Circulation Topics

Chapter 8
1. The functions of the circulatory system & the different types of
circulatory systems
2. Structure and function of the heart
a. Anatomy of the heart
b. Electrical activity of the heart
c. Cardiac cycle
3. Blood vessels & the lymphatic system
a. Types of blood vessels, their structure & contents
b. The structure and function of the lymphatic system
4. Blood pressure & control of blood pressure & blood flow
a. Describe how pressure varies within the circulatory system
b. Describe how blood flow is controlled to meet the
demands of the organism
 Circulation 1
Learning outcomes/goals

1. List and understand the functions of the circulatory

system
2. Identify the different types of circulatory systems
a. Understand how each type functions
b. Know examples of organisms with each type
3. Describe the components that make up the circulatory
system in general and specifically in humans
4. Discuss how a closed circulatory system is suited to
meet the demands of the organism
 Types of Circulatory System
1. No circulatory system

2. Unspecialized system

3. Specialized open system

4. Specialize closed, one cycle system

5. Specialized closed, two cycle system

 Given that capillaries lack smooth muscle, how is blood
flow in capillary beds altered? There are two mechanisms, both
Direction of blood flow
of which rely on signals that regulate the flow into capillaries.
in vein (toward heart) One mechanism involves contraction of the smooth muscle in
Valve (open)
the wall of an arteriole, which reduces the vessel’s diameter and
decreases blood flow to the adjoining capillary beds. When the
smooth muscle relaxes, the arterioles dilate, allowing blood to
Skeletal muscle enter the capillaries. The other mechanism for altering flow,
shown in Figure 42.14, involves the action of precapillary
sphincters, rings of smooth muscle located at the entrance to
capillary beds. The signals that regulate blood flow include
nerve impulses, hormones traveling throughout the blood-
stream, and chemicals produced locally. For example, the
Valve (closed) chemical histamine released by cells at a wound site causes
smooth muscle relaxation, dilating blood vessels and increas-
ing blood flow. The dilated vessels also give disease-fighting
white blood cells greater access to invading microorganisms.
As you have read, the critical exchange of substances be-
tween the blood and interstitial fluid takes place across the
! Figure 42.13 Blood flow in veins. Skeletal muscle contraction
squeezes and constricts veins. Flaps of tissue within the veins act as
one-way valves that keep blood moving only toward the heart. If you
sit or stand too long, the lack of muscular activity may cause your feet
to swell as blood pools in your veins. Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfare
channel

veins toward the heart (Figure 42.13). Third, the change in

pressure within the thoracic (chest) cavity during inhalation
causes the venae cavae and other large veins near the heart to
expand and fill with blood.
In rare instances, runners and other athletes can suffer
heart failure if they stop vigorous exercise abruptly. When the
leg muscles suddenly cease contracting and relaxing, less
Capillaries
blood returns to the heart, which continues to beat rapidly. If
Arteriole Venule
the heart is weak or damaged, this inadequate blood flow may
cause the heart to malfunction. To reduce the risk of stressing
(a) Sphincters relaxed
the heart excessively, athletes are encouraged to follow hard
exercise with moderate activity, such as walking, to “cool
down” until their heart rate approaches its resting level.

Capillary Function
At any given time, only about 5–10% of the body’s capillaries
have blood flowing through them. However, each tissue has
many capillaries, so every part of the body is supplied with
blood at all times. Capillaries in the brain, heart, kidneys,
and liver are usually filled to capacity, but at many other sites
the blood supply varies over time as blood is diverted from
one destination to another. For example, blood flow to the Arteriole Venule
skin is regulated to help control body temperature, and blood
supply to the digestive tract increases after a meal. During (b) Sphincters contracted
strenuous exercise, blood is diverted from the digestive tract
! Figure 42.14 Blood flow in capillary beds. Precapillary
and supplied more generously to skeletal muscles and skin.
sphincters regulate the passage of blood into capillary beds. Some
This is one reason why exercising heavily immediately after blood flows directly from arterioles to venules through capillaries called
eating a big meal may cause indigestion. thoroughfare channels, which are always open.

908 UNIT SEVEN Animal Form and Function

CONCEPT CHECK 42.1 Superior
vena cava 7
Capillaries of
head and
forelimbs
1. How is the flow of hemolymph through an open cir-
culatory system similar to the flow of water through
Pulmonary Pulmonary
an outdoor fountain? artery artery
2. Three-chambered hearts with incomplete septa were
once viewed as being less adapted to circulatory func- Capillaries 9 Aorta Capillaries
tion than mammalian hearts. What advantage of of right lung of left lung
such hearts did this viewpoint overlook? 6
3. WHAT IF? The heart of a normally developing
human fetus has a hole between the left and right 3
2 3
atria. In some cases, this hole does not close com- 4
11
pletely before birth. If the hole weren’t surgically cor-
rected, how would it affect the O2 content of the Pulmonary Pulmonary
5
blood entering the systemic circuit? vein 1 vein
For suggested answers, see Appendix A. Right atrium 10 Left atrium
Right ventricle Left ventricle

CONCEPT
42.2 Inferior
vena cava
Aorta

Coordinated cycles of heart Capillaries of

contraction drive double
circulation in mammals
The timely delivery of O2 to the body’s organs is critical:
Some brain cells, for example, die if their O2 supply is inter-
rupted for as little as a few minutes. How does the mam-
malian cardiovascular system meet the body’s continuous
but variable demand for O2? To answer this question, we
need to consider how the parts of the system are arranged
and how each part functions.
Mammalian Circulation
Let’s first examine the overall organization of the mam-
malian cardiovascular system, beginning with the pul-
monary circuit. (The circled numbers refer to corresponding
locations in Figure 42.6.) 1 Contraction of the right ventri-
cle pumps blood to the lungs via 2 the pulmonary arteries.
As the blood flows through 3 capillary beds in the left and
right lungs, it loads O2 and unloads CO2. Oxygen-rich blood
returns from the lungs via the pulmonary veins to 4 the
left atrium of the heart. Next, the oxygen-rich blood flows
into 5 the heart’s left ventricle, which pumps the oxygen-
rich blood out to body tissues through the systemic circuit.
Blood leaves the left ventricle via 6 the aorta, which con-
veys blood to arteries leading throughout the body. The first
branches leading from the aorta are the coronary arteries (not
shown), which supply blood to the heart muscle itself. Then
branches lead to 7 capillary beds in the head and arms (fore-
limbs). The aorta then descends into the abdomen, supplying
oxygen-rich blood to arteries leading to 8 capillary beds in the
abdominal organs and legs (hind limbs). Within the capillaries,
there is a net diffusion of O2 from the blood to the tissues
8
abdominal organs
and hind limbs
! Figure 42.6 The mammalian cardiovascular system: an
overview. Note that the dual circuits operate simultaneously, not in the
serial fashion that the numbering in the diagram suggests. The two
ventricles pump almost in unison; while some blood is traveling in the
pulmonary circuit, the rest of the blood is flowing in the systemic circuit.
and of CO2 (produced by cellular respiration) into the blood.
Capillaries rejoin, forming venules, which convey blood to
veins. Oxygen-poor blood from the head, neck, and fore-
limbs is channeled into a large vein, 9 the superior vena
cava. Another large vein, 10 the inferior vena cava, drains
blood from the trunk and hind limbs. The two venae cavae
empty their blood into 11 the right atrium, from which the
oxygen-poor blood flows into the right ventricle.
The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look
Using the human heart as an example, let’s now take a closer
look at how the mammalian heart works (Figure 42.7). Lo-
cated behind the sternum (breastbone), the human heart is
about the size of a clenched fist and consists mostly of car-
diac muscle (see Figure 40.5). The two atria have relatively
thin walls and serve as collection chambers for blood return-
ing to the heart from the lungs or other body tissues. Much
of the blood that enters the atria flows into the ventricles
while all heart chambers are relaxed. The remainder is trans-
ferred by contraction of the atria before the ventricles begin
to contract. The ventricles have thicker walls and contract
much more forcefully than the atria—especially the left ven-
tricle, which pumps blood to all body organs through the
systemic circuit. Although the left ventricle contracts with

902 UNIT SEVEN Animal Form and Function

 Circulation Topics
Chapter 8
1. The functions of the circulatory system & the different types of
circulatory systems
2. Structure and function of the heart
a. Anatomy of the heart
b. Electrical activity of the heart
c. Cardiac cycle
3. Blood vessels & the lymphatic system
a. Types of blood vessels, their structure & contents
b. The structure and function of the lymphatic system
4. Blood pressure & control of blood pressure & blood flow
a. Describe how pressure varies within the circulatory system
b. Describe how blood flow is controlled to meet the
demands of the organism
 Circulation 2
Learning outcomes/goals

1. Understand the structure of the heart and the function

of the heart in the circulatory system
2. Describe how blood flows through the heart
a. Understand the role of heart valves & how they
work
3. Understand what the cardiac cycle is & the sequence
of events in this cycle
4. Describe how the heart beats, noting origin & path of
the heart’s electrical activity
 Circulation Topics
Chapter 8
1. The functions of the circulatory system & the different types of
circulatory systems
2. Structure and function of the heart
a. Anatomy of the heart
b. Electrical activity of the heart
c. Cardiac cycle
3. Blood vessels & the lymphatic system
a. Types of blood vessels, their structure & contents
b. The structure and function of the lymphatic system
4. Blood pressure & control of blood pressure & blood flow
a. Describe how pressure varies within the circulatory
system
b. Describe how blood flow is controlled to meet the demands
of the organism
 Circulation 3
Learning outcomes/goals

1. Know the path of blood through the circulatory system,

including the names of major blood vessels
2. Understand the structure and function of the various
vessels in the circulatory system (artery, vein,
capillary)
3. Understand the differences in pressure, velocity &
area of the different types of vessels
4. Describe what a heart attack & stroke is and the
causes of these
5. Understand the lymphatic system and its role in fluid
balance
Path of blood in the human cardiovascular system
Lungs
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Aorta
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
Vena cava
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Pulmonary arteries
Lungs
 Circulation Topics
Chapter 8
1. The functions of the circulatory system & the different types of
circulatory systems
2. Structure and function of the heart
a. Anatomy of the heart
b. Electrical activity of the heart
c. Cardiac cycle
3. Blood vessels & the lymphatic system
a. Types of blood vessels, their structure & contents
b. The structure and function of the lymphatic system
4. Blood pressure & control of blood pressure & blood flow
a. Describe how pressure varies within the circulatory
system
b. Describe how blood flow is controlled to meet the
demands of the organism
 Circulation 4
Learning outcomes/goals

1. Understand what determines blood pressure

a. Know what cardiac output is & how to calculate it
b. Understand Starling’s law
2. Understand the nervous control of the cardiovascular
system
a. Describe where the control centre is housed
b. Describe the role of the autonomic nervous
system
c. Describe the receptors involved and their role
3. Understand local control of blood flow