHkktu (mitosis) esa
 fdl foHkktu ls ,d f}xqf.kr dksf'kdk ls pkj vxqf.kr dksf'kdk,a curh gSa & v)Zlw=h foHkktu
 izFke v)Zlw=h foHkktu & Heterotypic division
 f}rh; v)Zlw=h foHkktu & Homotypic division
 izksQst & izFke dh voLFkk,a &
ysIVksVhu & tkbxksVhu & isdkbVhu & fMIyksVhu & Mk;dkbusfll
 cqds (bouquet) tSlh lajpuk & ysIVksVhu esa
 letkr xq.klw=ksa ds tksM+s bivalent dgykrs gSaA ¼tkbxksVhu voLFkk½
 letkr xq.klw=ksa ds ukWu&flLVj dksesfVM~l ds e/; thu fofue; & Crossing over

 Crossing over - isdkbVhu voLFkk esa

 fd;kTesVk (Chiasmata) fuekZ.k & fMIyksVhu voLFkk esa
 letkr xq.klw= foijhr /kzqoksa dh rjQ xfr djrs gSa - Anaphase I
 xq.klw=ksa dh la[;k vk/kh jg tkrh gS & izFke v/kZlw=h foHkktu esa
 ih<+h nj ih<+h xq.klw=ksa dh la[;k leku cus jgus dk dkj.k & v/kZlw=h foHkktu (meiosis)
 vxqf.kr ;qXedksa dk fuekZ.k - Meiosis }kjk
 jpuk o dkf;Zdh esa ,d leku dksf'kdkvksa ds lewg dks Ård (tissue) o buds v/;;u dks
vkSfrdh@Ård foKku (histology) dgrs gSaA
 Tissue 'kCn & ck;dkV
 Histology 'kCn & es;j
 midyk Ård dh dksf'kdkvksa ds chp esa vUrjdksf'kdh; LFky (intercellular space)
vuqifLFkr gksrs gSaA
 midyk Ård lqj{kkRed vkoj.k iznku djrs gSa o dqN LFkkuksa ij lzko.k dk dk;Z Hkh djrs gSaA
 ljy midyk Ård esa dksf'kdkvksa dk dsoy ,d gh Lrj ik;k tkrk gSaA
 Germinal epithelium - ljy ?kukdkj
 dy'k dksf'kdk,a (Goblet cells) - ljy LrEHkkdkj midyk esa
 Ciliated simple epithelium - v.Mokfguh] xHkkZ'k; uky
 Transitional epithelium - ew=k'k;] ew=okfguh
 Apocrine xzfUFk;ksa dk L=ko esa ’kkfey & 'kh"kZ Hkkx
 Merocrine xzfUFk;ksa dk L=ko esa ’kkfey & dqN Hkkx
 Holocrine xzfUFk;ksa dk L=ko esa ’kkfey & lEiw.kZ Hkkx
 la;ksth Ård dk fuekZ.k & ehlksMeZ ls
 rarqe; lajpuk] la;ksth Ård dh fo'ks"krk gSA
 ehlksMeZ }kjk fufeZr Ård - Mesenchyme
 dkWystu@'osr rarqvksa ls cuh lajpuk - d.Mjk (tendon)

 Spleen/Lymph node dk Ård & jsVhdqyj rarq

 bykfLVd@ihys rarqvksa ls cuh lajpuk - Luk;q (ligament)
 'kkf[kr dksf'kdk,a - Fibrocytes
 fyfiM dh cwansa ikbZ tkrh gSa - Adipose cell/adipocyte/ olk dksf'kdkvksa esa
 lQkbZdehZ dksf'kdk (Scavanger cells) - Macrophages
 Histamine, heparin o serotonin dk lzko.k - Mast cells
 cSyxkM+h ds ifg,uqek ØksesfVu inkFkZ - Plasma cell
 Antibodies dk fuekZ.k - Lymphocytes
 'osr olh; Ård & Å¡V dk dwcM+] esjhuks HksM+ dh iwaN esa
 Hkwjk olh; Ård & uotkr f'k'kq esa
 mikfLFk dh lcls ckgjh ijr - Perichondrium
 mikfLFk dk fuekZ.k djus okyh dksf'kdk - Chondroblast
 ikjn'khZ o izR;kLFk eSfVªDl & gk;ykbu mikfLFk esa
 vUrjd'ks:d pdrh - Fibro cartilage
 vfLFk cuus dh fØ;k - Ossification
 vfLFk dksf'kdk - Osteoblast
 vfLFk dks u"V djus okyh dksf'kdk - Osteoclast
 vfLFk dk fljk - Epiphysis
 vfLFk dh ckgjh ijr - Periosteum
 RBC dk fuekZ.k & yky vfLFk eTtk esa
 ,fiQkbfll o Mk;kQkbfll ds chp dk Hkkx - Metaphysis
 Haversian system - vfLFk esa
 Volkmann's canal - vfLFk esa
 'kjhj dh vf/kdka'k vfLFk;ka - mikfLFktkr vfLFk;ka (Cartilagenous bones)
 yky vfLFk eTtk & Liath vfLFk esa

 Pneumatic bones - if{k;ksa esa

 Visceral bones :
Os-penis - dqÙkk
Os-cardis - cSy@xkSoa'k
Os-rostrae - lqvj
Os-opticus - eqxkZ
 is'kh Ård dh mRifr & Mesoderm ls

 is'kh Ård dh dksf'kdk & Muscle fibre/myofibril
 is'kh dksf'kdk dk dksf'kdk nzO; & Sarcoplasm
 is'kh dh ijr & Epimysium
 jsf[kr is'kh & cgqdsUnzdh; (syncytium)
 jsf[kr is'kh dk dark band - Myosin protein (A-band)
 nks Øekxr Z-lines ds chp dh nwjh & Sarcomere
 is'kh; ladqpu dh fØ;kRed bdkbZ & Sarcomere
 rdqZuqek isf'k;ka & fpduh isf'k;ka
 vuSfPNd o jsf[kr isf'k;ka & Cardiac muscles
 raf=dk Ård dh mRifr & ,DVksMeZ ls
 raf=dk dksf'kdk & Neuron
 raf=dk Ård dh lgk;d dksf'kdk,a & Neuroglia
 raf=dk dksf'kdk esa dkSulk dksf'kdkax ugha ik;k tkrk & ls.Vªkslkse
 Nissle's body ikbZ tkrh gS & raf=dk dksf'kdk esa
 raf=dk dksf'kdk dh dk; & Cyton/Soma

 Schwann dksf'kdk ikbZ tkrh gS & raf=dk ra= esa

 jDr dk rjy Hkkx & Plasma
 isf'k;ka is'kh; rarqvksa (muscle fibres) ls feydj curh gSaA
 is'kh ds Åijh fLFkj fljs dks mn~Hko (origin) rFkk nwjLFk rarqe; fljs dks ;kstu (insertion)
dgrs gSaA
 is'kh dk ;kstu tks rarqe; NM+ ds :i esa gksrk gS& d.Mjk (tendon)
 is'kh dk ;kstu tks iryh lrg lk pknj ds :i esa gksrk gS & Aponeurosis
 V-vkd`fr dh ekalis'kh – Deltoideus
 'kjhj dks lgkjk o vk/kkj iznku djus okyk ra= & dadky ra=
 var% dadky dk fuekZ.k & ehtksMeZ ls gksrk gSA
 diky dh vfLFk;ka lh;u (sutures) ds }kjk vkil esa tqM+h jgrh gaSA
 [kksiM+h ds Åijh Hkkx dks Øsfu;e dgrs gSaA
 Foraman of Magnum dks ?ksjus okys Condyles - Occipital Condyles
 Åij ds Premolar o Molar nkarksa ds fy, Maxilla gM~Mh esa [kkap ikbZ tkrh gSaA
 :ekaf/k;ksa esa Åijh bUlkbtj ds LFkku ij Dental Pad ik;k tkrk gSA
 xkSoa’k dh [kksiM+h esa Turbinate vfLFk;ksa dh la[;k 4 gksrh gSA
 eSUMhcy dh Hz ramus ij esUVy fNnz ik;k tkrk gSA
 ?kksM+s esa eSUMhcy dh nksuksa Rami iw.kZr% tqM+dj dk; (body) cukrh gSA
 nks d’ks:dkvksa ds e/; fLFkr rarqe; mikfLFk dks vUrjd’ks:d pdrh (Intervertebral disc)
dgrs gSaA

 d’ks:d n.M dk lw= &

xkSoa’k & C7 Th13 L6 S5 Co15-25
HkSal & C7 Th13 L6 S5 Co15-25
cdjh & C7 Th13 L6-7 S4 Co12-14
HksM+ & C7 Th13 L6-7 S4 Co16-18
?kksM+k & C7 Th18 L6 S5 Co16-22
ÅaV & C7 Th12 L7 S5 Co15-21
dqÙkk & C7 Th13 L7 S3 Co18-25
eqxkZ & C14 Th7 (L+S)14 Co4-9
lqvj & C7 Th14-15 L6-7 S4 Co18-24
euq"; & C7 Th12 L5 S5 Co4
 izk;% lHkh Lru/kkjh izkf.k;ksa esa xzhok d’ks:dkvksa dh la[;k 7 gksrh gSA
 izFke xzhok d’ks:dk dks ,Vyl ,oa f}rh; xzhok d’ks:dk dks ,fDll dgrs gSaA
 d’ks:dk dh dk; dks lsUVªe dgrs gSaA
 d’ks:dk esa ik;s tkus okys Transverse process nks Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr gksdj ik’oZ ’kk[kk o
v/kj 'kk[kk cukrs gSaA
 d’ks:dk ds i`"B Hkkx esa i`"B daVd ¼Dorsal spine/superior spine/spinous process½
ik;k tkrk gSA
 d’ks:dk ds dsUnz esa dk; ds Åij fLFkr fNnz dks d’ks:d egkjaèkz ¼Vertebral foramen½
dgrs gSaA
 d’ks:dk ds vuqizLFk izo/kZ ds vk/kkj ij ,d fNnz gksrk gS] ftls Foramen transversarium
dgrs gSaA
 ,Vyl (atlas) esa daVd ¼LikbZu½ o izo/kZ vuqifLFkr gksrs gSaA

 ,fDll (axis) dh dk; vkxs dh rjQ c<+ dj pkSM+h lajpuk Dens dk fuekZ.k djrh gSA
 o{kh; d’ks:dkvksa (thoracic vertebrae) ds LikbZul izkslsl da/kksa ds Åij ,d mHkkj cukrs gSa]
ftls Wither dgrs gSaA
 dfV d’ks:dkvksa (lumbar vertebrae) dh dk; e/; ls vf/kd fldqM+h gqbZ rFkk pkSM+h gksrh gSA
 dfV d’ks:dkvksa ds vuqizLFk izo/kZ cgqr yEcs rFkk IysV dh vkd`fr ds gksrs gSa A
 lsØe (sacrum) dh ik’oZ lrg bfy;e (ilium) vfLFk ls tqM+h gksrh gSA
 lsØe dh v/kj lrg dks iSfYod lrg Hkh dgrs gSaA
 lsØe dh raf=dh; oy; f=dks.kkdkj gksrh gSA
 eqxsZ esa dfV o lsØe d’ks:dk;sa vkil esa tqM+h gqbZ gksrh gSa rFkk budh dqy la[;k 14 gksrh gS
ftls flUlsØe (synsacrum) dgrs gSaA
 eqxsZ esa vafre 3 iqPN d’ks:dk;sa (coccygeal vertebrae) ,d fijkfeM tSlh lajpuk dk
fuekZ.k djrh gSa ftls ikbxksLVkbZy (pygostyle) dgrs gSaA
 xkSoa’k esa 13 tksM+h ilfy;ka ik;h tkrh gSa ftuesa ls 8 tksM+h LVuZy rFkk 5 tksM+h vLVuZy gksrh
gSaA
 ilfy;ka vius flj ds }kjk o{kh; d’ks:dk ds Capitular facet ls rFkk tubercle }kjk
d’ks:dk ds vuqizLFk izoZ/k ls tqM+h gksrh gSaA
 ?kksM+ksa esa 18 tksM+h ilfy;ka ik;h tkrh gSa ftuesa ls 8 tksM+h LVuZy rFkk 10 tksM+h vLVuZy gksrh
gSaA
 dqÙkksa esa 13 tksM+h ilfy;ka ik;h tkrh gSa ftuesa ls 9 tksM+h LVuZy rFkk 4 tksMh+ vLVuZy gksrh
gSA
 LVuZe 7 VqdM+ksa ls feydj cuh gksrh gSa] ftUgsa Sternebrae dgrs gSaA
 LVuZe ds izFke vUr% [k.M dks eSU;qfcz;e (manubrium) dgrs gSaA
 ?kksM+s ,oa eqxsZ ds LVueZ dh fupyh lrg dks dhy ;k ØsLV (keel/crest) dgrs gSaA
 eqxsZ esa LVueZ ds ihNs dh vksj ik;s tkus okyk izo/kZ esVkLVuZe (metasternum) dgykrk gSA
 eqxsZ esa LVueZ ds vkxs dh vksj ik;s tkus okyk izo/kZ jksLVªe (rostrum) dgykrk gSA

 Scapula dh medial lrg likV gksrh gS] ftlesa ik;h tkus okyh [kkap dks Sub scapular
fossa dgrs gSaA
 Scapular spine dk mBk gqvk Hkkx Acromian process dgykrk gSA
 XyhukWbM xqgk Scapula esa ik;h tkrh gSA
 Glenoid Cavity ds pkjksa vksj ,d [kkap ikbZ tkrh gS ftls Glenoid notch dgrs gSaA
 ?kksM+s dh Scapula esa ,Øksfe;u izo/kZ vuqifLFkr gksrk gSA
 Foramen Triosseum eqxsZ esa ik;k tkrk gSA
 Humerus dh ik’oZ lrg ij ,d mHkkj ik;k tkrk gS] ftls Deltoid tuberosity dgrs gSaA
 Humerus dh i’p lrg ij Nutrient foramen ik;k tkrk gSA
 Humerus dh vxz ;kstd lrg ij Coronoid fossa ik;k tkrk gSA
 ?kksM+s esa Bicipital groove ,d njkj (ridge) ds }kjk foHkkftr jgrh gSA
 eqxsZ esa g~;wejl esa U;wesfVd Qksjkesu (pneumatic foramen) ik;k tkrk gSA
 jsfM;l o vYuk ds e/; Inter-osseous space ik;k tkrk gSA
 jsfM;l dk fudVLFk fljk g~;wejl ds dks.Mkby ls rFkk vYuk dk fudVLFk fljk vksysØksuu
xrZ ls tqM+rk gSA
 vYuk ds fudVLFk fljs ij ik;k tkus okyk izo/kZ vksysØksuu izo/kZ (olecronon process)
dgykrk gS ftldk vxz fdukjk ,d pksap tSlh lajpuk cukrk gS] ftls Anconeus process
dgrs gSaA
 dqÙks o eqxZs esa jsfM;l o vYuk dsoy fljksa ij gh ,d nwljs ls tqM+h gksrh gSaA
 Carpals :
Radial - Scaphoid
Intermedial - Lunar
Ulnar - Cuniform
Accessory - Pisiform
Fused (2+3) - Osmagnum
4th Carpal - Unciform

 esVkdkiZy o esVkVklZy vfLFk;ksa dks Canon Bone Hkh dgrs gSaA

 esVkdkiZy ds nwjLFk fljs ij nks dks.Mkby gksrs gSa] tks inter-condyloid cleft }kjk foHkDr
jgrs gSaA
 xkSoa’k esa cM+h esVkdkiZy vfLFk rhljh o pkSFkh esVkdkiZy vfLFk;ksa ds tqM+us ls curh gS tcfd
NksVh esVkdkiZy vfLFk ikapoh esVkdkiZy vfLFk ls curh gSA
 eqxsZ esa 3 esVkdkiZYl gksrh gSa] tks dkiZy vfLFk;ksa ds nwjLFk lewgksa ds lkFk tqM+dj dkiksZ
esVkdkiZl (carpo-metacarpus/carpo-metacarpal) cukrh gSaA
 xkSoa’k esa izR;sd fMftV esa 3 Phalanges o 3 Sesamoids gksrh gSaA
 eqxsZ esa Sesamoid vfLFk vuqifLFkr gksrh gSaA v
 Jzksf.k xqgk (Pelvic girdle) dk Q’kZ rFkk ik’oZ nhokjksa dk fuekZ.k Os-coxae }kjk rFkk Nr
dk fuekZ.k Sacrum o ,d ;k nks iqPN d’ks:dkvksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA
 Os-coxae dh rhuksa gfM~M;ka mikfLFk ds }kjk ,d&nwljs ls Acetabulum ij tqM+rh gSA
 Ilium dh ckg~; lrg dks XywfV;y lrg dgrs gSaA
 Ischium vfu;fer vkdkj dh prq"dks.kh; vfLFk gSA
 Ischium dk vxz fdukjk Obturator Foramen dh i’p lhek cukrk gSA
 Pubis dh Pelvic lrg ij ew=k’k; fLFkr gksrk gSA
 Pubis dk i’p fdukjk Obturator Foramen dk vxz fdukjk cukrk gSA
 Acetabulum ;k Cotyloid Cavity dk fuekZ.k Ilium, Ischium o Pubic vfLFk;ksa ls gksrk
gS tks Femur ds flj ds lkFk tqM+dj Hip joint cukrh gSaA
 eqxsZ esa Ilium o Sacrum tqM+h gksrh gSaA
 Femur dh i’p lrg dh medial border ij Trochanter Minor rFkk fudVLFk fljs ij
Trochanter Major ik;k tkrk gSA
 Femur ds Head o Trochanter Major ds chp Trochanteric Fossa ik;k tkrk gSA
 ?kksM+s esa Femur ds ik’oZ fdukjs ij Åij dh vksj 3rd VªksdUs Vj ik;k tkrk gSA
 eqxsZ esa dsoy VªksdsUVj estj ik;k tkrk gSA

 'kjhj dh lcls cM+h fllseksbM vfLFk iVsyk gSA

 fVfc;k dh i’p lrg ij iksIyhfV;y ykbZu (popliteal lines) ik;h tkrh gSaA
 fVfc;k ds fudVLFk fljs ij ik;s tkus okys dks.MkbZy iksIyhfV;y notch }kjk foHkDr jgrs gSaA
 fVfc;k ds ckgjh dks.MkbZy ds ckgj dh vksj vo’ks"kh fQcqyk vfLFk tqM+h jgrh gSA
 eqxsZ eas VklZy dh fudVLFk iafDr fVfc;k ls tqM+dj fVfc;ks&VklZy (tibio-tarsal/tibio-tarsus)
vfLFk cukrh gS] tks ’kjhj dh lcls yEch vfLFk gksrh gSA
 Tarsals :
Tibial - Astragalus/Talus
Fibular - Oscalcis/Calcaneous
First Tarsal - Cuniform
 Point of Hock dk fuekZ.k Fibular Tarsal/Oscalcis djrh gSA
 eqxsZ esa VklZy vfLFk;ka vuqifLFkr gksrh gSaA
 xkSoa’k esa cM+h esVkVklZy vfLFk rhljh o pkSFkh esVkVklZy vfLFk;ksa ds tqM+us ls curh gSa tcfd
NksVh esVkVklZy vfLFk nwljh esVkVklZy vfLFk ls curh gSA
 ?kksM+s esa cM+h esVkVklZy vfLFk csyukdkj gksrh gSA
 uj eqxsZ ¼Cock½ esa esVkVklZy ds i’p e/; Hkkx ij ,d ’kadquqek uqdhyk izo/kZ gksrk gS] ftls
Spur ;k Calcar dgrs gSaA
 foKku dh og ’kk[kk ftlds vUrxZr tksM+ksa (joints) dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS dks lfU/k foKku
¼Arthrology/ Syndesmology½ dgrs gSaA
 tksM+ ds izdkj %
1- rarqe; tksM+ (Fibrous Joint)
2- mikfLFktkr tksM+ (Cartilagenous Joint)
3- lk;uksfo;y tksM+ (Synovial Joint)

 xfr'khy tksM+ & Synovial joint

 rarqe; tksM+ ¼Fibrous Joint½ & vxfr’khy tksM+ gksrs gSaA
 Fibrous Joints -
1. Syndesmosis Joint
2. Suture Joint
3. Gomphosis Joint
4. Schindylesis Joint
 Cartilagenous Joints / Amphi-arthroidial Joints -

1. Synchondrosis Joint
2. Symphysis Joint
 Synovial Joints / Diarthroidial / Movable Joints -

1. Gliding Joint
2. Hinge/Ginglymus
3. Pivot/Trochloid Joint
4. Ball & Socket Joint
5. Condyler Joint
6. Ellipsoidal Joint
7. Saddle Joint
 Costo-vertebral joint ilfy;ksa o o{kh; d’ks:dkvksa ds e/; dk tksM+ gSA

 Costo-chondral joint ilfy;ksa o budh mikfLFk ds e/; cuus okyk tksM+ gSA
 Chondro-sternal joint ilfy;ksa dh mikfLFk o LVuZe ds e/; cuus okyk tksM+ gSA
 Scapula ds v{kh; dadky ds lkFk dk tksM+ - Synsarcosis
 Flexion o extension xfr;ka - Hinge/ginglymus joint esa
 Hinge joint gS & ,d v{kh; (uniaxial)

 Ball & Socket joint gS & cgqv{kh; (multiaxial)

 Sacro-iliac joint gS - Amphi-arthrosis dk izdkj
 Round ligament & Hip Joint esa
 Cruciate ligament & Stifle Joint esa
 MPD djrs gSa & Stifle Joint esa
 Maniscus ikbZ tkrh gSa & Stifle Joint esa
 la;qDr tksM+ & (Compound Joint) :
Knee Joint/Carpal Joint
Hock Joint/Tarsal joint
 Ropk ’kjhj ds egRoiw.kZ tfVy ,oa lcls cM+s vax dk dk;Z djrh gSA
 ,fiMfeZl Basement membrane ds }kjk MfeZl ls i`Fkd jgrh gSA
 Stratum Lucidum dks jks/kd Lrj (barrier layer) Hkh dgrs gSaA
 le;≤ ij fueksZpu fØ;k }kjk Stratum corneum VqdM+ksa ds :Ik esa ’kjhj ls i`Fkd gksrh
jgrh gSA
 MfeZl ds uhps olk dksf’kdkvksa dk eksVk Lrj gksrk gS] ftls olh; Lrj (adipose
tissue/penniculus adiposus) dgrs gSaA
 Lru/kkfj;ksa esa jkse ;k ckyksa dk ik;k tkuk fof’k"V y{k.k gSA
 Losn xzafFk ,iksØkbu izdkj dh xzafFk gSA ;s ’kjhj ds rki fu;eu esa lgk;d gksrh gSaA
 Wax glands dku esa fLFkr gksrh gSa rFkk Ear wax / Cerumen dk fuekZ.k djrh gSaA
 vks"Bksa ls ysdj xqnk ds chp dh yEch ufydkdkj lajpuk vkgkj uky (gastro-intestinal
tract/digestive tract/alimentary canal/GIT) dgykrh gSA

 vkgkjuky dh ijrsa &

Tunica mucosa
Tunica submucosa
Tunica muscularis
Tunica fibrosa/serosa or Tunica adventitia
 Tunica muscularis ijr esa vkarfjd o`Ùkkdkj (inner circular) rFkk ckgjh vuqnSè;Z (outer
longitudinal) vjsf[kr isf’k;ka ik;h tkrh gSaA
 Peritoneal vkgkj uky ij V~;wfudk lhjkslk V~;wfudk Qkbczkslk rFkk ’ks"k Hkkx dh vkgkj uky
ij Tunica adventitia ijr ik;h tkrh gSA
 :feusUV~l esa Canine teeth ds LFkku ij Diastema ik;k tkrk gSA
 eqxZs esa gksB] xky] Soft palate, nkar o elwM+s vuqifLFkr gksrs gSaA
 Pharynx esa dqy lkr fNnz gksrs gSaA
 lqvj esa Diverticulum pharyngeum ik;k tkrk gSA
 xzfldk Diaphragm ds Hiatus oesuphagus ls gksrh gqbZ Stomach ds Cardia ls tqM+rh gSA
 eqxsZ esa xzfldk ls Øksi (crop) uked lajpuk curh gSA
 Abdominal Cavity ’kjhj dh lcls cM+h xqgk gksrh gS] ;g isjhVksfu;e ls f?kjh jgrh gSA
 vksesUVe (omentum), Stomatch ls vU; vkarfjd vaxksa dks rFkk fetsUVªh (mesentery) vkar
dks mnjxqgk dh i`"B fHkfÙk ls tksM+rh gSA
 Dorsal Sac, Rumen dk lcls cM+k Hkkx gksrk gSA
 Rumen esa vkarfjd Muscular pillars ik;s tkrs gSa] tks ckgj dh vksj Grooves ds :i esa
fn[kkbZ nsrs gSaA
 Rumen, Reticulum, Omasum esa fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ ikpd xazfFk ugha gksrhA
 Reticulum lcls NksVk [k.M gksrk gS ftldh lajpuk e/kqeD[kh ds NRrs ¼Honey comb½
tSlh gksrh gSA

 Omasum esa yxHkx 100 vuqnS/;Z ekalis’kh; mHkkj ik;s tkrs gSa ftUgsa Omasal Laminae
dgrs gSaA
 Omasum o Abomasum ds tksM+ ij ’ys"e f>Yyh dk QksYM gksrk gS] ftls Vela
terminalia dgrs gSaA
 Abomasum esa ikpu xzafFk;ka ik;h tkrh gaS rFkk bls Glandular ;k True Stomach dgrs
gSaA
 Stomach dh Lamina mucosa esa ikpu xzafFk;ka ik;h tkrh gSa] Lamina propria esa Hkh
xzafFk;ka ik;h tkrh gSaA
 Perietal dksf’kdkvksa ls HCl lzkfor gksrk gS rFkk Chief cells dks Zymogen cells Hkh dgrs
gSa ftuls ,Utkbe lzkfor gksrs gSaA
 Rumen, Reticulum o Omasum dks lfEefyr :i ls Fore Stomatch dgrs gSaA
 eqxsZ esa Stomach ds nks Hkkx gksrs gSa & Glandular Hkkx Proventriculus rFkk muscular
Hkkx Gizzard gksrk gSA
 xkSoa’k esa NksVh vkar yxHkx 130 QhV yEch o cM+h vkar yxHkx 35 ls 40 QhV yEch gksrh
gSA
 Bile duct o Pancreatic duct, duodenum esa [kqyrh gSA
 NksVh vkar esa Brunner’s glands, Villi, Intestinal glands, Payer’s patches, Goblet
cells ik;h tkrh gSaA
 ?kksM+s esa Diverticulum duodeni ik;k tkrk gS ftlesa Bile duct o pancreatic duct [kqyrh
gSaA
 Caecum ¼lhde½ ,d Blind sac ds :i esa gksrk gSA
 Colon ds rhu Hkkx gksrs gSa & ascending, transverse o descending.
 Rectum dk vxz Hkkx izFke Coccygeal vertebra ds Lrj ij gksrk gS tks Peritoneum ls
<dk jgrk gS] tcfd bldk i’p Hkkx Peritoneum ls <dk gqvk ugha gksrk gS rFkk bls
Ampulla Recti dgrs gSaA

 cM+h vkar esa villi vuqifLFkr gksrh gS] ysfdu vuqnS/;Z mHkkj ik;s tkrs gSaA
 ?kksM+s dh lhde dksek vkdkj dh (comma shaped) gksrh gS o blesa thok.oh;@cSDVhfj;y
fd.ou gksrk gS o blesa xqCckjsuqek sacculations ik;s tkrs gSaA
 dqÙks esa Ano-rectal junction ij Anal glands ik;h tkrh gSaA
 eqxsZ esa colon dh xqgk esa villi ik;h tkrh gSaA
 xqnk (anus) pkSFkh iqPN d’ks:dk (coccygeal vertebra) ds uhps dh rjQ fLFkr gksrk gSA
 eqxsZ esa Cloaca ds rhu Hkkx gksrs gSa& Coprodeum, Urodeum o Proctodeum.
 eqxsZ esa Bursa of fabricius ik;k tkrk gS tks Lymphoid Ård gksrk gSA
 isf’k;ksa dh mRifÙk ehtksMeZ ls gksrh gSA
 yxHkx lHkh dadkyh; isf’k;ka vfLFk;ksa ls tqM+h jgrh gSaA
 tc fdlh is’kh dk ;kstu ,d rarqe; NM+ ds :i esa gks rks bls d.Mjk @ VsUMu (tendon)
dgrs gSa vkSj ;fn ,d iryh lrg ;k pknj ds :i esa gksrk rks mls aponeurosis dgrs gSaA
 xkSoa’k esa rhu tksM+h ykj xzafFk;ka ikbZ tkrh gSa] bueas ls esfUMcqyj xzafFk lcls cM+h gksrh gSA
 Stenson’s duct / Parotid duct, Parotid gland dh ufydk gS tks Fifth cheek tooth ds
ikl [kqyrh gSA
 Wharton’s duct / mandibular duct, mandibular gland dh ufydk gS tks thHk ds uhps
[kqyrh gSA
 Ravinus ducts, sublingual glands dh ufydk,a gSaA
 ?kksM+s esa iSjksfVM xzafFk lcls cM+h ykj xzafFk gksrh gSA
 dqÙks esa Zygomatic salivary gland ik;h tkrh gSA
 Liver ’kjhj esa mnj xqgk esa Mk;ÝkWe ds Bhd ihNs nka;h vksj fLFkr gksrk gSA
 ;d‘r dh iSjkbZVy lrg mRry o foljy lrg vory gksrh gSA
 Triad esa Hepatic Artery, Lymph gland, portal vein o Bile duct gksrh gS tks Portal
fissure esa gksrk gSA
 Cruciate, falciform o round ligaments, liver esa ik;s tkrs gSaA

 Liver esa dq¶Qj dksf’kdk,a ikbZ tkrh gSa tks jDr esa vk;s foreign particles dks u"V djus
dk dk;Z djrh gSaA
 Gall bladder dh ufydk Cystic duct gksrh gS tks ;d‘r ls vkus okyh Bile duct ls
tqM+dj common bile duct cukrh gS tks xzg.kh esa [kqyrh gSA
 ?kksM+s o ÅaV esa fiÙkk’k; (Gall bladder) vuqifLFkr gksrk gSA
 eqxhZ esa ;d‘r ij Cardiac impressions ik;s tkrs gSaA
 ;d‘r ,d la;qDr ufydkdkj xzafFk (compound tubular gland) gS tcfd vXuk’k; ,d
Compound alveolar racemose gland gSA
 vXuk’k; cfglzkZoh ,oa var%lzkoh nksuksa izdkj dh xzfUFk gSA
 vXuk’k; dh lzkoh bdkbZ Alveolus gSA
 vXuk’k; esa Islets of Langerhan’s ikbZ tkrh gSa] tks bUlqfyu o Xywdsxksu gkeksZu lzkfor
djrs gSaA
 lcls cM+h ufydkfofgu xzafFk (largest ductless gland) Iyhgk (spleen) gksrh gSA
 ?kksM+s dh Iyhgk gafl;kuqek (scythe shaped) gksrh gSA
 ?kksM+s esa vXuk’k; (pancreas) f=dks.kkdkj ,oa dqÙks esa V vkdkj dk gksrk gSA
 foKku dh og ’kk[kk ftlds vUrxZr Ðn~; ,oa :f/kjokfgfu;ksa dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS dks
Angiology dgrs gSaA
 Ðn~; Pericardium ds ckgjh vkoj.k esa can jgrk gSA
 Visceral serous layer dks Epicardium dgrs gSa] tks Ðn~; ls fpidh jgrh gSA
 Ðn~; dk vk/kkj Hkkx 2nd Intercostal space ls 6th Rib rd gksrk gSA
 Ðn~; esa [kkap ik;h tkrh gS tks bldks pkj Hkkxksa vkfyan o fuy; esa foHkDr djrh gSA
 Inter artrial septum ij ,d xgjk xM~<k ik;k tkrk gS ftls Fossa ovalis dgrs gSa tks
Foramen ovale dk vo’ks"k gksrk gSA

 Ðn~; dh fHkfRr fpduh ugha gksrh rFkk blesa eklaisf’k;ksa dh vkM+h&frjNh lajpuk,a ik;h tkrh gSa
ftUgsa Pectinate muscles / Musculo pectinae dgrs gSaA
 nka;s vkfyan&fuy; fNnz ij yxs okYo dks Tricuspid valve dgrs gSaA
 iYeksujh /keuh dk fNnz xksykdkj gksrk gS ftl ij rhu v)ZpUnzkdkj dikV (semilunar
valves) ik;s tkrs gSaA
 cka;s vkfyan&fuy; fNnz ij yxs okYo dks Bicuspid Valve / Mitral Valve dgrs gSaA
 cka;s fuy; esa Papillary muscles cM+h gksrh gSA
 Aorta ds fNnz ij Hkh rhu v)ZpUnzkdkj dikV ik;s tkrs gSaA
 Ðn~; esa ekalisf’k;ksa dh rhu ijrsa Endocardium, Myocardium o Epicardium ik;h tkrh
gSaA
 ?kksM+s eas Ðn~; ’kadquwek ,oa dqRrs esa v.Mkdkj gksrk gSA
 Pulmonary artery f}foHkktu ds ikl ligamentum arteriosum ds }kjk aorta ls tqM+rh
gSA
 Pulmonary artery eas v’kq) jDr rFkk Pulmonary vein esa ’kq) jDr cgrk gSA
 jDr okfgfu;ksa dh nhokj esa Tunica intima, Tunica media, Tunica adventitia Lrj ik;s
tkrs gSaA
 Trunk dks NksM+dj yxHkx lHkh f’kjkvksa esa dikV ik;s tkrs gSaA
 tc ,d /keuh dh ’kk[kk nwljh /keuh dh ’kk[kkvksa ls tqM+rh gS rks bls Anastomosis dgrs
gSaA
 Hiatus aorticus, diapharagm esa ik;k tkrk gS ftlesa gksdj egkèkeuh fudyrh gSA
 tgka ls Aorta fudyrk gS] ogka ik;s tkus okys rhu Qqyko Sinuses of valsalva dgykrs gSaA
 RMC ih;w"k xzfUFk ds pkjksa vkSj :f/kj okfgfu;kas dk tky gksrk gSA
 RMC ds Åij ,d lajpuk Circle of Willis ikbZ tkrh gSA
 Phrenic artery Mk;Ýke dks jDr vkiwfrZ djrh gSA

 vf/kdrj f’kjk,a /kefu;kas dh Satellite gksrh gSa vFkkZr~ ;s vius {ks= dh /kefu;ksa ds lkFk&lkFk
pyrh gSaA
 Posterior vena cava ’kjhj dk lcls cM+k Venous trunk gksrk gSA
 Hkzw.k esa Primitive endocardial tubes ds feyus ls ân~; dk fuekZ.k gksrk gSA
 yfldk ra= lEiw.kZ ’kjhj ls yfldk dks xzg.k djds venous system esa Mkyus dk dk;Z djrk
gS rFkk blls igys ;g ,d yfldk xzfUFk ls xqtjrk gSA
 Lru xzfUFk;ka Sebaceous glands dk :ikarj.k gSa] budk lh/kk lEca/k iztuu ra= ls gksus ds
dkj.k budks iztuu ra= dh lgk;d xzfUFk;ka Hkh dgrs gSaA
 xkSoa’k esa ,d udder quarter dks ,d mammary gland dgk tk ldrk gSA
 dwfidkvksa (alveoli) ds ckgj is’kh; midyk gksrh gS ftlds lqdapu ls ;s nqX/k dks
lactiferous duct eas L=kfor dj nsrh gSaA
 Udder cistern vkxs c<+dj teat cistern esa [kqyrk gS tks teat canal ls gksdj teat meatus
ds }kjk ckgjh okrkoj.k esa [kqyrk gSA
 mRltZu ra= ’kjhj ds vif’k"V inkFkksZa dks ’kjhj ls ckgj fudky dj ’kjhj ds jklk;fud
laxBu dks fu;r cuk, j[krk gS] ftls homeostasis dgrs gSaA
 ew= R;kx djus dh fØ;k Micturition / urination dgykrh gSA
 cka;s o`Dd dks floating kidney Hkh dgrs gSaA
 o`Dd dh lajpukRed ,oa fØ;kRed bdkbZ o`Dd ufydk ;k Nephron/Uriniferous tubule
gksrh gSA
 o`Dd dk xgjs jax dk ckgjh {ks= dksVsZDl rFkk gYds jax dk vkarfjd {ks= esM~;qyk dgykrk gSA
 o`Dd esa ew=okfguh ds foLr`r pkSM+s Hkkx dks iSfYol (pelvis) dgrs gSaA
 usÝksu dh I;kysuqek lajpuk dks cksesu lEiqV (Bowman’s capsule) dgrs gSa] tks Xykses:yl
(glomerulus) ds lkFk feydj esYihxh dks"k (Malpighian corpuscle) cukrh gSA

 viokgh /kefudkvksa (efferent arterioles) dk O;kl vfHkokgh /kefudkvksa (afferent

arterioles) dh rqyuk esa de gksrk gSA
 lehiLFk dq.Mfyr ufydk (proximal convoluted tube/PCT) esa dksf’kdkvksa esa czq’k cksMZj
ikbZ tkrh gS tks nwjLFk dq.Mfyr ufydk (distal convoluted tubule/DCT) esa ugha ikbZ tkrh
gSA
 lehiLFk dq.Mfyr ufydk dh dksf’kdkvksa esa ijkWDlhlkse (peroxysome) dksf’kdkax vf/kd ik;k
tkrk gSA
 gsuys dk ywi (Henle’s loop) iryk o U vkdkj dk gksrk gSA
 nwjLFk dq.Mfyr ufydk tc jDr okfgfu;kas ds ikl ls gksdj xqtjrh gS] rks bldh dksf’kdk,a
nh?kZ o`Ùkkdkj gks tkrh gSa] ftUgsa esdqyk MsUlk (Macula densa) dgrs gSaA
 cgqr lkjh nwjLFk dq.Mfyr ufydk;sa feydj laxzg.k ufydk (collecting duct) esa [kqyrh gSaA
 vojksgh oklk jsDVk (descending vasa recta) /kefudk,a gSa tcfd vkjksgh oklk jsDVk
(ascending vasa recta) f’kjhdk,a gksrh gSaA
 o`Dd esa izfr/kkjk ra= ;k Counter current exchange system dk;Z djrk gSA
 Juxta glomerular apparatus ds vUrxZr Macula densa, Polkissen cells/Lacis cells/
Goormagtigh cells/Extra glomerular mesangial cells o Juxta glomerular cells
’kkfey gksrh gSaA
 ?kksM+s o dqÙks esa o`Dd fpdus o fi.Mfoghu gksrs gSaA
 eqxsZ esa ew= okfguh Dyks,dk (cloaca) esa ;wjksfM;e }kjk [kqyrh gSA
 Cicatrix lajpuk ew=k’k; esa ik;h tkrh gS] tks vo’ks"kh gksrh gSA
 dqÙks esa [kkyh ew=k’k; iSfYol esa ,oa Hkjk gqvk gksus ij mnj xqgk esa yVdrk gS] tks iw.kZr%
iSjhVksfu;e ls <dk gksrk gSA
 tuu ra= o mRltZu ra= dk leku ekxZ (common path) gS & Urethra/ew= ekxZ


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Ik”kq “kjhj jpuk foKku

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 ?kqek gqvk lhax tSlk mHkkj & Cornu

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 lcls yEch dksf'kdk - ftjkQ dh raf=dk dksf'kdk

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 [kqjnjh ER (rough ER) izksVhu la'ys"k.k ls lEcfU/kr gksrh gSA

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Sub-metacentric - e/; ls dqN nwj

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 Crossing over - isdkbVhu voLFkk esa

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 Spleen/Lymph node dk Ård & jsVhdqyj rarq

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 Pneumatic bones - if{k;ksa esa

 is'kh Ård dh mRifr & Mesoderm ls

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 Schwann dksf'kdk ikbZ tkrh gS & raf=dk ra= esa

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 d’ks:d n.M dk lw= &

HkSal & C7 Th13 L6 S5 Co15-25

cdjh & C7 Th13 L6-7 S4 Co12-14

HksM+ & C7 Th13 L6-7 S4 Co16-18

?kksM+k & C7 Th18 L6 S5 Co16-22

ÅaV & C7 Th12 L7 S5 Co15-21

dqÙkk & C7 Th13 L7 S3 Co18-25

eqxkZ & C14 Th7 (L+S)14 Co4-9

lqvj & C7 Th14-15 L6-7 S4 Co18-24

euq"; & C7 Th12 L5 S5 Co4

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 esVkdkiZy o esVkVklZy vfLFk;ksa dks Canon Bone Hkh dgrs gSaA

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 'kjhj dh lcls cM+h fllseksbM vfLFk iVsyk gSA

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 xfr'khy tksM+ & Synovial joint

 Cartilagenous Joints / Amphi-arthroidial Joints -

 Synovial Joints / Diarthroidial / Movable Joints -

 Costo-vertebral joint ilfy;ksa o o{kh; d’ks:dkvksa ds e/; dk tksM+ gSA

 Hinge joint gS & ,d v{kh; (uniaxial)

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 Ball & Socket joint gS & cgqv{kh; (multiaxial)

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