DDGB 1I-MT LAB & LEC

Baroreceptors - responsible
SENSES for sensing pressure
-Brain constantly receives information about Proprioceptors - sensory
the environment and body receptors situated on the
- Receives stimuli but simulation does not nerve endings of the inner
immediately result in perception ear, muscles, skin, joints,
tendons, and other tissues.
Sensation - Process initiated by stimulating
sensory receptors Chemoreceptors - respond to
chemicals (ex: perceive smells and
-sensitivity to the stimuli taste)
Perception - Conscious awareness of Photoreceptors - response to light
stimuli received by sensory neurons and color
Two types of senses: Thermoreceptors - response to
temperature changes
General - Receptors over large part of body
that sense touch, pressure, pain, vibration, Nociceptors - respond to sensation of pain
temperature, and itch
- Associated with the skin and deeper
structures
-free nerve endings
Four Kinds of Information
-Type of sensation
- Location
- Duration
- Intensity
GENERAL SENSES

Special- have highly localized receptors that Pain

provide specific information about the
Group of unpleasant perceptual and
environment
emotional experiences
Involves the five special senses
- Perception of pain can be disrupted through
anesthesia

Sensory Receptors - Can also be influenced by inherent control

Sensory nerve endings that respond
to stimuli by developing action potentials
Mechanoreceptors - respond to
mechanical stimuli (ex:
bending/stretching)
systems
Pathway for pain
The pathway can be the same as any other
sensory input from the skin
Unipolar neuron ⇒ spinal cord ⇒ medulla
oblongata⇒
DDGB 1I-MT LAB & LEC

pons ⇒ midbrain ⇒ thalamus ⇒ parietal - Occurs in response to odorants (airborne

lobe molecules)

The signal may take a different pathway - Receptors are located in nasal cavity and
hard palate
Unipolar neuron ⇒ spinal cord ⇒ reticular
formation ⇒ -Olfactory cells are bipolar neurons

parietal lobe - Each receptor can bind multiple odorants

⇓ - detect 10, 000 different smells - Receptors

manifests desensitization upon binding with
hypothalamus and limbic system odorant
Localized pain - Sharp pricking, cutting pain Odoriferous substances- stimuli for
- Rapid action potential olfaction

Diffused pain - Burning, aching pain -Olfactory hairs are chemoreceptors

- Slower action potentials

Pain Control
Local Anesthesia - action potentials from
pain receptors suppressed
- Receptors in local areas
-chemicals are injected near sensory organs
General Anesthesia - Loss of
consciousness
- chemicals affect reticular formation
Referred Pain - Perceived to originate in a
region of the body that is not the source of
the pain stimulus
- usually felt when internal organs are
damaged or inflamed
- Sensory neurons from superficial area and
neurons of source pain converge onto same
ascending neurons of spinal cord

SPECIAL SENSES
Olfaction
Only process that is directly relayed to the
-sense of smell cerebral cortex without passing through
the thalamus
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Olfactory Bulb - Where axons from olfactory Tongue

neurons that form the olfactory nerves enter
Lingual Papillae – bumps that cover the
Olfactory Epithelium - Lines the superior surface of the tongue.
part of the nasal cavity
Vallate – where most of the taste receptors
Olfactory Tracts - Where olfactory neurons are present( bitter)
synapse with interneurons that relay action Fungiform- tip of the tongue (no taste
potentials to the brain buds)(sweet)
Filiform- helps in the moving/propelling of
Olfactory Cortex - Where olfactory tracts
food and mastication(salty)
terminates
Foliate- lateral (sides) of the tongue (sour)
Adaptation- From feedback loops that
inhibit transmission of action potential But according to maam, it is the filiform na
walang taste buds)
- Prolonged exposure to a given odor makes
us used to it for a given amount of time
Olfactory pathway

frontal lobe (association area)

Bipolar neuron → CN I → temporal lobe
(general sensory area)
Temporal > hypothalamus and amygdala
Temporal > frontal lobe (association area)

Taste
-Gustation

-There are approximately 10,000 taste buds

in the human mouth.
Taste Cells/Gustatory Cells-Banana-
shaped.
-Most of the taste buds are on the tongue, but
some are found lining the cheeks and on the Taste Hair- Hairlike microvilli on the surface.
soft palate, larynx, and epiglottis
The special sense organ for taste is the taste -Exposed to molecules taken into the mouth
through a taste pore of the taste bud.
bud.
Taste buds are located mostly on the tongue -Chemoreceptors for taste.
and contain different cells
- Epithelial cells with sensory neurons at their
Taste cells have taste hairs that are base
chemoreceptors
-Live for about 10 days
Tastants- stimulates gustation
Chemoreceptors work for gustation
DDGB 1I-MT LAB & LEC

Basal Cells -Stem cells in the taste bud that Cranial nerve > medulla oblongata > pons >
develop to replace taste cells as they die. midbrain>thalamus > parietal lobe

Cranial nerve > medulla oblongata >

hypothalamus and amygdala

 the sensory message that takes the

path to the hypothalamus and
amygdala may trigger salivation,
gagging, and emotional responses to
taste.

Hearing

-interpretation of sound waves raveling in the

air
-sense for sound vibration

 Vibration is caused by wave traveling

through a solid medium

Volume- is the level of loudness of the sound

- Size of the soundwave

-measure by decibels
Threshold level in hearing: around 10 dBs
- Whisper, faint sounds
Stem cells- Physically support the 50 to 150 -
taste cells in the taste bud. Humans can only hear 0-120 dBs

-Do not have a sensory role. Normal communication- 28-80 dBs

Five Primary Tastes: Frequency- determines the pitch of the

sound.
Salty- NaCl
Sweet- sugars -measured in Hertz
Bitter-alkaloids such as caffeine, nicotine,
etc. High frequency= high pitch
- Taste that tongue is most Low frequency= low pitch
sensitive from because poisons
usually have bitter taste and our Ear- sensory organ for hearing and balance
body have an automatic initial
response to it -has three sections:
Sour- acids
Umami- meaty taste, monosodium Outer, inner, and middle
glutamate (MSG)
Auricle- fleshy part on outside
Taste Pathway Outer ear
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-consists of the pinna and auditory canal
Pinna- external ear flap composed of elastic
cartilage.
-directs sound waves into the ear.
Auditory Canal- from an opening in the
temporal bone until the tympanic membrane
-contains ceruminous glands that produces
cerumen
Cerumen- protects the ear from too much
volume and coats guard hairs in the canal to
protect ear from insects
- Has lyzosomes and low pH to
counter bacteria
- Thin membrane that separates
the outer and middle ear
Middle Ear
Tympanic Membrane- eardrum
Sound waves cause the membrane to
vibrate in and out at the same frequency.
Tympanic cavity- Air-filled space in
temporal bone separated from external
auditory canal by the tympanic membrane
Auditory tube- Connects tympanic cavity
with the pharynx
LAB & LEC
-Allows for air pressure in the
tympanic cavity to equal external air
pressure
-Essential for eardrum to function
properly
Ossicles- three tiny bones forming a lever
system between tympanic membrane and
inner ear
Malleus (hammer)- attached to the
tympanic membrane
-forms a synovial joint with the incus.
Incus (anvil)- forms a synovial joint
with the stapes
Stapes (stirrup)- comes in contact
with membranous oval window (at
the base)
-located at the beginning of the inner
ear
Vibrations from tympanic membrane
pass from malleus to incus to stapes.
Stapes vibrates on the oval window of inner
ear.
Tympanic and stapedius muscle-
contributes to modifying the amplitude of
sound
-equalizing balance in the middle ear
Stapedius muscle is the smallest muscle
Auditory Tube/Eustachian Tube-– leads
from the middle ear to the nasopharynx
-Normally flattened and closed, but it opens
during yawning or swallowing to allow air to
enter the middle ear which allows pressure
to equalize on both sides of the tympanic
membrane.
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Inner Ear
-Complicated mass of fluid-filled semicircular
canals and a spiral tube embedded in a bony
labyrinth of the temporal bone.
-series of two conducting tubes and
chambers, one inside the other
-network of canals
Outer Bony Labyrinth – tunnels filled with
fluid
Parts:
Scala vestibuli • Scala tympani • Cochlea
duct • Spiral organ • Tectorial membrane •
Hair cells • Vestibular membrane • Basilar
membrane
Cochlea- sensory receptor
hearing/where hearing takes place
- 2 ½ twists of the fluid-filled tube.
-ends at the round window of the
vestibule.
- snail-shaped structure
Vestibule- sensory receptor for balance
specifically, static equilibrium
Static Equilibrium- perceived when the
head is stationary or moving in a straight line.
LAB & LEC
-position in relation to gravity and linear
acceleration (from stationary to sudden
movement)
Examples:
Holding your head still as you are reading.
Accelerating in your car.
Dynamic Equilibrium- perceived when the
head is rotating.
The rotation would be in the transverse plane
if you were spinning in a chair, the coronal
plane if you were doing a cartwheel, or the
sagittal plane if you were doing a somersault
(forward tuck and roll).
Vestibular apparatus:
Macula- organ for static equilibrium, patch
for hair cells- mechanoreceptors
Saccule/ Macula-saccule- perceive vertical
movement of the head, as in going up and
down in an elevator.
Utricle/ Macula-utricle- used for horizontal
movement of the head, as in acceleration in
a car.
Otolithic Membrane- Gel-like structure over
the top of the hair cells
Otoliths-
for Oto means “ear”.
Liths means “stones”.
- calcium carbonate and protein
granules are suspended in the
gel.
 Gravity, during a tilt of the head,
causes the otoliths to move in the
direction of the force of gravity, which
bends the hair cells.
Semicircular canals are not involved with
hearing.
-responsible for dynamic balance
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Tilting of head causes hair cells to bend.
Posterior semicircular- tilting head
on a normal pace
Anterior semicircular- nodding/ up
and down
Lateral semicircular- tilting head
faster/ saying no
Crista Ampullaris- patch of hair cells in
semicircular canals
Ampulla- bulge at the base.
-location of Crista Ampullaris.
Cupula- Gel cap.
Inner Membranous Labyrinth- inside the
bony labyrintyh filled with endolymph
Oval Window- separates the stapes from a
fluid-filled tube that coils to form a snail-like
structure called the cochlea, embedded in
the bony labyrinth.
Distance between oval window and
basilar membrane- determines the degree
of pitch entering the ear
Low pitch = longer distance between oval
window and basilar membrane
High pitch- shorter distance between oval
window and basilar membrane
Perilymph- fluid circulating in the outer bony
labyrinth
Endolymph- fluid circulating in the inner
membranous labyrinth
These two are almost the same as the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Cochlear Duct- filled with endolymph
-contains hair cells
Basilar membrane contains 20,000 cross
hairs
LAB & LEC
Cross hairs increase in length from the base
to apex of the cochlea.
Fibers attach to bony center of cochlea.
Can vibrate when activated by vibrations
made from sound
Organ of Corti is in upper surface of basilar
membrane.
-It contains sound receptors called hair
cells.
-Hair cells extend cilia towards overlying
tectorial membrane.
-Nerve fibers for the cochlear branch of the
vestibulocochlear nerve exit each hair cell.
Hearing Pathway
bipolar neurons > pons > midbrain(inferior
colliculi) > thalamus> temporal lobe
Equilibrium Pathway
Bipolar neurons > medulla oblongata >
pons > cerebellum
-Uses the information to determine the
position of the head for coordination and
posture.
Bipolar neurons > medulla oblongata >
pons > midbrain > thalamus > frontal/
parietal lobe
Directs the sensory messages of equilibrium
to the frontal and parietal lobes.
Bipolar neurons > medulla oblongata >
cranial nerves 3, 4, 6
-Coordinate eye movements.
-Compensate (balance) the movement of the
eyes based on the position of the head and
how it may be moving.
Bipolar neurons > medulla oblongata>
spinal cord
DDGB 1I-MT LAB & LEC

- Initiates reflexes if the position of the head -epithelial linings

changes abruptly.
-secrete a mucous film to prevent the eye
from drying.
Vision
-stimulated by light or color Other components for protection:

-involves photoreceptors Eye socket- bony area

Adipose tissue
Eye- organ for seeing Eyeball
Eyebrow- protects the eye from the glare of - Has three layers (tunics) and
the sun and prevents sweat from entering three chambers
the eye.
Fibrous Tunic
Eyelashes- helps keep debris from entering
the eye Sclera- outermost layer.
- tough, fibrous layer that does not
Eyelids- blink regularly to distribute moisture stretch.
across the surface of the eye - seen as the white of the eye.
-helps maintain eye shape,
- Contains tarsal glands along its attachment sites and protection for
edge (tarsal plate), which secrete internal structures
an oil that helps lubricate the eye
to avoid eyelids from sticking Cornea- anterior part of the sclera.
together. - transparent to allow light to enter
- the eye and focus
- Involved in reflexes that prevent - covers iris and pupil
foreign matter, like dust or
particles of debris, from entering
the eye.

Lacrimal gland- gland located deep to the

skin at the lateral superior of the eye
- Produces tears
- Tears contains water and
lysozomes that help cleanse the
eye
Tears are drained at the inferior medial Vascular Tunic
corner of the eye, Lacrimal punctum Uvea- middle layer, has 3 regions.
From there, they are drained through a Choroid- vascular layer of the eye
Lacrimal Canal to the Lacrimal Sac to the (black part)
Nasolacrimal Duct to the nose.
-delivers oxygen and nutrients to
Conjunctiva- thin, transparent membrane retina
that lines the eyelids and covers the white,
exposed surface of the eye.
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-Highly pigmented and dark so that
light is absorbed and not reflected
inside the eye
Ciliary body- helps hold lens in place
- muscle of accommodation
-connects to suspensory
ligaments/ciliary zonule
Suspensory ligaments-helps hold
lens in placw
-produces a thin, watery fluid called
Aqueous Humor present in anterior
and posterior chamber of the eye
Iris- colored part of the eye
- surrounds and regulates the pupil
It controls the amount of light entering
the eye by controlling the size of the pupil
-pupillary dilator and sphincter
muscles, controls size of pupils
Dilator- for the increase in
diameter
Sphincter- for the decrease
in diameter
LAB & LEC
Melanocytes- responsible for the color of
the eyes. melanin- protein
Pupils- - opening in the center of the iris
allows light to pass in the eye
Lens- refracting medium of the eye
- flexible disk
- focused light onto retina
Nervous Tunic
Retina- where the photoreceptors are found
- covers posterior 5/6 of the eye
2 layers:
Pigmented retina- outermost layer
-keeps light from
reflecting back to the eye
Sensory retina- contains the
photoreceptors and the interneurons
Two types of photoreceptors:
Cones- color and well-lighted stimulus
- has three types: red, blue, green
- discs contain iodopsin
Rods- dark stimulus
- 20 times more rods than cones
- Disc contain rhodopsin
Cones are most concentrated at the fovea
centralis.
Density decreases with distance from the
fovea.
Rods are least concentrated at the fovea
centralis.
Density increases with distance from fovea.
Ora Serrata- anterior jagged portion of retina
Macula- small spot near the center of retina
DDGB 1I-MT LAB & LEC

- Produced by the ciliary processes

as a blood filtrate
- Returned to the circulation
through the scleral venous sinus
Vitreous Humor
- Fills the vitreous chamber
- Contributes to intraocular
pressure
- Helps maintain the shape of the
Fovea centralis- center of macula where eyeball
most number of photoreceptors are found - Holds the lens and retina in place
- Where kinnest vision of the image - Functions in the refraction of light
is present in the eye
- Where light is focused when
looking directly at an object
- Ability to discriminate fine images
Optic disk-white spot medial to macula
- no photoreceptors ,blind spot
Eye Composed of three chambers:
Anterior chamber - between the cornea and
the iris
Posterior chamber- between the iris and Extrinsic Eye Muscles
the lens
- Six strap-like muscles
Viterous chamber - much larger then the - Enable the eye to follow moving
other two chambers, posterior to the lens objects
Aqueous Humor - Maintain the shape of the eyeball

- Fills the anterior and posterior -Four rectus muscles originate from
chambers the annular ring
- Supports, nourishes, and -Two oblique muscles move the eye
removes wastes for the cornea, in the vertical plane
which has no blood vessels
DDGB 1I-MT LAB & LEC

DISEASE DESCRIPTION
/DISODER
Age-related A disease of the eye in
Macular which the cells of the central
Degeneration portion of the retina (Macula
(AMD) Lutea) degenerate,
eventually causing vision
loss.
Cataract A progressive loss due to
Ciliary muscles relaxed= tension in the clouding of the lens of
suspensory ligaments is high= flattened lens the eye.
Color A genetic disorder that
Ciliary muscles contracted= tension in Blindness results in the ability to see
suspensory ligaments is low = thickened lens certain colors.
Conductive Hearing loss caused by a
Hearing Loss lesion in the outer or middle
Vision Pathway ear that prevents the proper
conduction of vibrations to
Optic nerve > optic chiasm > optic tracts > the inner ear.
thalamus > occipital lobe Conjunctivitis Inflammation of the
conjunctiva.
Myopia- Nearsightedness. Glaucoma Increased intraocular
- If the cornea and lens focused the pressure.
image ahead of the retina. Myopia/ Various shapes of the eye
Hyperopia that affect vision.
Hyperopia- Farsightedness /Astigmatism
Presbyopia An inability of the eye to
- If the cornea and lens focused the accommodate for near and
image behind the retina. far vision that occurs with
aging.
Astigmatism- If the cornea or the lens is not
Otitis Externa Infection of the outer ear
a perfectly smooth curve, the light rays will (swimmer’s ear).
not refract correctly to produce a clearly Otitis Media Infection of the middle ear.
focused image on the retina. Sensorineural Hearing loss caused by a
Binocular Vision- Two eyes to view objects. Hearing Loss problem with the organ of
Corti or the auditory nerve.
- Allows the brain to have Depth
Perception, knowing where the
object is located in space.
DDGB 1I-MT LAB & LEC

DIAGNOSTIC DESCRIPTION Weber Test - involves placing the base of a

TEST OR vibrating tuning fork on the bone of the skull
SCREENING behind the ear, causing the inner ear to
Ishihara Test Test for color vibrate directly.
blindness.
Rinne Test Procedures in which If the person cannot hear the sound
Weber Test a tuning fork is used produced by the tuning fork through the air
to test for hearing but can hear it when the tuning fork is placed
loss. on bone, the problem is not with the organ of
Snellen Test An eye chart used Corti or the auditory nerve. Instead, this
to measure visual result indicates a conduction problem and
acuity. conductive hearing loss.
Tonometry Procedure that
measures the If the subject cannot hear in either case, the
pressure inside the problem is sensorineural and possibly
eye. conductive hearing loss.
Cataracts
Disorders of the Senses
Clouding of the lens of the eye that causes a
Hearing Loss progressive, painless loss of vision.
Conductive Hearing Loss. - caused by a Can occur at any age but is most commonly
lesion in the external (outer) or middle ear, associated with getting older.
preventing the proper conduction of
vibrations to the inner ear. May be caused by aging, exposure to X-
rays, infection, diabetes mellitus, and
This could be anything from a thickened or even some medications.
ruptured tympanic membrane, to impacted
cerumen against the tympanic membrane, to Surgery may be used to remove the clouded
arthritis in the joints of the ossicles of the lens and replace it with an artificial lens.
middle ear.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss- caused by a Additional:
problem with the organ of Corti or the
auditory nerve. Sensory pathway- whole process of
sensation
Conductive and sensorineural hearing loss
can be determined by testing hearing by air Nociceptors-
and bone conduction.
Type C (slow fiber)- non- myelinated
A tuning fork is used.
-Persisiting pain
Rinne Test- involves placing a vibrating
Type A (fast fiber)- myelinated
tuning fork close to the ear.
-fast and joint pain
Sound waves produced by the fork are
normally received by the ear through the air Receptive Field- area being monitored
to the outer ear, and then the vibrations
should be conducted to the middle ear. e.g. pain sensation
DDGB 1I-MT LAB & LEC

Water receptors- located in pharynx,

protective receptors, helps regulate ingestion
of water
Taste buds are scattered in the lingual
papillae
Epithelial projection (lingual papillae) surface
of tongue
Hearing
20-100 decibels- music
120+ decibels rocket ship take off
The external auditory meatus contains hair
inside to protect ear from insects
Cerumen also blocks foreign bodies from
entering the ear
Tympanic membrane compared to oval
window is 22x thicker to modify the amplitude
of the sound we hear so that it wouldn’t be
too loud for us
Vision
12-21 mm- normal interocular pressure
Glaucoma- targets the cavity in the
membrane that regulates pressure in the eye
The tears contain lysozomes, which re
exosecretions from macrophages expected
to hydrolize gram-positive bacteria.
Tears also contain secretory IgA-
(gammaglobulin)