Design of Crane Hooks and Other Components Lifting Gear

DEC. 1934.
253
DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

O F LIFTING GEAR.
BY H. J. GOUGH, M.B.E., D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S., M.I.MEcH.E.,*

H. L. COX, B.A.,? AND D. G. SOPWITH, R.Sc. TECH.,A.M.I.MEcH.E.$
[Xekcted for publication, with written discusszon.]

Most liftinggear components consist essentially of curved beams
of very ductile material, the radius of curvature often being small
in cornparison with the dimensions of the beam. In addition, in
rings, chain links, etc., the distribution of bending moment is not
directly calculable from the values of the applied loads, but is
influenced also by the condition that the centre line of the section
of the component must remain continuous when under load.
The design of lifting gear components requires, therefore, the
determination of the bending moments, etc ., set up, the calculation
of the stresses due to these bending moments, etc., 'and the
consideration of the modification to the stress system consequent
upon yielding in parts of the components. The effect of the
curvature of the centre line of the component on the distribution of
stress is first discussed, the method of calculation for different
forms of beam section being indicated, and the best form of section
investigated. The effect of yielding is next considered. It is
shown that, if any portion of the component yields under load, the
removal of the load will leave this portion in a state of stress of
opposite sign to that under which it yielded, and it is concluded
that calculated stresses even as high as the s u m of the yield stresses
in tension and compression may be actually set up in the material
as ranges of stress without causing continuous plastic deformation.
The general method of calculating the bending moments in rings
and links, etc., is demonstrated and comparison is made between
exact and approximate methods. General formula for egg links
(including rings and chain links), studded links, and eyebolts
a r e obtained and typical examples, drawn from recent British
Stazidard Specifications, are worked out.
* Superintendent, Engineering Department, National Physical

Laboratory.
t Scientific Officer, Engineering Department, National Physical
Laboratory.
2 Scientific Officer, Engineering Department, National Physical
Laboratory.
[THEI.MEcH.E.]
Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

254 DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEC. 1934.
The results of tests on components designed according to the

general principles of the paper are described and the use of fatigue
testing both in determining the true factor of safety and as an
experimental check on the calculations is demonstrated.
I. GENERALINTRODUCTION.
The use of iron in the form of chain probably represents one of
the earliest applications of this metal t o the service of man and very
early examples, still in existence, show what a high degree of skill
in the technique of forging and welding had been acquired even in
the Middle Ages ; many of these examples were used, of course, for
purely decorative purposes or as fastenings. The use of chains
definitely for lifting purposes, with the consequent employment of
hooks, rings, and other fittings, probably became general only in
later times : but even in this application, the use of chain must be
of very great antiquity. It is not surprising to find, therefore, that
the forms and dimensions of these components, in relation to the
loads they are required to bear, were decided largely from accumulated
experience acquired before scientific methods of design had been, or
indeed could be, attempted. As a result, a very wide diversity of
types and designs are in current. use. In some cases, regulations
concerning such components as chains and hooks appear in certain
official codes or regulations, or even form the subject of legislation ;
mention may be made of the following : Anchors and Chain Cables
Act, 1899; Factory and Workshop Acts, 1901 to 1923; Docks
Regulations, 1925 ; Building Regulations, 1926 ; Shipbuilding
Regulations, 1931 ; Coal Mines Act, 1911, etc. The majority of
these Codes and Regulations relate chiefly to the specification of
the material, treatment, testing, etc., and the dimensions of the
components in relation to the loads are not usually specified.
With regard to the general analytical methods of stress estimation
in chains, hooks, and rings, these are, of course, treated in standard
textbooks,* whilst very valuable notes on current practice are given
in Mr. Stevenson Taylor’s memorandum.? In spite of this available
information it appears that the possibilities of the application of
scientific principles to the design of lifting gear components have
not yet been sufficiently recognized; although the majority of
components in use may be regarded as representing safe practice,
many are certainly far from being economical.
~ __- -- __ .~
* e.g. Strength
“ of Materials,” Morley, 7th ed., I928 (Longmans,
Green).
t ‘’ Memorandum on Chains and other Lifting Appliances,”
G , Stevenson Taylor, M.I.Mech.E., 1929 (H.M. Stationery Office).

DEC. 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 255
The strength of chains and chain fittings was brought t o the

attention of the National Physical Laboratory as a research problem
in an investigation * into the causes of failure, in service, of these
components ; in this work, however, owing to certain special features
of the problem, the stress conditions were not of major importance.
More recently, however, the strength and design aspects of lifting
gear components have been the subject of much work undertaken,
a t the National Physical Laboratory, in connexion with the work
of Technical Committee ME/12, of the British Standards Institution.
This committee-with its several subcommittees-is engaged in the
preparation of specifications for Short-Link Crane Chain, Hooks,
Rings, Wide Links, Shackles, Eyebolts, Egg Links, Pitched Chain,
etc., and it was found essential to specify the form and dimensions
of each type of component in addition to the usual requirements for
material, heat treatment, testing, etc. In the course of this work,
the National Physical Laboratory has been responsible for much
of the preliminary analytical investigations and the testing of the
resulting designs. The general method adopted involved analysis
of the stress distribution in each component, the development of
simple rules of proportion from which geometrically similar series
of components could be specified, and finally the testing of components
of mild steel or wrought iron made to the proposed standard form in
order to check the suitability of the design in relation to the materials
specified. As the view has been expressed that this combination of
theoretical and practical work was of sufficient general engineering
interest to be worthy of placing on permanent record, and as the
British Standard Specifications themselves were not suitable for this
purpose, the present paper has been prepared.
11. GENERALNATURE
OF THE PXOBLEM.
The majority of lifting gear components consist essentially of
curved beams of very ductile material ; in many cases the radii of
curvature of portions of the components are relatively small and
many are necessarily of such shape or design that the induced forces
and bending moments cannot be derived directly from the values
* GOTJGH,H. J., and MURPHY, A. J. (I) “The Causes of Failure of

Wrought-Iron Chains,” Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
1928, Engineering Research Special Report No. 3 ; ‘‘ The Causes of Failure
of Wrought-Iron Chain and Cable,” I’roc. I.Mech.E., 1928, p. 293. (2) “ The
Effect of Low Temperature on the Shock-Resisting Properties of New
Wrought-Iron Chain,” Proc. I.Mech.E., 1930, p. 1159. (3) ‘‘ The Nature
of Defective Laminations in Krought-Iron Bars and Chain Links,” J1.
Iron and Steel Inst., 1931, vol. 123, p. 286.

256 DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEC.1934.
of the applied loads.* The determination of the stresses set up in

such components by any system of applied loads involves three main
steps :-
(1) Determination of the bending moments and direct loads
in each section of the component.
(2) Determination of the stresses set up by these bending
moments and direct loads (using the theory of
elasticity).
(3) Consideration of the modifications of the stress system
consequent upon the occurrence of yielding in parts
of the component.
In practical application, it will normally be necessary t o consider ( 3 )
as well as (2) and the conclusions of ( 2 ) may thereby be considerably
modified; whilst, if the practical condition of loads applied a t
definite points (instead of uniformly across a section) is taken into
account, it will not be possible to separate (1)and (2). For effective
presentation of the theory, it is, however, preferable to retain the
three main headings above and to give separate consideration to
interaction of (1) and (2) and of (2) and ( 3 ) . I n order that after
consideration o€ (1) it may be possible a t once to translate the values
of bending moment, etc., into stresses, the sections will be taken in
the order ( 2 ) , (3), and (1). Interaction of ( 2 ) and (3) will be
considered in the discussion of (3). With regard to the interaction
of (1)and (2), the usual St. Venant assumption will be made, namely,
that the effect of the application of the load a t a point or over a very
small area does not extend more than a very short distance from the
load. For detailed treatment of the effect of concentrated loads,
reference may be made to a paper by Fi1on.T
111. STRESSESIN CURVED BEAMS.

The stress distribution set up in a curved beam by the application
of a bending moment in the plane of curvature is to a large extent
dependent upon the ratio of the radius of curvature to the depth of
the beam in the plane of curvature. An exact analytical solution
of the stress distribution by the theory of elasticity has been obtained
only for the case of plane stress.1 Although this solution may be
applied with some confidence to the case of beams of rectangular
* Such a part is, for mathematical purposes, known as a muItipIy-
connected component. See Section VI, p. 279.
t FILON,L. N. G . , ‘‘ The Stresses in a Circular Ring,” Inst. C.E., 1924,
Selected Engineering Paper No. 12.
$ GOLOVIN, Bulletin of Technologiral Inst., St. Petersburg, 1880 ;
also FILON,loc. cit.

DEO. 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOK& 257
section, it is, of course, inapplicable to that of circular and other

sections.
The stress distribution determined for the case of plane stress by
the exact method consists in a system of direct stresses in the radial
and circumferential directions together with the accompanying shear
stresses necessary for equilibrium ; but the maximum stresses in
the circumferential direction considerably exceed the maximum radial
stresses. This fact provides 8ome a priori justification for the
approximate theory, usually known as the Bach or Winkler theory,
in which only circumferential stresses are considered ; but, in
addition, definite evidence of the adequacy of the approximate theory
is afforded by comparison of the exact and approximate solutions
for the case of beams of rectangular section with the results of actual
tests on beams of this type carried out by Winslow and Edmonds.*
It appears that in this case the stress distributions determined by
the two methods differ only slightly and that these are in substantial
agreement with the stress distribution as determined experimentally.
In particular, Winslow and Edmonds show that, although the
approximate theory disregards the e$ect of radial stresses, nevertheless
the solution is adequate for the evaluation of these stresses, and that
the actual experimental distribution of radial stress is in good
agreement with the distribution thus theoretically determined.
In the present paper, therefore, the Bach-Winkler theory will
be adopted and modifications to this theory to include considerations
of radial stress such as that proposed by Andrews and Pearson t
will be disregarded. Window and Edmonds show that the Andrews-
Pearson theory is incomplete and erroneous, and that the ditTerences
between the results of this theory and of the Bach-Winkler theory
are in any case small ; this latter fact has also been pointed out by
Andrews himself.
Analysis of the stresses in curved beams by the Bach-FVinkler
theory is given in most textbooks on strength of materials ; but,
for the sake of completeness, the fundamental equation will be
derived from first principles by the strain energy method used by
Winslow and Edmonds.
Consider a short segment of a curved beam (Fig. 1) bounded by
two radial planes. Let the radius of curvature of the line through
* WINSLOW,A. M., and EDMONDS, R. H. G., “ Tests and Theory of

Curved Beams,” Trans. A.S.M.E., 1926, vol. 48, p. 647, and discussion
on this paper.
t “ The Theory and Design of Structures,” E. S. Andrews, 5th ed.,
1932 (Chapman and Hall), p. 161.
$ Winslow and Edmonde, loc. cit.
17

the centres of gravity of the.sections be R and let the radial distance

of the intrados and extrados respectively be y1 and y2 (see Fig. 1).
Let the direct tensile load on the section AA (Fig. 1) be P and the
bending moment (tending to increase the curvature) be Mo. Let
FIG. 1 .
the breadth of section a t radius R + y be B and let the tensile stress

in this fibre beJ
Then
(.f2(B+ y) - 2ufy - 2 f ) b d y must be a minimum,

4 2
Hence CI
JVI
and f i being constants as yet undetermined.

DEO. 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 259
Hence
Substituting in the original equations,

+
u(A - A') PA'/R = P
and - uR(A - A') +p(A - A') = Mo
where p y =A = area of section
- =A' [Hence also llRyfbydy -

-A-A'
Solving for 0: and j3 and substituting in the expression for f,

we obtain
f= P/A + Mo/AR( 1 + . R y ~ - )- where h = A'/A - 1
+Y
The formula (1) shows that the direct load P sets up a uniform
stress across the section as in a straight bar ; but that the distribution
of stress due to the bending moment is not linear but hyperbolic.
The neutral axis in pure bending does not pass through the centre
of gravity of the section but is displaced towards the intrados
through a (radial) distance hR/(1 +A). It must be remembered
that, owing to the neglect of radial, axial, and shear stresses, the
distribution of stress described by equation (1) may differ slightly
from the true distribution ; but the general features of hyperbolic
distribution of circumferential stress and the displacement of the
neutral axis towards the intrados will certainly be reproduced.
The only quantity on the right-hand side of equation (1) that is
not directly determinable is the factor -h = (A'/A) - 1, so that
evaluation of the stress distribution involves only the calculation
of the value of the quantity A' =R lRTY. For fairly simple
forms of section, analytical expressions for A' may be obtained.
Thus in the important case of beams of circular section (radius of
section T ) ,
r
and if we put = k = sin 2w
R

260 DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEO,1984.
2(1 - cos 2w)

A’ = rri-2. -- -Aseczw
sin2 2w
and A=tanZw . . . , . . . . . . . . (2)
Hence for a circular section the stress due to a bending moment
M is
At the extrados and intrados respectively,

y = & r = rf 2R sinw cosw,
and
M k
f = - ----(1
rA’1 & k
2 COtW)*
_I
M 2 cos w(sin o f2 cos w )
rA * (cosw & sinw)Z
or . . . . * (3)
The coefficient of M/rA can conveniently be termed the “ curvature

factor ” (since the other factor is dependent only on the moment and
the size of the section) and will be denoted by po and p1 for the
extrados and intrados respectively.
k
Hence po = __ (1 + 2 cot w ) = 2 cosw (sinw 2 cosw) +
1+k (COB w + sin w)2
- k (1 - 2 (.Ot, w ) =-- 2 cosw (sinw - 2 cosw)
-- p1 = ----
1--k (cosw - sinw)2
Values of po and - p1 are plotted in Fig. 2 for values of k( = r/R)
from 0.1 to 0.5. (For a straight beam (k = 0) of circular section
po = - p1 = 4, hencef = & 4M/rA which is equivalent to the usual
formulaf = M/Z.)
In the case of beams of which the section is a trapezium, having
two sides parallel and perpendicular to the plane of curvature and
the other two equally and oppositely inclined to this plane, Schuster *
gives the factor
where n is the ratio of the width of the section a t the intrados to the
width a t the extrados and z is the ratio of the radius of curvature
-_- ~ ~~~~ -. .~. -- ~ - ....
*
SCHUSTER, L. W. ’‘ Comparison of the Stresses in Curved Beams
with a Circular and a. Trapezoidal Section,” Technical Report, British
Engine Boiler and Electrical Insuresce Company, 1926, p, 162.

of the extrados to that of the intrados. In the case of the rectangular

section this reduces to x(or A) = ~-
z+l log,z-1.
2(z - 1)
For less simple forms of section, the determination of X(or A’) as an
FIG. 2.--Curvature Pactors for curved b e a m of circular section.

7
95
K
/
I-
2Y
w
2
t
24
0
2
I c 5
analytic function of the dimensions is often impracticable, and the

value must be calculated by graphical or semi-graphical methods.
If R is large A’ = RJbdy/(R + y) = Jbdy(1- y/R yz/R2- . .) A + -+
+I/Rz and A = I/AR2. The formula (1) then reduces to f = P/A
+ My/I as for a straight beam. This analysis shows that, if R is

262 DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEO. 1934.
moderately large, h may be very small and considerable care is

necessary in its evaluation. For this reason direct graphical methods
(cf. Morley, '' Strength of Materials," 6th ed., g r t . 131) are not always
to be recommended. Greater accuracy can often be obtained by
calculating t,he area A from measured ordinates (using Simpson's
rule or some other system) and the area A' from derived ordinates
calculated from the measured ordinates of the actual section. In
this way, although the area of section may be affected by errors in
drawing or measuring the section, the ratio A'/A will be affected
only by error in the numerical calculations. The latter errors may,
of course, be made as small as necessary by increasing the accuracy
of the calculations.

IV. STRESSES
IN HOOKS.
The normal type of lifting hook consists essentially of a single

curved beam to which the load is applied as a direct shear. The
actual shear stresses, however, are small and the maximum stress
is developed a t or close to the section of the hook perpendicular to
the direction of the load. Fig. 3 shows the " working " portion of
a typical hook. Botchthe greatest bending moment and the greatest
direct tensile load are imposed on the section AA and if the section
of the hook and the radius of curvature are constant in this area,
the circumferential stresses a t this section will be greater than
elsewhere in the hook. It should, however, be remarked that
varirct,ion of curvature may have considerable effect and that an
increase of curvature, as a t BB in Pig. 3, may more than
counterbalance the reduction of bending moment and direct load
(see Liverpool hooks below, p. 269).
2 0) to the
At any section CC (Pig. 3) inclined a t an angle ( ~ / -
direction of the load, let the radius of curvature to the centroid of
section G be R, let y1 and yz (both reckoned positive) be the distances
from G to the intrados and extrados respectively, and let h be
the shortest distance from the centre of curvature to the line of the
load W, h being reckoned positive if the line of the load lies on
the beam side of the centre of curvature. Then by equation (1)the
circumferential stresses a t the intrados and extrados are given,
respectively, by
and fz(compression) = -
Coefficients multiplying the " apparent stress t o give the "
actual stress, such as those multiplying W/A in equations (In) and

(Ib) are conveniently termed " stress factors " ; the numerical value
of the " stress factor " associated with the maximum stress in any
hook or other fitting affords an immediate estimate of the efficiency
of the design.
I n many classes of hook the distance h is zero for the whole of
the " working '' portion and the stress factors of equations ( l a ) and
case
( I b ) reduce to __ .
yl
~
COB 8
and - __ . -3 --. If, in addition,
A R-39 A R+YZ
the section of the hook is constant over the " working " portion, the
maximum stress factors and hence the maximum stresses are
developed at the section perpendicular to the load. The maximum

.
stresses are then - .- - y1 at theintrados and - - 1 Yz w
A A R-yyl A ' )I ' c+Tz
at the extrados. The tensile stress at the intrados will be greater
numerically than the compressive stress at the extrados if yl/(R - yl)
+
> yz/(R yz) i.e. if R <2y1yz/(yz - yl). Or, if C/2 = R - y1
= radius of curvature of intrados, the condition is C < 2Yl(Y2-- Y1)-
+
Y2 - Y1
FIG.4.
C
_-
- 2Yld or yl/d >tGc. Normally this condition will be fulfilled ;
d-2Y1
but the greatest economy of material would be effected by making
the two stresses equal, i.e. by making yl/d = &C/(d C). For +
normal values of the ratio d/C from 0.84 to 1.00, the required value
of y,/d is 0.27 to 0.25. A triangular section would give yl/d = 6,
so that for this range of values of dlC the condition cannot be fulfilled
unless a re-entrant section be used. (It should be noticed that equal
stresses would be developed in the triangular section if d/G = 0.5 ;
this value of the ratio lies well outside normal practice.)

The above analysis shows that the most efficient section for a
hook would normally be an I, T, or bull-head section ; but that, if
for other reasons such sections are impracticable, the triangular form
should be approached as closely as possible.
The form of section (Pig. 4) adopted in the designs of hooks
recently prepared a t the National Physical Laboratory for the
British Standards Institution represent a reasonable approach to
the ideal triangular form consistent with the limitations of the
manufacturing process. The ratio of the maximum compressive to
the maximum tensile stress is, however, less than 0.5 even in the
best case.
The form of section having been decided, the next step in the
design of hooks consists in the determination of one dimension (say
the depth) of the section in relation to the radius of the intrados.
Variation of the value of the ratio of the depth of section to the
inside diameter of the hook will influence both the area A and the
1
stress factor - -&- .
R-Y1
and the object of design is to make the stress
w 1
.
fi = - - . --'L
A h R-yyl
equal to some specified value. For this purpose
curves such as those plotted by Schuster * for the simple trapezoidal
section form an invaluable guide to the necessary proportions of
hooks having practical forms of section, such as that of P i g 4.
I n the case of hooks of circular section, the stress factor
K=-.
1 r
-=Cot2w
sin 2 0 - - -- --2 cos3w. This
h R-r 1 - sin zw sin ~ ( C O Sw - sin w)2'
has a minimum value equal to 13.5 when 3 sin w - cos w = 0, which
gives k(= sin 2w) = $. A curve representing the variation of this
stress factor with the ratio k is shown in Fig. 5 .
In the case of other practical forms of section, analytical expressions
for the stress factor are not practicable, although curves similar to
that shown in Pig. 5 can, of course, be constructed. However, for the
practical purposes of hook design, other forms of expression of the
relation between load, stress, radius of curvature, and area of section
are more useful.
The dimension 2(R - yl) = C (Fig. 3) is usually termed the
" bed diameter " of the hook and is, in effect, the dimension governing
* LOC.cit. It will be noticed that Schuster applies a correction to the

stress factor derived by the approximate method, the correction factor
being based upon a comparison of the exact and approximate theories for
the case of rectangular section. This correction is small, and, as it is only
approximate, the added complication involved in its use is not considered
justified.

266 DESIGN OF CRANE BOOKS. Dec. 1934.
the size of fittings that can be accommodated on the hook.* For

this reason the bed diameter is usually closely related to the working
load (W) of the hook and in consistent designs, such as those prepared
by the National Physical Laboratory for the Bri6sh Skandards
Institution, it has been made directly proportional to dw.
FIG. 5-Stress Factors for hoolcs of circular section.

15.5-
(5.0-
14.5-
K
0
0
2
ln
w
ln
a
34.0.
13.5
f3.0
( 4 5 0.6 0.7 8
R =r/R
The design problem can then be postulated thus : given that the
“ bed diameter,” C = 2(R - yl) = pd/uT, where p is a constant,
* Some designs of hook (cf. Liverpool hooks, p. 269) constitute a partial
exception to this rule ; but the bed diameter is always the ruling factor
in the accommodation the hook provides.

and using a given form of section, what depth of section is necessary

to make the maximum stress a t the working load W equal to a given
value f ?
Again restricting attention for the moment to the case of hooks
in which the line of loading passes through the centre of curvature
of the horizontal section, we have
FIQ. 6.--Depth of Section for hooks of circular section.

Necessary depth of section to give maximum st,ress of 12 tons per sq. in.
at working load in relation to inside diameter of hook. All dimensiom
in inches, loads in tons.
1.50-
1.40-
& 1.30
1.20
1-10
Putting y1 = E d and A = ad2 (d being the depth of the section and r

and a being constants for the section *)
2E
or p?hdlC =-= constant
af
. . . . (44
* The value of c i a is for the circular section 21.. and for the standard
trapezoidal section (Fig. 4) 0.95.

Since h is a function simply of dlC, this equation, for any given values
of the factors making up t8heconst,ant on the right-hand side, can be
used to define d/C in terms of p and thus t.0 provide a direct answer
to the design problem. Actually, in practice it is ensiegt t o assume
values of d/C, to calculate the corresponding values of A and hence
to deduce the values of p. Curves in which d/d/w(= pd/C) is plotted
against p, for practical ranges of the latter va.riable, are shown in
FIG. 'i.-Depth of Section for hooks of trapezoidal section.

Necessary depth of section to give maximum stress of 12 tons per eq. in.
at working load in relation to inside diameter of hook. All dimensions
in inches, loads in tons.
1.6
1.5
- _-
W ASSUMED LINEAR RELATION
d =1.25+0.10/L
1.4
L A T E 0 VALUES
1.3
5
Figs. 6 and 7 for hooks of both circular section and the trapezoidal
section shown in Fig. 4. I n these Figures curves have been drawn
for a maximum stress at the working load of 12 tons per sq. in. ;
erimilar curves for other maximum working stresses may readily be
obtained since for any given value of d/C, p.2 is inversely proportional
t o the working stress. I n the case of the circular section X = tan2 w
and ajc =
*I# = %sin 2w so that
R--r l-sinh'
2~ cosw (coso - sinw)' -~~-. . . . .
P2 =.f f sin% (abl
2

DEO.1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 269
In practice, the usual range of p is from 1.5 to 2.0 with extension

in certain special cases to 3.0 or more. Over this range the relation
between pd/C and p for both circular and standard trapezoidal
sections happens to be almost exactly linear, so that d can be
determined from the formule
d = 1.lOdW + 0.09C for the circular section.
d = 1.25dW + 0.10C for the trapezoidal section.
For purposes of economy of weight, p should be kept as small as
possible, but, as already pointed out, a lower limit is imposed by the
size of fittings which it is required to accommodate on the hook.
In the case of crane hooks, where only metal fittings are likely to be
used, a value of 1.5 has been adopted for the new British standard
hooks ; but for sling hooks which may be used with rope slings, a
value of 1-84 has been adopted.
In some classes of hooks, the line of action of the load does not
pass through the centre of curvature of the horizontal section. An
example of a hook of this type is the design of " Liverpool " hook
prepared for the British Standards Institution and shown in Fig. 8c.
In such a hook, two sections have to be considered, namely, the
horizontal section, which is subjected to the maximum bending
moment and direct stress, and the Gection below the horizontal where
the large radius of the central part of the hook runs into the smaller
radius of the bed diameter ; although this section is subjected to
smaller forces than the horizontal section, the stress factors are
greater owing to the greater curvature ; thus, the stress may actually
exceed the stress a t the horizontal section. In the particular hook
shown in Fig. SC, the stress factor for the horizontal section is 9.2
whilst that for the section where the large radius runs into the radius
of the bed diameter is 10.6 ; this difference of stress factor renders
the maximum stresses a t the two sections practically equal, the stress
a t the horizontal section being slightly the higher.
Apart from the question of curvature, variation of area or shape
of section may result in the highest stresses being set up elsewhere
than a t the horizontal section. The greatest economy of material
would, of course, be achieved if the hook were so proportioned that
the stress (i.e. the tensile stress a t the intrados) were the same over
the whole of the working portion ; but this course is not always
practicable nor, in all cases, is it even desirable. The British standard
crane hooks (trapezoidal section) shown in Fig. 8a are so dimensioned
that the horizontal section (perpendicular to the load) and the vertical
section (under the load) are identical ; but the intermediate sections

are slightly greater in depth, the maximum increase being about

8 per cent a t 45 deg. If it were desired to maintain the stress a t
the intrados constant over this portion of the hook, each intermediate
FIG. 8.-British Standard Hooks.
Dimensions given are for 4-ton hooks in each case.
(a,)CRANE HOOK (b)SLING HOOK
(C) LIVERPOOL HOOK
section could, of course, be reduced approximately in proportion to

the cosine of the angle it makes with the horizontal section, a lower
limit naturally being imposed by consideration of the shear load to
be carried a t the vertical section. If a hook so designed were subjected

DEC. 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 27 1
to a load sufficient to cause the stress a t the intrados to exceed the

yield, the hook would commence to open out and, in so doing, would
cause a weaker section to become perpendicular to the load. This
section would then yield still more and complete failure of the hook
would result almost immediately. For this reason, in the British
standard hooks, the exactly opposite course has been taken, the
sections between the horizontal and vertical sections being made
greater in area than the horizontal section. This design results in a
progressive strengthening of the hook when permanent deformation
commences, a feature that ensures greater safety in practice.
With regard to that part of the hook lying above the horizontal
section, it is necessary only to ensure that the stress nowhere exceeds
that set up a t the horizontal section. The section may therefore
be progressively reduced as the body of the hook curves inwards to
join the shank or eye (cf. Fig. 8a) ; this progressive reduction serves
also to permit of a neat joint between the body of the hook and the
shank or eye. Although this portion of the hook may be designed
without detailed calculations of the stresses, care should be taken
that the reduction of area does not materially outpace the effective
reduction of load.
At their upper ends, lifting hooks are usually provided either
with a (screwed) shank, for use with a ball bearing swivel, or with
an eye, for use either with a joining link or with a shackle having a
removable pin. The design of the eye or shank, also of the point
of the hook, is decided chiefly by experience and convention. The
only essential requirements are that the gap between the point and
the throat (or, in the case of Liverpool type hooks, between the point
and the lip) should be sufficient to admit freely to the hook bed the
fittings it is required to place on the hook ; also, that the shank or
eye should be of ample size to support the specified proof load without
serious deformation. In the National Physical Laboratory designs,
the tensile stress a t the working load in the shank is about 3 tons per
sq. in., and in the case of hooks fitted with an eye, the shear stress in
either half of the pin is less than 2 tons per sq. in. In the case of
hooks fitted with an eye for use with a joining link, the diameter of
the eye is sufficient to admit a fitting of the appropriate size (see
below, p. 282). The design of the hook point is chiefly conventional,
but it is very important to minimize the dangerous possibilities of
the load jumping off the hook and of the point catching in obstructions.
In cases where this latter danger is serious, e.g. in cases where the
hook has t o be loaded out of sight of the crane operator, the Liverpool
type of hook is often employed.

272 DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEO.1834.
OB PLASTIC
V. EFEECT DEFORMATIONUPON THE DISTRIBUTION
OF STRESS.
In discussion of the stresses in hooks, attention has so far been
confined to the stresses set up by the working load. The maximum
permissible values of these stresses, as calculated by elastic theory,
are usually of the order of 9 to 12 tons per sq. in.* and, since the
yield stress of the material (wrought iron or mild steel) will not
normally be less than 14 tons per sq. in., the calculated stress
distribution may be regarded as an accurate representation of the
actual stress system set up. On the other hand, if the same analysis
is used to estimate the maximum stresses a t the proof load, usually
equal to twice the working load, the values obtained (18 to 24 tons
FIG. O.--Strees-Strain Diagram for mild steel (Dalby record).
m
u)
w
K
i7l
STRAIN
per sq. in.) are considerably greater than the yield stress of the
material. It is clear, therefore, that these stresses will not actually
be induced, for plastic deformation will intervene, and the stress
distribution will be thereby modified.
In the case of some of the chain components discussed below,
calculation by elastic theory of the stresses set up even by the
working loads indicates maximum stresses greater than the normal
yield stress of the material. In these cases, therefore, even if attention
is confined to the working range of load, the modification of the
stress system by plastic deformation must be considered.
Although the redistribution of stress due to yield is necessarily
dependent to a large extent upon the elastic and plastic properties
~~
*
The values adopted in the British Standard Specifications are 9 tons
per aq. in. and 12 tons per sq. in. for two different types of hook (see
Section VII, p. 307).

DEC. 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE ROOKS. 273
of t,he material, the fact that the materials, wrought iron and mild
steel, usually used for lifting gear are characterized in the annealed
condition by a well-marked yield (see, for example, Pig. 9) may be
used to develop a general description of the behaviour of beams when
the strain of the outside fibres exceeds the elastic range. In the
following discussion of the effect of yield, it will be assumed (1) that
the material exhibits linear elasticity up to the yield and that
thereafter any further strain leaves the stress unaffected, ( 2 ) that
the yield stresses in tension and compression are equal (unless
otherwise stated), and (3) that plane sections remain plane throughout
the deformation.
Consider the case of a straight beam having a section symmetrical
about two diameters a t right-angles and bent in the plane containing
one of these diameters. Referring to Pig. 10, let the distribution of
strain across the depth A A of the section be represented by the
ordinates from AA’ t o the line PP‘, the tangent of the angle AOP
being inversely proportional to the radius to which the beam is bent.
Let AQ(= A’Q’) represent the strain a t yield. Then, so long as
AP < AQ, the deformation is entirely elastic and the stress
distribution may also be represented by the line POP’; but, if
AP > AQ, plastic deformation must occur in the fibres covered by
the lines QR and Q’R’ and the stress distribution is then represented
by the line QROR’Q’. The bending moment corresponding to this
stress distribution may easily be calculated (account being taken of
the section of the beam), and the relation established between bending
moment and curvature of the beam. It is, however, sufficient to
remark that the apparent proportional limit of the beam as a whole
coincides with the occurrence of yield in the outermost fibres and that
yield of the whole beam does not occur until the angle AOP becomes
very nearly equal to ~ / 2 .If the “ apparent ” fibre stress is calculated
merely from the value of the bending moment, values greater than
the yield stress will be obtained. The ratio of the “ apparent ”
fibre stress a t yield of the beam to the actual yield stress of the
material depends upon the section of the beam; in the case of
rectangular section this ratio is 3/2, for circular section 16/37, and for
diamond section 2.
If, after subjection to the bending moment that sets up a stress‘
distribution such as QROR’Q’, the beam is again unloaded, it will
not completely recover its original form. The amount of the elastic
recovery of any fibre will, in fact, be the same as if the bending moment
had set up not the actual stress distribution QROR‘Q‘ but the
“ apparent ” distribution NO”. After release the beam will be
self-stressed by the self-equilibrating system STOT’S‘, the outer
18

27 4 DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEC.1934.
fibres on the tension side being left in compression and the inner
fibres on this side in tension. with similar but reversed stresses on
the compression side. It will be seen that repeated application of
the same load will not cause further yield : but that the fibres will
FIG. 10.
be subjected to ranges of stress equal t o the " apparent " stresses,

the mean values of the ranges adjusting themselvw so that the
extreme stresses do not exceed the yield. It will be noted that the
maximum remanent stresses in rectangular or circular section are
never greater than the yield, whilst in the diamond section the
remanent stress may just reach the yield.

Similar analysis of the effect of yield in less symmetrical sections,

such as triangular or trapezoidal, is more difficult owing to the
displacement of the neutral axis ; but it may be mentioned that, in
the triangular section, the theoretical remanent stress may exceed
the yield, so that plastic deformation may occur both in loading and
unloading. This type of section, however, lies outside the range of
practical forms, and, in general, it may be stated that in straight
beams of practicable section, the maximum “ apparent ’)fibre stress
will never be greater than twice the yield stress.”
In the case of curved beams, the distribution of strain across the
section is not linear but hyperbolic ; but, in this case, as in the
case of straight beams of non-symmetrical section, the occurrence
of plastic deformation affects the position of the neutral axis and it
is impracticable to draw a general diagram similar to Fig. 10.
However, if attention is confined to the condition when practically
all the fibres of the beam have yielded, an approximate comparison
of the ‘‘ apparent and actual stress distributions is possible For,
))
in this condition, the actual stress distribution must be almost

identical with that in a straight beam, the effect of the hyperbola
that replaces the line RR’ in Fig. 10 being almost negligible in
comparison with the straight portions QR and R’Q’ which are
necessarily the same in the two cases. The “ apparent ’) hyperbolic
stress distribution is defined simply by the value of the corresponding
bending moment, using the elastic theory and taking into account
the curvature of the beam.? The ratio of the maximum “ apparent ’)
stress (at the intrados) to the actual yield stress is thus dependent
upon the initial curvature of the beam. In the case of the circular
section (which is the only section that it appears profitable to discuss
in detail), the critical value 2 of this ratio corresponds to the curvature
ratio k = 0.2. This value of k is close to the lower limit of the range
of values used in chain components and, since higher values are
associated with higher values of the ratio of maximum ‘‘ apparent ’)
stress to actual yield stress, it will be seen that, even under a bending
moment insufficient to cause complete yield of such a component as
a beam, the maximum “apparent” stress may be greater than
twice the yield stress. Under these conditions, the yield of the
fibres near the intrados under load should be followed by further
* That is, on the assumption that no increase of stress beyond the

vield is possible. This point is further discussed below.
* t Strictly, the effect of the deformation on this curvature should be
taken into account; but t,his deformation may be considered small in
comparison with the initial curvature and for approximate estimation of
the stresses it may be neglected.

yield, of course in the opposite sense, when the load is removed ; but
in actual materials, it is possible that this conclusion may be vitiated
by failure to realize the assumed condition that the stress does not
rise above the yield value.
From this brief sketch of the nature of the effects of plastic
deformation, it is apparent that the values of the maximum stress,
calculated by elastic theory from the value of the bending moment,
considerably exceeding the yield stress are quite in accordance with
the assumed condition that the actual stress can in no circumstances
exceed the yield. In addition, however, there are two reasons why
the true upper limit for the maximum " apparent " stress may be
considerably higher than the analysis above would indicate. First,
the yield in compression may be considerably greater than the yield
in tension ; such a difference would cause the neutral axis (in Pig. 10
for instance) to move towards the compression side as the load was
increased and would necessitate a greater bending moment t o cause
complete yielding of the beam. Second, in all practical materials,
although the yield may be very well marked and result in considerable
extension, nevertheless considerable increase of stress above the
yield is usually necessary before failure occurs. Considering, for pur-
poses of illustration, the case of a bar of circular section, the change
in the curvature ratio k( = r/R)is approximately equal to the strain
of the outside fibres, so that even a very marked yield (say 5 per cent
extension) would not result in any very considerable distortion of
the beam before the stress in the outside fibres began to rise above
the yield stress, while, if the initial curvature of the beam were
considerable, the change of curvature occurring before the stresses
in the outside fibres exceeded the yield might be almost imperceptible.
The wide variations and complex forms of stress-strain relations
above the yield render any more particular discussion of this effect
unprofitable ; but it is clear that this increase of stress must result
in increased moment of resistance and hence lead to still higher
values of the " apparent " stresses.
In the case of several of the multiply-connected components to be
dealt with in Section VI, p. 279, the elastic theory indicates that very
high compressive stresses may occur a t the point of application of
the load. As, however, in addition to the above considerations of
stress redistribution, any yielding due to these high compressive
stresses results in the distribution of the load over a larger area,
these stresses are not of great importance. This conclusion is
confirmed by the fact that when such components fail without marked
distortion of the component as a whole, and thus without consequent
alteration of the bending moments and direct loads applied (e.g. in

Dec. 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 277
fatigue or in impact on hrittle materials), failure is always associated

with tensile and not with compressive stresses.
To sum up, it may be stated that the effect of plastic deformation
is to cause a redistribution of stress such that the outside fibres
overstressed in tension are, upon unloading, left with a remanent
compression whilst those overstressed in compression are left in a
state of tension. Due to this redistribution, the stresses calculated
by elastic theory, if greater than the yield stress, will neveP be set
up in the material but will occur only as ranges of stress as the
component is loaded and unloaded. One necessary * condition for
absence of continued plastic deformation in service is, therefore,
that the stresses due to the working loads, as calculated by elastic
theory, should not exceed the numerical sum of the yield t stresses
in tension and compression. In other words, the material must be
capable of withstanding the calculated elastic stresses as ranges of
stress either from the yield in tension downwards or from the yield
in compression upwards. The bearing of fatigue tests on this
requirement is obvious ; further reference to this point will be made
later in discussion of the experimental results (p. 309).
Finally, it should be noticed that loads causing calculated elastic
stresses greater than the sum of the yield stresses in tension and
compression may be applied without causing immediate damage
and indeed may be applied a number of times before failure occurs.
It is, however, certain that each application of so high a load must
cause further plastic deformation $ pnd tjhatpfailure must eventually
result.
The actual stresses upon which the new British standard designs
for hooks and chain components have been based have been decided
chiefly with reference to the best current practice, which is itself
based upon long experience of the behaviour of components in
service ; but the values adopted are in general accordance with the
guiding principles developed above. Thus in crane and sling hooks
and rings, where any appreciable permanent deformation under the
proof load is obviously undesirable, the value 24 tons per sq. in. has
been adopted for the maximum " apparent " stress at the proof
load ; whilst, in short-link crane chain, joining links, etc., where
deformation is of less importance, the nominal stress a t the proof
load is 36 tons per sq. in. Egg linke, as intermediate fittings, are
* The condition may not be sufficient.
f " Yield " in this eontext should perhaps be interpreted conservatively
as " proportional limit,.' but no strict interpretation is possible as the elastic
limits may themselves be altered by the application of cycles of stress.
1 Provided that the value of the yield stress has not been afferted by
strain-hardening.

designed to a value of 30 tons per sq. in. Liverpool type hooks,

as fittings that are subject to specially severe service conditions, are
stressed only to 18 tons per sq. in. " apparent ') maximum stress a t
the proof load.
All these stresses appear very high in relation to the yield stress,
which will normally be about 14 tons per sq. in., and it must be
appreciated that some permanent set under the proof load is
inevitable ; but the discussion of the effects of plastic deformation
above is sufficient t o show that only in the case of short-link chain
and possibly in the case of egg links is application of the proof load
likely to lead to complete yield of the component as a beam.
Moreover, even in the cases of chain and egg links such complete yield
may not occur, for the value 36 tons per sq. in. is based upon the
assumption that the load is concentrated at one section a t the crown
of the link, whereas in fact the distribution of the load over an arc
covering the crown will render the load conditions less onerous.
The stresses 9 to 12 tons per sq. in. set up in hooks and rings by
the working loads are of course well within the ranges that can be
supported elastically ; whilst the stresses 15 to 18 tons per sq. in.
set up in l i n k s can also be supported elastically in Virtue of the
redistribution of stress resulting from the plastic deformation due
to the first application of the working load or to a previous application
of the proof load.
The stress values mentioned above have been used for design
purposes for both mild steel and wrought iron components.
Comparative tests (described in a later section) showed that while
mild steel was slightly superior in every respect, the difference was
not sufficient to justify discrimination between the materials in the
adoption of design stresses.
It may be considered that undue attention has been given to the
discussion of the effect of plastic deformation upon stress distribution
in lifting gear components, but this aspect is certainly of great
practical importance. For the argument has often been seriously
advanced that the theory of elasticity applied t o lifting gear
components must be totally erroneous because, although the theory
often gives stress values which considerabIy exceed the tensile
breaking strength of the material, the loaded component in question
not only fails to fracture a t the first application of the load but
deforms permanently only to a small extent. Hence, it has been
stated, the theory may be disregarded and the component may be
regarded as capable of withstanding unlimited repetitions of the load.
The above discussion will have shown why fracture does not occur
and why the permanent deformation may be relatively small. But it

DEC. 1934. DESIGN O F CRANE HOOES. 279
should also have disclosed that the possibility of failure by fatigue

is a very real danger and should have indicated that the real factor of
safety against fatigue failure is often very low, rarely exceeding a
value of twice the working load and often being as low as one and a
quarter times. Fatigue experiments, to be described later, showed,
in fact, that these low values were developed : this may be regarded
as substantial evidence of the reliability of the theory-when correctly
interpreted-and of the important effect of yielding on stress
redistribution.
VI. BENDINGMOMENTSAND STRESSESIN MULTIPLY-CONNECTED

COMPONENTS.
A method of calculating the stresses, given the loads and bending
moments a t all sections, having been developed, the problem of the
stress analysis of a multiply-connected component resolves itself
into the determination of those loads and moments. As such a
component is a statically indeterminate structure, it is necessary t o
use the &rain-energy method for this purpose. Originally due t o
Castigliano, this method has been developed by several later workers
in this field, and details can be found in any of the standard books
on the subject.*
It will, however, be convenient to state here the theorems and
assumptions used in what follows. These are :-
(1) The partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy
in a body, expressed in terms of the loads applied, with
respect to any load, is the movement of that load in its
line of action.
(2) The partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy
with respect to any moment applied is the change of
slope of the section a t which the moment is applied.
.M2
(3) The strain energy in a beam due to bending is
/2EP
where M is the bending moment a t any section, EI is
the flexural rigidity of beam a t any section, and s is
the distance along the centre line of the beam.
(4)The strain energy due to direct tension and to shear can
be neglected in comparison with that due to bending.
The two latter assumptions are not strictly true but the effect
of including the direct and shear strain-energy terms, and of using
~~
* See, for example, Strain-energy Methods of Stress Analysis,”

‘ I
Professor A. J. Sutton Pippard, M.B.E., D.Sc., M.I.Mech.E., 1928

(Longmans, Green).

280 DESIGN O F CRANE HOOKS. DEU. 1934.
the correct expression for the strain energy in a curved beam in place
of the approximate one above, will be shown to be so small as to
be negligible (see Appendix I, p, 321).
1. Bending Moments and Stresses in Egg Links.-As the most

general case of a multiply-connected component, the egg link will be
considered first. Rings and chain links can then be considered as
limiting cases of the egg link.
The notation used is as shown in Fig. 11, which represents,
diagrammatically, one half of the egg link. &Io,RTo, M,, and M4 are
FIG. 11.
the hending nionients at the points shown. Equal and opposite

forces H will be set up a t the two ends.
A t large end Me = Mo + HRl(l - cos 8) -R!1! 2 sin 0
,, straight portion M, = M, + H(R, + R, cos + z sin I))

-W
2(RlsinI)-zcos#)
If U = total strain energy in half-link, and

EI = flexural rigidity of cross-section, then
2EIU = /R-’Mo2RldB
- 0
+ / M&z + r M + 2 R p d $
.1
.’ 0 . 0
Since by symmetry, no change in slope occurs a t the ends,
aU/aMO = 0 ; also, since no relative displacement between the ends
occurs in the direction of force H, HJjaH = 0

DEU. 1931. DESIGN O F CRANE HOOKS. 281
and 2EI
au
-- ;= R l ~ / ~ - i M o (-l cos 0)dO + R, M,&R, + Z cosec +
8H
+ R, cos + + z sin +)dz = 0

-1
+ R, cos c$)+ + - 0
M,(R1
These give :-
Rz 1/1 (R,
++ + + +
MO[Rl(.r - +) Rz+ 11 H[Rl*(.rr - - sin +)
+ I cosec +) RIZ(l cos $) (R,, +
+ + + t Z 2 j sin $1
W
= ~-[R12(1
2
+ +
cos $) R,z(l -. cos 4)
fi%[Rl2(r - + - sin $) + R&(R1 + I cosec +)

+ RIZ(1 + cos 16) + + sin $1 (R22 812)
+ H[R13( 32- - + - 2 sin + - 4 sin a+) + R2

__-
7~
2
3
($ + 8 sin 2 4 )
+ Rz$(Rl + Z cosec +)z + 2R22 sin +(Rl + 1 cosec 4)

+ RlzZ(l + cos + R,I” sin + (1 + cos I/#) + sin2 $1
+)2 +I3
__ W[Rl3 (I +
- -- -t- R2“l - C O S + ) ( R+~ ZCOSW$)
COSI/J)~
2 2
R
sin2+ + R121 sin +(I + cos $1
3
+ 2-
2
+ J R ~ P ( +I cos +)(I - 2 cos+) - -6 sin 241 . . . 18
(5b)
These equations are too unwieldy to be solved in their present
form. In any given case, however, substitution of the dimensions
R,, R,,?, and + = tan--* -___
R, - Rz
)
gives two simultaneous equations
with numerical coefficients for Mo and €1.
To demonstrate the general type of stress distribution in a fitting
of this form and t o show the method of calculation for any case of
practical design, we may consider a link which is very similar to
the proposed British standard egg link (non-reevable). This has t,he
form and dimensions shown in Fig. 12, the egg link being suitable for
use with 1-inch chain, i.e. for a maximum safe working load of 6 tons.
Here R, = 2.18 inches, R, = 1-43 inches, I = 2.12 inches,
+ = 1.231 radians, and W = 6 tons.
Equations (5a) and (5b) give :-
8-05Mo 2262 H = 33.90 +
22.62 Mo 95.49 H = 91.20+

Solving, M, = 4-57 tons-inches.

H = - 0.127 ton.
The sign of H indicates that there is a compressive force of this
amount a t the large end of the link, with an equal tensile force a t
the small end.
Hence the bending moments Me, M,, and M+ are :-
Me = 4.30 + 0.27 cos 8 - 6.54 sin 8
M, = 0.882 - 1.96
Mq = 4-01 - 0.1 8 COB 4 - 4.29 sin 4
FIG.12.
The direct (tensile) load a t any section will be :-

W
Po = .-
2
sin 0 + H cos 6 = 3.00 sin 6 - 0.13 cos 8
W
P, = sin$ - K cost/ = 2.87 tons
p+ = -2
sin4 - H cosq5 = 3.00 sin4 + 0.13 c o s 4
The bending stress a.t any section will he :-
iM
J% = p rA (see equation (3), p. 260)
Here Y = 0.68 inch. A = 1.453 sq. in.

DEC. 1934. DESIGN OB CRANE HOOKS. 283
r
At large end, k = - = 0.312 and, from Pig. 2, p. 261, p o = 3-31,
R
Po-
rA - 3.25, p1 = - 5.22, and = - 5.29
rA
A t small end, k =; 0.476 and = 2.87, Po 2.90, p1 = - 6.26,
rA
and -PI = - 6.34
rA
On straight portion, k = O and po = - p1 =4 ; @ =4.05 = - P i .

rA rA
The suffixes and refer to the extrados and intrados respectively.
The direct stress a t any section will be
fi = P/A = 0.69 P
The total stress at the extrados of the large end will be
f = 0.69 Po + 3.25 Me
= 13.98 + 0.79 cos 0 - 19.20 sin 8
Proceeding in a similar manner, the stresses a t other positions

are as given in the following table.
1 Part. I Extrados.
I Intrados.
I
13.08 - 19.20 sin 0 - 22.76 + 36.67 sin 0
+ 0.79 COY 6 - 1.52 c o e~
Straight side . 3 . 5 7 ~- 5.66 9.62 - 3,572
11.51 - 10.25 sin 4 +
- 25.40 29.27 sin 4
-0.43 COY 4 +
1-23 cos 4
These stresses have been evaluated and are plotted in Fig. 13,
the base of which represents the straightened centre line of a half-
link. At the junctions of the ends with the straight side, the stress
will be seen to have two values ; one of these represents the stress
just to one side of the junction, e.g. the straight side, where the
radius of curvature is infinite, the other that on the curved end, where
the stress due to a given bending moment will be less a t the extrados
and greater a t the intrados than in the straight beam. In practice,
of course, the transition will be gradual and not discontinuous as
shown.
The maximum tensile stress at the safe working load a t any point
in the link is 14.8 tons per sq. in. a t the extrados a t the large crown.

The tensile stress at the intmdos of the large end a t 8 = 92.4 deg.
is only very slightly lower, namely, 13.9 tons per sq. in. The only
other point of high tensile stress is the extrados a t the small crown,
a value of 11.1 tons per sq. in.
In the above example only the egg link for 1-inch chain has been
considered. But in any range (such as the British standard links)
which forms a geometrical series, having dimensions proportional
FIG. 13.-Vu~iution of Stress Tound standard egg link.
W
/
n I
%lo.- I
I
ALARCE
END- ----++-STRAIGHT SIDE-
I
I
I
25-
to the square root of the load, the stresses calculated apply throughout
to the whole range.
The effect of varying the length of an egg link on the stresses
induced may be of interest and is shown in Pig. 14, in which the two
principal values of the stress are plotted against cos$. The other
dimensions of the link (Rl, R,, and r ) are as in Pig. 12. This diagram
shows the effect of length between the two extremes cos $ = 1 (ring)
and COS$ = 0 (infinite length). The shapes of link corresponding
to four given values of cos+ are also indicated. In the practical

--
DEC. 1984. DESIGN OF CRANK HOOKS. 285
range of values of COB$ (say 0.2 to 0.4)the maximum stress will be

seen not to vary widely from 15 tons per sq. in., the extremes being
15.7 and 14.4 tons per sq. in. The diagram applies only t o the
particular proportions of R,, R,, and r shown in Fig. 12 ; the
relationship in other cases will be similar, except that alteration of T
FIG. 14.--Fa.riation of Stresses with Length in egg link.

25-
20-
I
0
zd15- 1NTRADOS. MAXIMUM STRESS--
v)
K
W EXTRAOOS. CROWN
a
v)
z
P
I
v)
2 10
[r
t-
v)
0 ______c__
0-25
will affect the relative positions, though not the general shapes, of
the two curves.
2 . Bending iMowients altd Stresses in Chain Links.--The normal

form of chain link, which for analytical purposes is treated as

consisting of two equal semicircular ends joined by straight sides

(Fig. 15), can be treated as a special case of the egg link by putting
R1= R2 and # = 7712.
Making these substitutions in equations (5a) and (561, we obtain
WR 2 R + l
H = O and Mo=--.-- (6)
2 rrR+E . * ' . * *
(Since the link is symmetrical, the forces H a t the ends must be

equal, and since they are in equilibrium they must be zero, agreeing
with the solution above.)
Hence
Mx -- WR2 .I_-
2-77
2 nR+Z
Po = Wl.2 sin 0
P, = w/2
and the stresses are
P, 4Mx W
f x = = ~ + 2A
4R 2-7s
~ = - ( lTR
&f ~
l - ->
where k = rlR as before, and p = curvature factor = p,, a t extrados
or p1 at intrados.
At the extrados, the maximum tensile stress will occur when
0 = 0 deg., i.e. a t the crown and will be
WPO 2 + m
f o == (-
2A Jc T-+ m )

Fra. 16.--Stress Fadorsfor rings and chain links.
m=-
E
where
R
At the intrados, the maximum tensile stress will be at 0 = 90 deg.
and will be
2A k n+m
As W/2A is equal to the apparent tensile stresa in each side of
the link, it will be convenient to call fIWI2A the '' stress factor ' I

for the liuk ; this will be denoted by KO and K1 for the extrados
and intrados respectively.
Then I< -Po

O - x- 2 ++m = s o Y o
* ?r 9%
. . . . . . (74
h ’1 -- 1 - - P I T - 2 = 1 -+ SIT1 . . (7h)
k . ?r 111 + *
where Xo = @ and XI = - @ depend only on 6

k k
2 na + 77-
Yo = - and Y, = -- -
2
m
r i - m 7l +-rn ’) ”
FIG. 17.-Stress Factors f o r short-link crane chain.
50
According t o the dimensions of the link, either fo or fimay be

the greater. Values of KOand h’, are plotted in Fig. 16 for values
of k from 0.2 t o 0.5 and of m from 0 t o 4. These values cover
all forms of this type of link in common use, from rings (rn = 0)
t o railway wagon coupling links ( m up t o 4). The curves show that,
if the length of the link is the only variable, the stress at the extrados
of the crown increases with increase in length but a t a rapidly

decreasing rate. A portion of Fig. 16, plotted to a Iarger scale, ia

reproduced ae Fig. 17 (k = 0.4 to 0.5, rn = 1.0 to 1.3), which covers
the variations which may occur in practice in the size of short-link
crane chain. * British Standard Specification No. 394 specifies limiting
overall dimensions of 4fr x 3& diameters, corresponding to stress
factors of 4-84 and 4.60 at the crown (extrados) and horizontal section
(intrados) respectively. With a safe working load equal to 6d2,
the corresponding stresses are 18-5and 17.6 tons per sq. in.
3. Effectof StuLidinj a Chain Link.-It is generally recognized

that the insertion of a stud in a link increases its strength considerably ;
thus, the Admiralty proof load for studded chain is 18d2, or 50 per
cent greater than that for open link chain.
FIO. 18.
C X
-
I\
I
J.H H
Consider a link of the form t examined above, in which a stud

has been inserted. Assume that this stud makes, initially, a tight
fit in the link (this will be the case in practice as the stud is shrunk
in place). The bending moments in this case cannot be derived
from the egg link formuls, but must be considered separately.
Referring to the quadrant shown in Big. 18, in addition to the
bending moment M,, there is a further unknown, H, equal to half tho
compression in the stud (assumed concentrated a t the centre line
of the stud) and balanced by an equal tension in the crown of the link.
&lo= M, - WR
~ sin e + H R ( ~
- cos e;
2
* The attention of manufacturers and users is especially directed to

Figs. 16 and 17 ; by their use, the design of a large variety of links and
rings may be obtained without any analytical work whatever.
t In practice, a studded link may have a different shape from that of
an open link, but this does not affect the general argument.
19

97 1
3
2EIU = j0Me2RdB + jfMs2dx
By symmetry, no change in slope occurs between the ends
of the quadrant, hence aUjaMo = 0. Since, as stated previously,
compressive strains may be neglected in comparison with
displacements due t o bending, no relative displacement of the ends
in the direction of H occurs, hence aU/aH = 0, whence
Mo = F . WRj2 ; H = GWj2
where
(m +
F - ___--____
2){d +
6m2 + 12(4 - n ) m 48(n --3))
.-
+
rn4 + 4nm3 + 48m2 24nm 24(n2 - 8)+ .
+
and +
G =.-- 1 2 ( + ~ a)((, - 2)qn + 2(4 - T ) )
m4 +4nm3 48m2 + +
24nm 2 4 ( d - 8) +
i!
(ni = --, as before)
R
Then
WR
Me= --(I!
2
+ G -sine - Gcos8)
M,=- WR - - ( F + G - ~ + G - -2)
2 R
W
+
Y,y = ---(sin 0 G cos 0)
2
P, = w j 2
and the stress factors are :-
Kg = g(F + G) + (1 -$)(sin 0 + C cos 0)

4 462
K, zz 1 *Z(F +G - 1) 5 --
r
The stress a t the extrados of the crown is
K e = @k ( F + G ) + ( l - P o ) Gk = @ F +kG . . (Sa)
and for all practical cases this will be the greatest stress a t any point
of the extrados.

DEU. 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 291
The maximum stress a t the intrados is
[According to the dimensions of the studded link, the tensile stress,

either at crown extrados or at a point a t the intrados where
O=cot-lG, may be the greater. An interesting example of the
latter case is referred to in a previous paper * on “ Causes of Failure
in Wrought Iron Chains,” where links fractured under test, giving
a double fracture a t positions indicated by theory (see Fig. 19).]
FIQ. 19.-Fracture of Studded Chain Link.
As a numerical example, a studded mooring chain link of 14

inches diameter with overall dimensions 9 inches x 5 inches will be
considered and compared with the same link without stud. Here
R = 1.75 inches, r = 0.75 inches, 1 = 4 inches, k = 0.429, and
m = 2-29.
Hence I? = 0.488 G = 0.346,
po = 2.97 = 6.93
k
p1 = -5.92 fi
k
= -13.81
The stress fact,ors in the various parts of the link, open and
studded, are as given in the table below.
_.____
* Loo. cit.

I Part. Open Link.

I
Studded Link.
- - - - -___ .._
_. __
_
Extrados Sides - 0.96 1.842 - 0.55

,, Ends 5.47 - 5.93 sin 8 5.78 - 5.93 sin 0 - 2.06 cos 6
Intrados Sides 2.96 2.55 - 1.84%
,, Ends -10.91 14.81 sin 8 + - 11.52 +
13.81 sin 0
I
+
5.12 cos e
F I G . 20.--Variation of Stress round open and etudded chain linles of

same dimensions.
END
J
-- -< STRAIGHT SIDE
0-E OPEN LINK, EXTRADOS
0-1 OPEN LINK. INTRADOS
S-E STUDDED LINK. EXTRADOS
s-I STUDDED LINK. INTRADOS
These stress factors are plotted in Fig. 20, the base again being
the straightened centre line of a quadrant of the link.
The maximum tensile stress factors are, for the open link, 5.47
at the crown extrados, and for the studded link, 4.17 a t 8 = 70.9 deg.

a t the intrados. This corresponds to a reduction in the maximum

tensile stress of about 24 per cent. It would probably be fairer t o
compa,re the studded link with an open link of shorter dimensions,
say in this case 7 inches. Here the maximum stress factor would
be 5-08, and the reduction of stress would be only 18 per cent.
Goodenough and Moore * found that the average effect of the insertion
of a stud was to decrease the maximum stress by about 20 per cent.
They also pointed out that the maximum compressive stress is also
very much reduced (e.g. in the above example from 10.91 to 6.40,
or 41 per cent ; in Goodenough and Moore’s examples, the average
decrease is about 50 per cent). This compressive stress, however, is
not of very great importance in practice.
4. Ben,ding Moments and Stresses in Rinp.-The ring is also a

special case of the egg link, either directly (writing R, = Rz,
$-- ~ 1 2 1, = 0) or via the deduced expression for the chain link
(writing 1 = 0).
Putting m = 0 in equations (75) and (7b) for the stress factors
in chain links
I<, 2Po
= stress factor a t extrados in line of load = - - . . (9a)
nk
These values of KOand K, are given by the curves marked m = 0

in the general diagram (Fig. 16) of stress factors in chain links.
This diagram shows that for values of k = r/R > 0-274, XI > KO,
and vice versa. Hence for a ring the mean diameter of which is
less than 3.68 times the diameter of the material, the maximum
tensile stress will occur a t the intrados at the horizontal section, and
in thinner rings a t the extrados in the line of load.?
As the above has been deduced as a limiting case of the loaded
egg link, it applies only to rings carrying equal and opposite loads
a t either end of a diameter. In practice, however, rings are often
used so that one load (e.g. due to a crane hook) is balanced by two
or more equal loads symmetrically disposed about the axis of the
first load (e.g. multiple slingsj. Multiply-loaded rings are of such
* COODENOUQH, G . A., and MOORE, L. E., “ The Strength of Chain
Links,” University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Bulletin No. 18,
1907.
f The more accurate theory given in Appendix I, p. 321, shows that the
critical value of this ratio is 3.92 ; the errors in stress are very much lower
than this difference suggests.

great practical interest that the case of three loads may be usefully
considered.
Referring to the half-ring shown in Fig. 21, half the main load
W/2 will be balanced by one of the other two loads Wj2 sec a inclined
a t an angle c( as shown. I n addition, forces H and (H - W/2 tan a ) ,
perpendicular to the line of load, will be induced. Hence, Me = hir,
+ HR(1 - cos 0) - WR/2 sin (0 - a ) sec a (the last term applying
only when 0 > a).
Again aU/aMo = 0 and aU/aH = 0
TT-U
Then H =W tana
27-5
WR
M, = --{I
277
+ see a - ( x - a) tan a)
FIG.21.
... Me =WR
-(1 + sec a - n sin 0 + a t a n g cos 6), when 6 > a
2?7
WR
or ---(1 + seca - - a) tanacos0}, when 6 < x
(TT
277
and Po = H cos 0 + W/2 sin (0 - a ) sec a
w
= -(T sin 0 - a tan a cos O), when 0 > M
2n
W
or - (T - a ) tan u cos.0, when 0 < v.
277
Hence, the stress factors are
K = l/.rr{p/k(l+seca)+(l-p/k)(x sin 0-a tancr cos 6)),when B>a
or ~ / - / i { p / k ( l + s c c a ) + ( 1 - ~ p l k ) ( n -t~a)n a cos B},whenB<a

The variation of stress round the ring (k = 0.25) for the cases
u = 0 (two loads only) and u = 45 deg. is shown in Fig. 22.
FIG.22.--Streaaes in Ring under different conditions of loading.
According to the values of u and k, the maximum tensile stress

in the ring may occur a t either :-
(a) the main load (extrados), 8 = T
(b) the other loads (extrados), 8 = a
(c) a t approximately 8 = 90 deg. (intrados).

FIa. 23.--Stresses in Ring with double sling.
The values of the stress factors at these three points are

(a)Po .
+
1 sec - tc + ( I - $parla . . .
k rr
- .1
(b) po
k
+
seca + ( I ---;&:)(I
--__
77
--z)sina. . . .
- -_
(4
p1 1. +rrsec a + ( 1 -;:)d’l+--
--
tan2 a a2
. .
712
at e = cot-l(-a tan tc ) 77

These are plotted (again taking k = 0.25) in Fig. 23. It will be

seen t h t the most severe type of loading i s that jirst considered, namely,
two equal loads at opposite ends of a diameter, unless a > about 70 deg.
(an angle which should never be permitted in practice, to avoid
excessive stressing of the sling).
The work involved in the preparation of a British Standard
Specification for Lifting Rings (in course of issue) was very greatly
reduced by the employment of the following simplified formula,
which was developed a t the National Physical Laboratory :-
14.8 d3
W=
Di + 0*3d
where W is the proof load in tom, corresponding to a calculated
maximum stress * of 24 tons per sq. in., d is the diameter of material
in inches, and Di is the internal diameter in inches. This formula
was derived as follows :-
KO= Po
7rk
Forf= 24 tons per sq. in, (a value based on rings which have
given satisfactory performance in service),
\ y = -2=4 -7 T ~ 59-2a2
Po Po
x; k
Over the range of values of k(k = Q to k = i)generally used for
rings, the relation between po and k can be represented almost exactly
by the formula po = 4 - 2 4 3 .
14.8d2
Hence w=-=59.2d2
4
- - 2.6 R -00.65
k r
But Di = 2(R - T )
..
For simplicity, the factor 0.35 is taken as 0.3, the error thus
introduced never exceeding 3 per cent in the range considered.
It should be noted that, in the case of thick rings ( k > 0.27) this
formula, which is based on the stress a t the extrados in the line of
* Assuming elastic conditions.

load (whichvalue is lower than that a t the horizontal section intrados),

may be in error by a varying amount which attains the value of 10
per cent when k = 0.33.
5. Bending Moments und Stresses in Eyebolts.-Although eyebolts

are so widely employed in engineering practice, both as permanent
fittings on heavy machinery and as temporary attachments during
assembling and overhauling operations, there is probably no
component of lifting gear in which occurs such a great diversity of
existing types, many of which are totally inadequate for ,their
important function. For, although in certain cases the applied
FIG. 24.
wsin a-H
\1
V
4
wcosu-v
loading may be axial, in the majority of slinging operations the line

of loading is inclined to the axis of the shank, thus involving
considerable bending actions, the lack of provision for which, in
many existing types, renders serious liability t o dangerous and
expensive accidents. The British Standards Institution committee
which undertook the task of preparing a specification for an eyebolt
for lifting machinery, agreed that the latter should be capable of
withstanding inclined loading applied in a direction making an angle
of 45 deg. with the axis of the shank of. the bolt. Some preliminary
tests made by the authors on a wide range of commercial eyebolts
showed that it was necessary to approach the required design from
first principles on a basis of theoretical design combined with

experiment and this course has been adopted. Some of this work
may be worthy of record, not only because some of the analytical
work is original, but because the experiments subsequently carried
out verified, in a striking manner, the stress distribution indicated
by the theory of elasticity applied to a component of complex shape.
The eyebolt consists essentially of three parts : eye, collar, and
shank, of which probably the greatest interest attaches to the eye.
In what follows, it will be assumed * that the line of the applied
external load lies in the plane containing the axis of the eye.
(a) Eye.-The eye of the bolt springs from the collar, which is
normally so rigid that any deflexion in it due to bending may be
neglected. The eye will, therefore, be considered as fixed in position
and slope at two points, radial lines from which subtend an angle
2/3 and are equally inclined to the axis, as shown in Fig. 34. The
forces on the ring are the load W, the horizontal and vertical reactions,
H and V, at the left-hand abutment, and (W s i n a - H) and
(W cos M - V) a t the right-hand abutment as shown. The weight
lifted is W cos M, and the bending moment a t the left-hand abutment
is M,.
+
Then Me = M,, - HR( cos /3 cos 0) VR(sin p - sin 0) +
WR sin (e a) + +
(the last term applying only when 0 > T - ct).
Since no relative displacement or change of slope occur at the
au au au
abutments, - = - = - = 0 (U being the strain energy taken
a% a~ av
from abutment to abutment). These give three equations for
the determination of the three unknowns M,, H, and V, from which
the following values are obtained :-
v = W_y .cos a- - sin y cosp
2 /3 - s i n p c o s p
=
2 1 -_
sin /?(~ cos_y ) ~- p(sin p sin y y sin a)
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~
+ .
+
~
2 2 sin2 p - /?(/? sin /? cos /?)
(sin -
- __ p p cos__
/3){2
...__
sin y + y sin a)}
sin /3( 1 - cos y ) - /?(sinp___-__ .
Z sin2 p - /3(p+ sin /3 cos p)
y cos u - cos /? sin y
where y=.+P.
- /? sin /3--
/3 - sin p cos /? -1
-_ . _ _ _ _ _ ._.______
_ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ . _ ~ . ~
* It is very important to ensure that this condition is observed in

lifting operations in practice.

300 DESIGN OF CRANE Hams. DEC. 1936.
As a numerical example me may consider the original form of

eye in the British Standard eyebolt (see dotted line in Pig. 25) for
FIa: BB.-British
Standard Eyebolt.
+
Dimension X varies from &.inch for #-inch t o inch for 3-inch eyebolt.
Dimension Y varies from A inch for 3-inch t o -&inch for 3-inch eyebolt.
\J'
2D
' K
i
which the approximate value of /3 is 135 deg. For this case the
expressions given above simplify t o
+
H/W = (0.500 0.349a) sin a 0.026 cos cc - 0-210 +
+
V/W = (0.500 0.175~)cos a - 0.088 sin a
+
M/,WR = 0.423 - (0.232 0.124~)cos a - (0.292 0.352~)sin a +
Also, Me = M, + +
0.707R(H V) - R(H cos 6' V sin 6') ___
+
-~- WR sin 8 Q + +
+
and, Po = (H cos 6' V sin 6') - W sin 6' a +

DEC. 1934. DESIGN O F CRANE ROOKS. 30 1
The stress factor a t any value of 8,
__-
(In these expressions for Me, Pg, and KO,the term sin B + a applies
only when 8 > T - a.)
In the original design, k = 4,so that Pok = 9.48, @k = - 15.99.
Possible positions of maximum tensile stress, with the corresponding
stzess factors, are as follows :-
(1) Extrados at point of application of load
Mo H
where K = 18.96---
WR
+ (13.40 + 16.96 cos a)W-
+ (13.40 - 16-96sin a)-.WV . . (12a)
(2) Extrados at support remote from load
where
MO H v
K = 18.96-
WR
+ 14----+
w 25.38- w + 11.98 (sin ct - cos a). (12b)
( 3 ) Iritrados at tan 6' = V/H
K -31.98-
M, - 22.60( --
,H V
+ -w-- )
where =
WR .W
(4) Intrados at tan 0 =

V- w cos a
- ~-
H - W sin a
The values of these stress factors, for values of a up to 45 deg.,

are plotted in Fig. 26, in which the figures indicate the values of 8

at which the maximum stress occurs. The curves show that, in

the general case, for a constant value of W , the maximum stress
increases as a increases. But, actually, the permissible values of
W are controlled by the consideration that the shank: of the eyebolt
should be equally stressed a t various angles of lift u,resulting in a
decrease of W as ci increases. So that, in fact, the value of the
maximum stress in the ring, at the working load, decreases as a
increases. For example, the recommended safe working loads *
FIG.SG.-Strem Factors for Eyebolt Ring for various angles of load.
0 0
ANGLE OF LOAD c(I
for the British standard 1-inch eyebolt are 2.75 tons at a = 0 (direct
lift) and 0.675 ton at u = 45 deg. The latter condition gives a value
of W = 0.6752/2 = 0.955 ton. The sectional area of the ring
(3 inch diameter) being 0.442 sq. in. and the respective stress factors
4-82 and 7.85, the maximum stresses in the ring have the values
(a)15.0 tons per sq. in. for direct lift, and (b) 8.5 tons per sq. in. for
45 deg. lift.
In presenting these values, however, attention must be drawn
_ _ . _ -~ - _. - ____
* Actual vertical load lifted, not value of W,

to an important point. For reasons stated in the next section,

the recommended working loads, for any angle of lift, are not
proportional to the area of the screwed shank, but favour the smaller
sizes.
For any given size of eye and load, the position of the maximum
stress also varies with the angle a-; when a = 0, the interesting
situation arises that stresses, very nearly equal in value, are induced
a t three positions in the ring ; at the intrados where 9 =i= 110 deg.
and 250 deg., also, at the extrados in the line of the lift, W.* As
a increases from 0 deg. to 45 deg., the maximum stress occurs,
first a t the intrados (9 = 250 deg. to 236 deg.), then a t the extrados
at the support remote from W(e = 315 deg.) and, finally, a t the
intrados near the nearer support (9 = 57 deg. to 47 deg.).
The above stress calculations refer to the original proposals for
the eye (shown as a dotted line in Pig. 25), in which the diameter
of the material of the eye was equal to three-quarters the nominal
diameter of the shank. Arising from the results of subsequent
tests, the value of the latter factor was altered to seven-eighths.
The effect of this was t o decrease the maximum stress factors by
5 per cent a t a = 0 and by 7 per cent a t M = 45 deg., while the
maximum estimated stresses in the eye were decreased by 30 to
32 per cent, respectively, at a = 0 and 45 deg.
As showing the variation in maximum stress in the eyes of bolts
of various sizes, and the effect of altering the diameter of the material
of the eye from $D (as originally proposed) to $1,(as finally adopted),
the following table may be of interest :-
Nominal Size
of Bolt D,
inches. Diameter of Material in Eye.
4D ;kD __.___
QD PD
_____ -
8 9.7 6.8 5.6 3.8

-- -. ___--
1 15.0 10.5 8.5 5.8
-_____
3 18.2 12.7 10.4 7.1
1
~. - _______
* A striking experimental verification of the equality of these three
stresses is described in Section VII, pp. 319-20.

304 DESIGN OF CRANE EOOKS. DEC. 1934.
represent a compromise between economy of design and considera-

tions of manufacture. Also, the conditions of assembly (due to initial
screwing torque, etc.) give rise to an indeterminate system of internal
stresses, which were found to render impossible of derivation a strict
analytical treatment which could be easily and confidently used for
design purposes. Several experimental investigations were therefore
carried out on series of eyebolts in which the effects of wide variations
in some of the leading dimensions were studied. It is unnecessary
t o describe these tests in detail. It is sufficient to say that the need
for a very stiff collar, to avoid undue distortion, was made evident
and the adopted value of depth of collar (equal to three-quarters
the nominal diameter of shank) was considered satisfactory in this
respect. The diameter of the face of the collar (equal to 2) diameters)
was determined from a consideration of the results of a series of static
tests * to destruction on eyebolts having collar faces with diameters
equal to lQ, 2, at, and 23 times the shank diameter. Adequate
proportioning of the collar is a very important consideration as,
under inclined loading, partial failure of the collar is very liable t o
occur by crushing a t its edge. It may be remarked that the behaviour
under test (described later) of bolts subjected to many repetitions
of load, applied under conditions approximating to those of service,
was such as to enable considerable confidence to be reposed in the
adopted proportions of the colIar.
As the eyebolts were required for use with lifts inclined to the axis
of the bolt a t angles of a up to and including 45 deg., it was necessary
t o obtain, for specification purposes, an expression showing the
manner in which the permissible values of the load lifted varied with
values of a on the usual assumption, for good design, that the most
important portion of the eyebolt should be equally stressed over this
range of a. For this purpose, the behaviour of the eye maybe
neglected (see preceding section, p. 299). It is very essential that
yielding shall not occur in the shank of the bolt, as otherwise the
collar of the bolt will lift from its seating, a highly undesirable event.
The problem, therefore, was reduced to obtaining those conditions
under which the shank was equally stressed a t all permissible angles
of Iift. Owing to the unknown extent of such factors as friction of
collar on block, internal stresses due to fitting, condition of surface,
etc., the problem could not be solved exactly. Using certain
simple assumptions, however, an empirical relation was obtained
which appeared to be satisfactory.
-_ ~ __ ~ _____ ~ . ~ _ _
*These were made with eyebolts screwed into mild steel and cast iron
blocks.

DEC. 1834. DESIGN O F CRANE HOOKS. 305
Referring to Fig. 27, where P is the load lifted and W the lifting
force (inclined a t an angle a to the axis of the bolt), the shank is
subjected to tensile, shearing, and bending actions due to the
components W cos u, W sin u, and the moment (2DW sin a ) ,
W
=.p
respectively. These actions are resisted by the forces and moments

due to the stress in the shank, together with the vertical reaction
set up between the eyebolt collar and the face of the block into which
the bolt is screwed. Initial forces due to screwing the bolt into the
20

block are neglected. The assumption is made that the vertical

reaction can be treated as equivalent to a single force situated a t a
certain distance, equal to nD, from the bolt axis ; the value n = +i
was selected from the authors’ experience of the manner in which
the edge of the collar crushed during static tests and it is believed
that no serious error is here involved up to loads a t which the shank
fails by yielding. It is also assumed that the stress due t o bending
in any fibre of the shank is proportional to the horizontal distance
of that fibre from the vertical reaction between the collar and block.
Then, using the usual analytical methods, and reducing the
tensile, shearing, and bending stresses t o the equivalent shear stress,
it is easily shown * that
Eqviivalent shear stress
where A = core area of bolt and g = 2D

d, ;~; : : ;zL - ~ -~
Owing to the fact that in the Whitworth thread form dlD is not
constant over the required ranges of sizes (D = 8 inch to 3 inches),
the factor g is not a constant, but it will be found that if the average
value of d/D, equal to 0.84, is employed throughout, then the values
of g thus obtained, over the whole ranges of D = 8 inch to 3 inches
and a = 0 to 45 deg., are never in error by more than 1 per cent.
Hence the variable g in equation (13) can be replaced by a constant
(2.62) and the relative values of P, for various angles of lift, are given
directly by the equation. (The relation between P and a is, of
course, independent of the actual size of the bolt.)
The relative values of P, the load lifted vertically by the bolt,
given in the following table shows the inanner in which this quantity
varies with the angle of lift :--
* The expression can also be obtained in a more general form i n which

the diameter of the collar and the vertical distance from the centre of the
eye t o the collar face are expressed as variables in terms of D : in this way
the effect of these variables is made evident. As, however, these sizes were
determined from other considerations, this more general form has been
omitted.

DEC.1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 307
To determine the numerical values of P, it is only necessary to

choose a reliable value of fs,which is equivalent to half the tensile
stress in the core of the shank when the eyebolt is subjected to a
vertical lift. As it is good practice to adopt lower working stresses
for the smaller sizes of Whitworth thread, the recommended safe
working loads adopted in the British Standard Specification for
eyebolts are based on varying values of the nominal tensile stress
in the core, for vertical lifts, which increase from 34' tons per sq. in.
for $-inch bolts t o about 5 tons per sq. in. for 1-inch bolts and 5.5
tons per sq. in. for the largest specified size, 3 inches.
RESULTS.
VII. EXPERIMENTAL
The experimental work involved in the preparation of British
Standard Specifications for lifting gear components on behalf of
the British Standards Institution falls into three main groups :
(a) preliminary tests on existing commercial types, t o discover their
strength and other properties, (b) tests made in the development
stage of a proposed standard, to investigate the effect of some
variable, and (c) tests made on the proposed standard, to ascertain
its resistance to various types of loading and thus to furnish practical
data regarding the efficiency of the design and material used. The
results of the first two groups of tests were very useful for their
immediate purpose but are not of general interest. Of the third
group of tests, a brief account will be given of the tests made a t the
National Physical Laboratory on (1) hooks, and (2) eyebolts, a.s the
results not only give data which may be of pmctical interest to
manufacturers and users, but also are of some theoretical importance
in connexion with the theory of elasticity on which the designs were
based. Also, they are believed to represent the first attempts a t
complete series of tests made on full-size lifting gear components of
these kinds.
1. Tests on. Hooks.-Three types of hooks were tested, crane, sling,

and Liverpool type hooks. Tensile tests were made to afford
information regarding the loads a t which appreciable departure
from elasticity occurred, the amount of permanent set occurring at
the proof load, ultimate failing load, etc. As the application of
sudden shocks is often responsible for failure in service, tensile
impact tests were also made. Fatigue tests were included for several
important reasons: first, as under fatigue conditions the shape of
t,he component undergoes negligible change, definite information iR
obtained regarding the weakest part of the component, thus affording

TABLE 2.-Results of Tensile Pests on Hooks.
Rated 1 Estimated
Propor- 1I
Per-
Safe Stress at 1 Maximum manent
Refer- Working safe tional Ratio, Fibre
ence
Mark
Type of
Hook
Material Load
(S.W.L.),
working
load,
Limit
(P.L.), 1
1 P.L.
s,w.L. 1 stress
at P.L.,
Set at
proof
load,
tons jons per tons tons per in. x 10-s
sq. in. 1 sq. in.
'
___ ___ ~ -.
-1
____
FKN. 1
FEN. 2
FKN. 3
Crane Mild steel
Wrought, iron
Mild steel
4
4
4
12
12
10
I
1
5.7,
4.6
6.8
'I
j
1
1.44
1.15
1.70
16.1
13.7
18.7
2
7
0.5
20.7
27.3
I
5.2
6.8
I
FKN. 4 Wrought iron 4 10
___-
j 5.6 j
-I
1.40 13.7 2 22.5 5.6
___.
GWG. 3 Livcrpnol Nild steel 1.5 9 ' 2.8 1.93 17.2 0.5 134 8.9
I
~
~
GWG. 4 1, 1.5 9 3.2 I 2.13 19.0 nil
CWE. 3 Wrought iron 13.1 10
GWE. 4 154 2.5
* Some small allowance t o be made for departure of actual shape of hook from standard form (see last column of Table 1).

a check on the stress distrihtion given by theory ; second, as the

real factor of sa,fet,y is obtained hy dividing the fatigue limit and
not the static failing load by the safe working load, attention is drawn
to the fallacy of reposing a false degree of confidence in the latter
ratio ; third, the fatigue strength of the hook cannot be deduced
from fatigue tests on specimens of simple shape, as the material
may not be in the same condition ; also, the mean stress of the cycle
is not known after plastic deformation has occurred in the hook
(see Section V, p. 277).
TABLE 1.-Particulars of Hooks Used for Tensile Tests.
Esti- Esti-
I mated t mated $
Reference
Mark
Type i &raterial
Safe Rated Actual
Stress Stress
Working at safe at safe
?$' working working
load, load,
tons per tons per
sq. in. sq. in.
FKN. 1 Crane with shank Mild steel 4 12 11.2 ~
FKN.
FKN.
2
3
,, Wrought iron
Mild steel
4
4
12
10
11.9
11.0 '
i
FKN. 4 ,, Wrought iron 4
GWE. 3* Liverpool Wrought iron 1.5

GWE. 4 * 1 ..5 8.9 I
GWG. 3* Mili'steel 1.5 9 8.9
G W G . 4* 1.6 9 ~ 8.9 1
(i) Tensile Tests to Destruction, including Observations of Dejexion

and Permanent Set.-These were made on four crane hooks (Fig. 8u:
p. 270) and four hooks of the Liverpool type (Fig. 8 4 , half the
samples being of wrought iron and half of mild steel. The crane
hooks were hand-forged, while the other samples were drop
stampings. Other particulars are as given in Table 1.
Accurate measurements were taken of the movement of the point
of the hook with relation to the shank.
The results of the tests are summarized in Table 2, opposite.
Failure of elasticity was observed, in all cases, a t a load well
__ __ __-
* Normalized.
t From standard dimensions.
$ From actuaI dimensions of sample.

above the safe working load, but only in one case did this load exceed
the proof load ; the permanent set a t the proof load, although of
definite amount (with one exception) was small in magnitude. The
loads a t which the hook opened out to such an extent as to be
incapable of retaining the load were equivalent to from 5 to 7 times
the safe working load for the crane hooks and 74 t o 9 times for the
Liverpool hooks, being in each case rather higher for the hooks
made of mild steel.
In one case with each type of hook, the load was reduced before
final slipping occurred in order to ascertain what load the hook
would support indefinitely when considerably deformed. In the case
of FKN. 4 the rate of deformation under a load of 20 tons (= 5 x safe
working load) was practically zero, and in the case of GWG. 3 the
load supported, after the point of the hook had become horizontal,
was 10 tons (= 6.7 x safe working load). It is, therefore, concluded
that the crane hooks would support indefinitely a load equal to
4 times, and the Liverpool hooks a load equal to 6 times, the safe
working load. The deepening of the section of the crane hooks a t
45 deg. below the principal section had therefore very satisfactorily
achieved the desired object of increasing safety in cases of heavy
overloading.
In two cases only did fracture occur ; hooks GWE. 3 and 4
(Liverpool, wrought iron) being about one-third and three-quarters
severed, respectively, a t the point of maximum stress just before
the load was released. The wrought iron crane hooks showed
longitudinal cracks along the pilings, but did not fracture. The
mild steel hooks showed no signs of fracture.
From these results, it was decided to adopt the same stress rating
(at safe working load) of 12 tons per sq. in. for hooks of wrought iron
and mild steel.
(ii) Tensile Impact Tests to Destructiolz.-These were made on
samples of standard sling hooks (Fig. 8b) and Liverpool hooks
(Fig. 8c) of the sizes specified for a safe working load of 1& tons.
Particulars of the hooks used and the results obtained are given in
Table 3.
As a convenient means of comparison the energies absorbed are
also stated in terms of the weights of the hooks. This figure should
be constant for geometrically similar hooks of the same material ;
it is therefore of value in affording an index of the combined efficiency
of the material and design of a hook or other fitting. All the hooks
were tested in the normalized condition.
These results compare very favourably with those of hooks of
other designs previously tested a t the Laboratory, a value of 0-6

TABLE 3.-Particulars of Hooks Used for Tensile Impact Tests.
II I Safe R.ated
Work- Stress
Energy
Absorbed, ,
Mark 1
teference Type of
Hook 1 hIaterial ing at
Load, 3.W.L.
tons tons
Weight -
lb.
ft.-
l l Pe: sq.
in.
_ _
tons
_
lb.
~ -
GFV. 1
GFV. 8 I
GWG. 1 Liverpool
Sling
., 1 Mild steel
.,
,,
1.5
1.5
1.5
12
12
9
~-
3.80
3.73
6.61
2.66
3.03
5.58
0.70
0.81
0.84
GWG.2 ?, 1.5 9 6.57 5.46 0.83
GWE. 11 ,, Wrought iroI 1.5 9 6.50 4.43 0.68
GWE. 1 1-5 0 6.83 4.42 0-65
GWE.2 ,, 1.5 9 6.48 4.85 0.75
ft.-ton per lb. being usually regarded as satisfactory. All the hooks
opened out very considerably, the four mild steel hooks showing no
cracks or other sign of actual fracture. Of the three wrought iron
hooks, two, after undergoing considerable deformation, fractured
a t the section of maximum stress (when opened out) ; the other
exhibited a large crack a t the same position.
(iii) Patigue Tests.-Fatigue tests were carried out on sling hooks
(Fig. 8b) and Liverpool hooks (Fig. 8c), all of 1.5 tons safe working
load, using a Haigh electromagnetic fatigue testing machine of 6 tons
capacity. All the hooks were normalized before test. In order t o
avoid impact, the minimum load of each cycle was maintained at a
positive value, namely, ton ; the frequency of loading was 2,200
cycles per minute. The results of the tests are plotted in Fig. 28
(the number of reversals to fracture being plotted to a logarithmic
scaIe) and are summarized in Table 4.
TABLE 4.-.Results of Fatigue Tests on Hooks.

_ ~ _ ~
Estimated
Stresses at Safe
Range, tons
per sq. in.
15.1
Liverpool , 19.6
18.4

31 2 DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEC.1934.
The fact,or o f safety of 1.2 against fatigue failure for the sling
hooks may seem unduly low, but it may be remarked that these safe
ranges represent t'hose under which fracture should not occur in an
indefinitely great number of applications of load, while the service
FIG.28.-ResuEts of Fatigue Test8 on 1.5-ton hooks.
life of a lifting hook is usually so prescribed, for other reasons, that

failure by fatigue in service is not a likely event. Nevertheless, the
real factor of safety is undoubtedly provided by the results of this
type of test and not of static tensile tests to destruction. Also,
the well-known fact that fatigue is greatly accelerahed by surface
discontinuities, etc., increases the desirability of the user exercising

DEC. 1931. DESIGN O F CRANE HOOKS. 31 3
every precaution to avoid the hooks being subjected to ill usage. The
reason for the higher " factor of safety " in the Liverpool hooks is
the heavier section employed, which was considered desirable in view
of the severe character of the service to which this type of hook is
often subjected.
The hooks failed by the development of cracks a t the points of
maximum stress, no appreciable distortion of the hook taking place.
The position of the crack in t,he sling hooks varied between the
principal section and a position about 35 deg. above that section.
The stresses a t sections above the principal section, in the hook as
designed, are somewhat higher than that a t the principal sect.ion ; the
variation in the position of the crack is probably due to slight
variations in shape of the samples, also, possibly, to variations in
the condition of the material due to varying amounts of reduction
during forging a t various points. The Liverpool hooks all failed
in the neighbourhood of the horizontal section where the variation
of stress along the intrados is very gradual.
In order to ascertain whether repeated application of a safe range
of stress produced any deterioration in the impact resistance of the
hooks, impact tests were subsequently carried out on some of the
hooks which remained unbroken by fatigue after ten million cycles of
loading. The results are given in Tablc 5.
TABLE 5.-Results of Impa,ct Tests on Hooks.
1 Range of Energy
Refer- Load in Absorbed,
ence Type Of Ma,terial fatigue
Mark Hook test, lb.
tons
1~
GFV. 6 Crane
GWG. 10 Liverpool
Mild steel
GWE. ti Liverpool wrou&t iron
~-
1.6
3.25
3
1
I-
3.73
6.56
2.65
4.93
4.14
0.71
0.75
0.62
These results, by comparison with the impact test results on new

hooks, indicate that repeated applications of a load greater than the
working load but less than the safe fatigue range produce a definite
decrease in impact resistance, which, however, is unimportant in
practice.
Photographs of each of the three types of hook are shown in
Fig. 29, before test, and after static tensile, impact tensile, and
fatigue tests.

314 DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DECI.1934.
The results of the various types of test, described above, led to

the conclusion that these crane, sling, and Liverpool hooks had
behaved in a manner which justified confidence in the design and
promised a satisfactory performance in service. With regard to
the relative merits of the two materials, a slight but general superiority
of mild steel over wrought iron as the material for lifting hooks is
shown; this is not, however, sufficient to render necessary the
inclusion, in the specification, of any discriminating clauses in this
respect.
2. Tests 012 Eyebolts.-Tensile tests made on samples subjected to

inclined loading showed that the first sign of partial failure was
disclosed by the " lifting " of one side of the collar face away from
the block into which the bolt was screwed. This lifting was due
either t o yielding of the shank or crushing of the collar face or to a
combination of these two effects. At a very much later stage,
fracture occurred in the shank of t,he bolt, principally due to shearing
forces. These observations suggested that extremely valuable
information regarding the strength of the eyebolbs would be obtained
from two additional forms of test :-
(a,) Repeated " snatch " loading tests,* in which the bolts were
subjected to loading conditions approximating t o those
imposed in service, which would include some impact
forces, with the object of ascertaining whether the
collar of the bolt lifted from the block, and
( h ) Fatigue tests,* of the usual type, to determine the weakest
portions of the bolts and to obt,ain some indication of
the limiting range of safe load.
In both kinds of test, some samples were tested using axkl loading,
whilst others were tested with loading inclined at 45 deg. to the bolt
_ ~ _
~~~~ ~ . ~.- ~~ ~ ~ .
Key to Fig. 29.

A &ton crane hook (mild steel) before test.
.B 1, ,. after tensile test.
C ,, (wrought iron) after tensile test.
D 1i-t;; sling hook (mild steel) before test.
E ,, after impact test.
I? ,, after fatigue test.
G 14-ton Liverpool hook (mild steel) before test.
H ,, after impact test.
I ,, ,, (wrought iron) after impact test.
J ,, after fatigue test.
Arrows on hooks F and J indicate positions of fatigue cracks.
-~
* All these tests were made on eyebolts of which the diameter of the
material of the eye was equal to three-quarters of the diameter of the shank.

DEC. 1934. DESIGN O F CRANE HOOKS. 315
FIa. 29.-Hooks designed for Rritish Standurds Institution.
For key see p. 314.
A B C

316 DESIGN OF CRANE noom. DEP. 1931.
axis. In all catm, duplicate tests were maclr on eyehits in the

normalized and in the hardened and tenipcrecl condition. The
material was 0.3 per cent carbon steel. In order to eniploy
approximately equal values of the externally applied forces, bolts
FIQ. 30.-Special Snatch Loading Yeat Machine.
of $ inch nominal diameter were used for the vertical loading tests
and li-inch bolts for inclined loading.
All eyebolts were first subjected to the proof loads, applied
axially, of 3 tons and 9 tons respectively, for &inch and la-inch bolts.

1JEC. 1931. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 317
Very accurate measurements were made of the permanent set induced

in the eye of the bolt by the proving operation ; these measurements
were made between the top face of the collar and the top (outside
surface) of the eye, this distance thus being equal to the mean diameter
of the eye. The results showed that the eyes of the heat-treated
eyebolts deformed permanently by a rrtaiirnzina amount equal tfo
0.01 per cent of the mean eye diameter ; the normalized eyebolts
by 0.03 per cent, in three cases, and 0.06 per cent in one of the two
It-inch eyebolts. These deformations, although definite, are so
small that they may be neglected.
(a) Snatch Loading Tests.-These were carried out in a special
machine (Fig. 30) in which a dead load of about I-$ tons is lifted by
a wire rope connected to the load through the fitting under test.
By means of a motor-driven cam and lever mechanism, the load is
lifted with a certain amount of shock and lowered gently, a t a speed
of about 50 lifts per minute. These conditions were designed to
simulate, as closely as possible, those obtaining in actual crane
practice. The loads used were those appropriate to the size of
eyebolt and angle of load, namely, for $-inch eyebolts, vertical
loading, 1.5 tons; and for It-inch eyebolts, 45 deg. loading,
1.57 tons.
The eyebolts were screwed into cast iron blocks, torques of 700
and 3,400 1b.-in. being used for the smaller and larger eyebolts,
respectively.
The eyebolts were given 60,000 lifts, the tests being interrupted
after each 10,000 lifts in order to examine the eyebolts for any
sign of permanent distortion. At the conclusion of the tests the
eyebolts were measured up as in the case of the proving tests, but
in no case was any further appreciable distortion observed,
measurements taken before and after test agreeing within f0-0002
inch. At no time during any of the tests was it possible to insert
the thinnest available feeler (0.0015 inch) between the eyebolt collar
and the block. The torques required to unscrew the eyebolts after
test in all cases emceded somewhat those applied in screwing up,
probably due to slight corrosion set up between collar and block
by the variation of pressure between these faces.
From these results it was concluded that the assumption could
be safely made that, under service conditions, separation between
the collar and block should not occur during a number of applied
lifts which correspond to a reasonable life of the bolt.
(6) Fafigup Tesfs.-These were carried out on the same eyebolts,
using the same angles of load and the same blocks as employed in
the snatch loading tests. The tests were made in the fatigue machine

DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEC. 1934.
4t
" & 2 "
z o o z 0 &O 50 0
(6 tons capacity) employed in the fatigue tests on the crane hooks.

The results of the tests are given in Table 6.
As only two eyebolts were available in each condition, it is not
possible to estimate with any degree of accuracy the value of the
safe range of stress, but the latter is probably a little above 20 tons
per sq. in. for the heat-treated material and a little under 20 tons
FIG. 31 .-Fatigue Cracks in Eyebolts.
per sq. in. for the normalized material ; it is evident, however, that
the safe range is well above the safe working load.
Considerable interest attaches to the positiolz of the fractures.
In the case of the 14-inch eyebolts tested under loading inclined a t
45 deg., the estimated stresses in the shank are only slightly below
those in the eye ; as there is in the shank an initial stress due to
tightening up, and a stress concentration due to the presence of the

320 'DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. DEC. 1934.
screw thread, the strengths of the shank and eye should, under
fatigue conditions, not be widely different. This expectation was
fulfilled, one of the eyebolts breaking in the thread and three in the
eye. The latter all broke near the support nearer the load, the
fracture starting from the intrados; this is in agreement with
the stress distribution according to the theory, given previously,
of the stresses in eyebolt rings.
I n the case of the %-incheyebolts under direct loading, the stresses
in the eye are much higher than those in the shank. Also, as Yig. 26
shows, under direct loading, the stresses a t the extrados a t the load
and a t the intrados at, approximately, 0 = 110 deg. and 250 deg.
differ only very slightly, the two latter being slightly higher. In
three cases fracture occurred at approximately 0 = 110 deg. (or
250 deg.), but in one case three cracks were developed simultaneously.
This specimen is shown in Fig. 31 ; it will be seen that one of these
cracks occurred at the extrados a t the load and the others a t t h e
intrados a t about 8 = 110 deg. and 270 deg. This agreement with
the prediction of the theory is very striking.
As a result of these fatigue tests, it was decided to increase the
diameter of material in the eye from $ to D, thereby decreasing
the stress in the eye by 30 per cent at u = 0 and 32 per cent a t
u = 45 deg.
Acknowledgements.-The authors desire t o record their thanks to

the Executive Committee and the Director of the National Physical
Laboratory for the opportunities afforded t o carry out the work
described herein, and for permission to publish the results ; also to
their colleague, Mr. P. L. Thorpe, for considerable assistance afforded
in the course of the experimental work.
Both the analytical and experimental work was carried out a t
the request of the British Standards Inst,itution Technical Committee
ME/12 to aid in their task of preparing standard specifications for
lifting gear. During the course of the work, close contact has been
maintained with this committee and its subcommittees. The
authors are greatly indebted to the members of these committees
for very valuable criticism and advice, particularly with regard to
the more general requirements of practical conditions of service. It
is hoped that the designs of lifting gear thus prepared on a theoretical
basis but with continuous reference to practical conditions will
prove generally acceptable and that, by the adoption of the new
standards, the public safety will be materially increased.

APPENDIX I.
MORE ACCURATE
THEORYOF BENDINGMOMENTS IN MULTIPLY-
CONNECTEDCOMPONENTS.
The method adopted in this paper for the calculation of bending
moments in multiply-connected components makes the assumption
that the strain energy in a curved beam can be expressed by the
formula
which is strictly applicable only to straight beams.

Neglecting radial stresses, the strain energy in an element of a
beam, of radius of curvature, R, subtending an angle 68, is
.I,.p(R + y)dA . 2E - 6U
60
-
where f = circumferential stress a t distance y from centroid.

The stressf has been shown to be given by
+ (M + PR)M + W R + Y) ]an M2y2

.-__
= R(A' - A) = ARA
To this must be added a term due to shear strain. If Q is the

jQ2as,
shearing force a t any section, the shear strain energy is /2m
j being a factor to t.ake iDt0 account the non-uniform shear stress
21

distribution (for a circular section, straight beam, j = 1019 and, in

any case, will not greatly exceed unity).
Timoshenko * gives an expression for the strain energy in a curved

beam which reduces to this form ; in considering stresses in rings
and links, however, he uses the form zErds. I- M2
As the only section with which we are here concerned is the

circular, we may replace A by tanzw, where k = sin 2w (see
equation (2), p. 260). Also
= - 41 ---_
A = -41 I ~
r2 k2R2 - R2 sin2 w cos2 w

The expression for the strain energy then becomes
cos2 w {(M + PR)2 sin2 w + M2 cos2 W)dO + -I&2d8
U=
2EI
~
" I
For a straight beam, the total strain energy is
jR
2AN
2EI
The application t o the chain link will now be considered. Using
the same notation as previously,
WR W 13
7
Me = Mo - sin 8 ; Po = - sin 8 ; Qe = -- c,os 6.
2 2 2
aU -
_ - 0, U being taken round a quadrant of the link.
aM0
(since Q is independent of Mo, the strain energy terms vanish).

- ____________
* '' Applied Elasticity," Timoshenko and L9ssells, 1926 (U,S,A.), p. 228.

D w . 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 323
7r 1
._
:. ‘/’(&
0
- sin 8 cos2 w)R cos2 wd8 +]oz(ivIo- F ) d x = 0
M - WR
_ _ ~ - . 2 ~ 0 ~ 4 0m -+
whence
O- 2 TGOS~W m -+ ~
This differs from the solution previously given (equation ( S ) ,

p, 286) only in the introduction of the factors c0s4 w and cos2 w .
WR
For rings m = 0, M, = cos2 w .~
v
Morley * gives a refinement of the approximate method which
leads to the following results :-
WR 2R+Z - W R 2+m-
---
Mo =
TA‘R + 1
2 vsec2w vn +
A
WR
For rings W E = 0, M, =- c0s2 w
7r
I n the case of the chain link, the more accurate theory given by
Morley is carried only to a first approximation. The values of
Mo/WR given by the three methods for extreme and average cases
of links and rings are shown in the table beIow.
1 IFs$d1 I
Usual
Method
Morley’s
New
Method
Extreme case 1
I
I
0.318
(1.00)
1
I
0.297
(0.93)
1
I
0.297
(0-93)
1
I
,, ,, 1 0.362
(1.00)
1 0.343
(0.96)
1 0.348
(0.96)
1
It will be seen that the effect of the more exact method is to reduce
the value of Mo by about 4 per cent in the average cases-a correction
which is not worth the extra labour involved.
-- -
* ‘‘ Strength of Materials,” 6th ed., 1928, p, 402.

Filon* compares values of M, obtained by the exact and

approximate theories for the case of plane stress, corresponding to a
rectangular section ring. Some of his results are given below, together
with those obtained by the method of this appendix (or by Morley's
amended method).
Exact Theory New Method

Ratio Usual Method Ratio Usual Method
I __-
I
I 0.909
0.950
0.935
0.962
0.978
0.978
0-995 0.995
AYPENDIX 11.
LIST OF SYMBOLS.
A Cross-sectional area of material.
A' Modified area of cross-section.
C Bed diameter of hook.
D Diameter.
E Modulus of elasticity.
'
G j
)Constants in stress equations for studded chain links.
Load a t crown of link.
orizontal reaction a t collar of eyebolt.
I Moment of inertia.
I( Stress factor.
M Bending moment (positive when producing tension at
extrados).
N Modulus of rigidity.
P Direct load (positive when tensile).
Q Shearing force.
R Radius of curvature of centre line of material.
U Strain energy.
V Vertical reaction a t collar of eyebolt.
W Load.
* LOC.c i t .

"\Y Constants in stress equations for chain links.

Z Nodulus of section.
ICArea constant for hooks = A/@.
b Breadth of section.
d Depth of section (= diameter for circular section).
f Tensile stress.
g Constant in stress equation for eyeboIt shank.
h Distance of line of load from centre of curvature.
j Shear strain energy coefficient.
k Curvature ratio r/R.
1 Half length of straight side in chain link.
m Ratio 1/R.
n Inside width/outside width (trapezoidal hook section).
7 Radius of material.
s Length.
2 Co-ordinate of section in egg link.
y Co-ordinate of section in hook.
z Ratio of radii of curvature a t outside and inside of trapezoidal
hook section.
CI Angle of load from vertical (ring or eyebolt).
/3 Half subtended angle (eyebolt).
Y M+P.
E Distance of centre of gravity from intrados divided by depth
of section.
A'
A --1.
A
p CldW.
Curvature factor.
$1
4
JZ
/,
Co-ordinates of section.
Angle of sides in egg link.
w 4 sin-%

326 DISCUSSION ON DEO. 1934.
Discussion.
Mr. J. P. BOWEN(Trinity House, London) wrote that he was
most interested in that portion of the paper dealing with the stresses
and strains in open-link and studded-link chain. As engineer-in-
chief to the Corporation of Trinity House, he was responsible for the
supply and testing of lightvessel mooring chains, which could not
be treated in the same category as ships’ cables or similar chains,
since they had special duties to perform and peculiar conditions to
withstand. Lightvessels were moored mainly in the open sea to
mark shoals and sandbanks and they must keep their station during
all weather conditions and the severest of gales, without dragging
or parting their moorings.
The moorings were subject to corrosion and abrasion and had
in the past been made of wrought iron of best quality (22-24-ton
cable iron grade); the chains were of the open link type with
dimensions corresponding t o what was generally known as long ((
link,” since in studded chain the studs had a tendency to rack and
loosen. The links were side welded, and the chains were heavy and
well in excess of Lloyd’s requirements for ships of similar tonnage.
Nevertheless, they were known t o part, not only in the weld but in
the iron, showing that very heavy stresses were at times imposed.
For some time he had been investigating the stresses set up in
these moorings, particularly with a view to ascertaining the cause
of corrosion since he had formed the opinion that constant variation
of stress was a contributory factor, an opinion which had so far not
been proved to be well founded. In carrying out the investigations,
various sizes of chain and independent links were subjected to tensile
stress, to determine the yield point of the iron when manufactured
into chain. It varied somewhat with the size of chain, but was
found t o be about 6-7 tons per sq. in. for chains of material
ranging between 1Q and 2 inches in diameter.
During these tests complete 15-fathom lengths were fractionally
subjected to tension by adding loads in regular increments. After
initial bedding of the links it was found that permanent stretch
occurred after a load equivalent t o about 6 tons per sq. in. of section
had been imposed ; above this loading the set was permanent. The
elongation of a 1%-inch chain under a load of 40 tons, which
approx imated t o Lloyd’s open link test, was 5 per cent ; with studs
inserte d, the extension was nearly 7 per cent under a load of 55 tons.
Of thi s amount, about 2 and 3 per cent respectively represented iron

DEC.1934. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 327
extension on the straight of the links and the remainder general

re-formation.
Laboratory tests were then carried out by Dr. Gough, under the
auspices of the National Physical Laboratory, on specimens of the
iron subjected to constant reversal of stress, one series comprising
tests in air, and another with the iron subjected to a constant stream
of salt water. The results obtained were, for all practical purposes,
similar for the two series and gave no indication that corrosion was
interlinked with stress variation.
FIG. 32.
(L b
To continue the investigation, three li-inch trial lengths of 15

fathoms each were placed consecutively in a lightvessel mooring ;
one of these was tested only to the elastic limit load, a second to
Lloyd's requirements for open link chain, and the third to a loading
special to Trinity House requirements. The corrosion of all three
lengths appeared practically uniform after about 18 months' sea
service, while there was no evidence to show that any of the links
in this series had had a strain imposed upon them greater than the
elastic limit loading, as the links in the specially tested length were
generally of the same slightly bowed form in which they were
manufactured, and their overall length and breadth had not

328 DISCUSSION ON DEC.1834.
materially altered. These trial lengths had been put back into
service again for extended test.
Elsewhere in the mooring, however, links which had been tested
to the full load, having legs which were necessarily straightened
under test, had been bent and twisted. One of the legs was bent
into convex form, instead of concave, as would normally be the case
under direct tensile stress. It might be that this distortion occurred
a t the hawse pipe or by foul links, though this was difficult t o say
as the chain was paid out and veered according to weather conditions,
the position of the mooring not being constant.
He would be glad, however, if the authors would show by a
diagram the stresses both in an open and a stud link in which the
pull was direct a t one end and a t 30 deg. to the longitudinal axis a t
the other, assuming the link to be supported a t the centre on one
side (see Fig. 32 u ) , as these, he thought, were the conditions under
which the links might have been deformed in the hawse pipe.
Another set of stresses which would be of considerable interest
to him were those set up in a foul link, where the link was jammed
transversely in the adjoining links on either side so as to set up a
semi-diagonal stress instead of a direct pull (Fig. 32 b). The size
of the link which he had under consideration had a length of 6
diameters and a width of 3.6 diameters. These investigations were
being continued and it was hoped some day to publish the results,
as well as some comparisons with welded forged steel stud-link chain
with which Trinity House was now experimenting on an extensive
scale .
Mr. H. H. BROUGHTON wrote that reference to Britkh Standard

Specification No. 482 (1933) showed that dimensions of sbandard
shank hooks of the type described in the paper, ranging from & ton
to 75 tons, were incorporated. Particulars were given in the paper
of the tests made on the proposed standard, in order to furnish
practical data regarding the efficiency of the design and material
used. He would like t o know if the authors regarded the data
which they had obtained in testing a number of small hooks as
sufficient for the preparation of the above-mentioned table ?
Personally he thought that the data were insufficient for such a wide
extension. He deprecated the attempt to standardize a type of
hook that was ill adapted for loads exceeding 40 tons. It was
common kndwledge that for heavy loads other types of hook were
largely used, and he thought that the Institution should press for a
revision of the specification. In such a revision, particulars of the
larger hooks should be deleted, or there should be a note to the effect

that for loads of 40 tons and upwards hooks of other types were
recommended. In regard to material, class A steel in British
Standard Specification No. 24, Part 4,was specified. From inquiries
recently made, it appeared that none of the best-known hook makers
in the country were using class A material at the time of the inquiry,
and in fact only a very few of them were aware that a hook
specification had been issued about two years ago.
Dr. J. DICKwrote that a section of special interest in the paper

was the discussion of the effect of residual stresses on the load which
a component could withstand. It was often found that, if elastic
conditions were assumed, the calculated working stress a t a particular
section of a machine part was higher than the yield stress of the
material of which the part was made, yet failure did not occur.
This happened chiefly in cases where the calculation had allowed for
effects of curvature or small internal radii, but it could occur in any
redundant structure. The explanation outlined in the paper helped
to account for what would have seemed otherwise a difference
between theory and practice. It was shown that if any component
of a lifting tackle yielded under load, the removal of the load would
leave this portion in a state of stress of opposite sign to that under
which it yielded, and that calculated stresses, even as high as the
sum of the yield stresses in tension and compression, might be set
up in the material as ranges of stress, without causing continuous
plastic deformation. In the cases which he would describe, a similar
explanation was used to account for the non-failure of parts under
load.
In two rings used for load measurement, the load was applied
as shown in Fig. 33. The deflexion between the points A and B
TABLE 7.-Din~ensions and Stresses f o r Rings used for load

measurement.
Breadth Calculated Maximum 1

Outer Inner (longi- Load, Maximum Strength of 1
Diameter, Diameter, tudinal), Stress a t Material, '
inches inches tons
inches A, tons tonsper I
per sq. in. sq. in.
3 107 80
(alloy steel)
',
____
4 75 60
(carbon steel)

was measured by means of a dial gauge, so that after calibration in a

testing machine the rings were ready for use. Assuming the ring
to be of uniform section, and using the method of analysis adopted
in the paper, the bending moment a t the point A was Wrlv.
Table 7 gave particulars of the two rings used in this way.
The effect of curvature on stress distribution was neglected in
calculating the working stresses ; if this had been taken into account
the calculated stresses would have had greater values. It would be
seen that the calculated working stress exceeded the tensile strength
considerably in each case, yet both rings had been in service for some
FIU.33.-Load Applied FIQ. 34.-Round Bar Loaded along Axis

to a Ring. of Curvature.
IW
time, and had proved quite capable of withstanding the loads

specified. Precautions were taken t o ensure that each ring was
loaded between the same points A and B in every case, so that
residual stresses could account for the rings being able to withstand
such high apparent stresses.
Another instance related t o the effect of curvature on the
distribution of torsional stresses in helical springs. The theory
usually given neglected this effect, but since the fibres on the inside
of the coil were shorter than the fibres on the outside, they would
be more highly stressed. This point had received some attention
in recent years, and approximate solutions had been advanced by

Rover,* Wahl,? LatshawJ and Adams.5 Each of the theories

indicated the same order of stress in the inner fibres, though the
assumptions made in each case were not wholly justified ; a solution
deduced from fundamental considerations was appended below.
The important practical point was the influence which the curvature
might have on the life of a spring when the calculated design stresses
neglected curvature factors. To investigate this, he carried out
some fatigue tests on springs of the same material wound to different
coil diameters. The apparatus was that used and described by Lea
and Heywood,l( except for a slight modification to permit small
springs being tested. In the present case the spring under test was
put in parallel with a stronger spring, the amplitude of oscillation
being adjusted to give the required range of stress in the small
spring. The springs were made of high-grade Swedish wire of
18 I.W.G., and tests were carried out for two ratios of coil diameter
to wire diameter. Curvature factors were neglected in calculating
the stresses. The results of the tests were given in Tables 8 and 9.
TABLE 8.-Tests on Springs.

Ratio coil diameter
- 5.14. The mean stress was 20 tons per sq. in.
wire diameter -
Range of Stress, Repetitions of Stress

tons per sq. in. (number of reversals)
__-- . ____
21.0 Broken after 608,000
26.0 1,035,000
25.0 Unbroken ';tfter 10,000,000
TABLE 9.-!Cests on Springs.

. diameter - 17.19. The mean stress waa 20 tone per sq. in.
Ratio 'Oil
wire diameter -
Range of Stress, Repetitions of Stress

tons per sq. in. (number of reversals)
27.0 Broken after 892,000

26.7 685,000
26.0 Uncroken 'ifter 4,000,000
* Z.V.D.I., 1913, vol. 57, p. 1906.

t Trans. A.S.M.E., 1927-8, vol. 49-50, FSP-50-49, p. 241.
$ J1. Franklin Inst., 1930, vol. 209, p. 791.
3 The Emgineer, 1931, vol. 151, p. 698.
11 Proc. I.Mech.E., 1927, p. 403.

w
W
FIG.35.--Normal Stresses in a FIG.36.-Shear Strerrs Components FIG.37.4ircumferential Streases o n the t
9
Loaded Curved Bay. in a Loaded Curved Bar. Faces of a: Loaded Curved Bar.
s2+ ssz. c2Y
p4-;
f e cccc4--
6Y 2
d
dC ---+-4----t-
9 h s2-E2.9
SY 2

The difference between the endurance ranges did not exceed 5 per
cent, yet theory indicated a difference of not less than 25 per cent
in the ranges of stress. A possible explanation was that plastic
flow modified the mean stresses on the inside of the coils in such a
way that the safe range of stress in the inner fibres of the springs
with a ratio of coil diameter to wire diameter of 5.14 was greater
than in the springs with a ratio of coil diameter to wire diameter
of 17.19. It would appear from the results that unnecessary emphasis
had been laid on the danger of neglecting curvature factors when
calculating the working stresses in helical springs.
The following analysis of the distribution of torsional stresses
was developed in connexion with the foregoing observations.
Consider a part of a round bar having given the radius of curvature
and loaded by a force along the axis of curvature. Fig. 34 showed
part of such a bar. The loading was the same for each cross-section,
80 that the faces AB and CD were similarly stressed. P(x, y, I) and
+
Q(x, y, $ 8$) were points similarly situated in the cross-sections.
The small element P and Q, of cross-section 6z x 6y and length
(R - x)8$, had six faces. For equilibrium, it was necessary to
consider (1) the forces due to the normal stresses on the six faces,
and (2) the forces due to two components of shear stress on each
of the six faces.
The normal stresses (Fig. 35) had no moment about the axis of
curvature, because :-
(1) Normal forces on the faces abfe and dcg?b were parallel to
the axis of curvature.
(2) Normal forces on the faces aehd and bfgc acted through the
axis of curvature.
(3) Cross-sections AB and CD were similarly stressed so that
moments about the axis of curvature of any normal
forces on the face abcd were balanced by moments of
similar forces on face efgh.
Fig. 36 indicated the shear stress components which had no
moment about the axis of curvature. These were accounted for as
follows :--
(1) Shear stresses on the faces abcd and efgh were in planes
containing the axis of curvature.
(2) Radial components of shear stresses on the faces a@ and
dcgh acted through the axis of curvature.
(3) Axial components of shear stresses on the faces bfgc and
aehd were parallel to the axis of curvature.
The remaining stresses were the circumferential components of
shear stresses on the faces aehd, abfe, bfgc, and dcgh. Taking the

horizontal and vertical components of the shear stresses a t 9 and

Q as S1 and S,, the mean circumferential stresses on the faces
(Fig. 37) were :-
Taking moment(s about the axis of curvature for equilibrium,
( S1 f as1
62
6s
- . -)(R
2
- x ---@YSyv
2
+ (S, +6S2
6y 2
6y
- . -)(R - x)28~8$
= (S1 --
62
.-)p
as, sx
2
-x
6x 2
+y) 6y6$ + (& - s . & ) ( R
6Y 2
- ~)2S&,4
Expanding and simplifying,
In the limit, for 6z +0 and sy 0

as %281
!? +A . -
. . . . .
& i32/ (R - X)
If the bar were straight, R was infinite, and if the stresses due
to torsion were Srl and Sr2, then
A solut,ion to equabion (1) could be obhined by writing
s, = sel . . . . . .
2 2
(1 - E)
For a straight bar of circular section the shear stress components
due to torsion were

DEa. 1934. DESIQN OF CRANE HOOKS. 335
S1' = - Ky . . . . . . . (4Q)
So'= Kz . . . . . . (4b)
where K mas a constant determined by the torque and the diameter
of the bar.
For the same bar curved to radius R and stressed by a load along
the axis of curvature,
Changing from rectangular to polar co-ordinates for convenience

in integration,
If a waR the radius of the section, the torque about the bar axis
was
a 2s
0 0
KR2r3 cos2 8
rd8 + (1 (RK R V
0 0
sin28
- r cos 8)zd
rd8
For integration, the varia,hle was changed from 8 t o 4 by writing

(R - r cos 8)(R +r C O S ~=
) RZ - 12.
The torque given by this expression was
+
KR2r3(R r cos $1 al.d9
(R2 - $)%
00
a
=hKR31
r3
0 (R2 - rZ)%
dr . . . . . (8)

336 DISCUSSION OK DRC.1934.
.. 2rr
n
The upthrust was KRz/,’----- 72 cos 0
drd0
b ,j (R - 7 C O 0~) 2
Dividing equation (8) by equation (lo),
I n other words, the load acted along the axis of curvature, as

specified.
Xtress Cu1cuEation.-The maximum stresses occurred a t points
B and C (Pig. 34). Denoting this stress by Q,
If W was the load along the axis of curvature, then from

equation (9)
Substituting for K from equat’ion (12),
R WR 1
Let a = . Then Q =-
a 2a2 - I
WR
The expression -7T
was the stress due to torque when curvature
-a3
2
was neglected.
1
The factor C= . . . (14)
2 6 -1

DEC.1934. DESIGN O F CRANE HOOKS. 337
C was the " curvature factor " for the stress in the inner fibres.
For purposes of calculation it was more convenient to express C as a
series. After expanding by the binomial theorem,
2 2 2 33 17 35
C=1+-+-+++-+~5+-+. (15)
u2 u3 1 b 4 16d
mean coil diameter
where u = - ~ ~- for a spring wound from round bar ;
rod diameter
from equation (13) the maximum stress in the inner fibres
WR
&=-C
rr
-US
2
It should be understood that though the values of S, and Sz
v
given in equations (3a) and (36) were shown t o satisfy the differential
equation (l),these were probably not the only solutions. Another
differential equation satisfying the strain conditions was required,
but these conditions would appear t o be indeterminate. One
justifiable assumption was that if initial strain was to be independent
of the number of coils in the spring, a fibre forming a helix before
loading would form a helix after loading. The assumption that
cross-sections which were plane before loading remained plane after
loading, though justified in the case of a straight bar of cylindrical
section, was not justified when the same bar was wound to form a
spring.
Mr. W. L. GRIFFIN (Messrs. William Griffin and Sons, Ltd.,

Cradley Heath) wrote as a representative of the industry who was
also a member of the British Standards Institution Committee and
its multitudinous subcommittees which had been entrusted with the
preparation of British Standard Specifications for short-link crane
chains, pulley-block load chains, hooks, rings, eyebolts, and various
lifting gear components.
The components under consideration consisted in most cases of
short curved beams in which the curvature of the beam was great
in relation to the depth of the section. Under ordinarycircumstances,
the evaluation by the curved beam theory of the maximum stresses
induced in these components presented a number of special difficulties
and required considerable time. The paper not only explained the
scientific principles upon which the rational design of such
components should be based, but also overcame the peculiar
difficulties of the curved beam theory, so far as the components under
22

338 DISCUSSION ON DEC. 1934.
discussion were concerned, by the provision of a number of graphs

giving quantities which would be tedious and difficult to evaluate.
The use of these graphs rendered the application of the curved beam
theory to these special cases both simple and expeditious.
He desired to record the conviction of the industry, that the
paper was the most valuable contribution on the scientific aspect of
special lifting gear components which had so far appeared, and to
express the grateful thanks of the manufacturers to the authors for
a paper which necessarily involved a very great amount of time in
preparation, but which had presented to the industry a valuable
work of reference.
Professor T. MCLEANJASPER(The A. 0. Smith Corporation,

Milwaukee) wrote in appreciation of the valuable work done by the
authors in producing test results on one of the most complicated
problems of mechanics. He was particularly interested in the paper,
since the attempt had been made to evaluate the elastic theory as a
means for calculating operating stresses in links and hooks. Such
equipment did not anticipate the use of operating stresses above the
yield point of the materials used. It was appropriate to evaluate
also the effects that the yielding characteristics of the various metals
played in affecting the factor of safety of the various designs of links
and hooks. The problem, therefore, resolved itself into two divisions
which the authors had recognized, and which inight be outlined as
follows :-
(1) The selection of the most appropriate formulm, based on
the theory of elasticity, which applied t o the elastic
or operating range of such hooks and links.
(2) The evaluation of the factors of safety based on the
ductility of the various materials used, which the
particular designs made possible.
The elastic problem might be further complicated by buckling
within the elastic limit on the compression elements of the designs
so that the portion of Fig. 10, p. 274, which applied only to elastic
stress distribution, might be modified if the design on the
compression side were concerned with any Euler effects. These
effects began to appear a t low stress values in certain curved beams
(Fig. 38). The conditions for equilibrium were as follows :-
m,=me
,EMoe = 2Mo,
He believed that for the designs given the above effects might be

negligible. The division of the problem in accordance with the

elastic theory would undoubtedly yield the best results if test hooks
and links could be made of a very brittle material which had a
straight-line stress-strain diagram up to the breaking point. The
formula based on the elastic theory which could most appropriately
be applied could very easily be selected with such a material. Plaster
of Paris models of designs offered a possible material, but precautions
in its application were necessary. Certain varieties of cast iron
might also be useful for this purpose, and ductile steels when covered
with a very thin brittle coating, such as certain vitreous enamels or
thin lime wash which would fracture as soon as the yield point of
the steel was exceeded a t any point, might also prove valuable.
This procedure implied the evaluation of yield points on the identical
material used in the design, and also assumed that the steel was
FIG. 38.--Conditiom for Equilibrium in a Curved Beam.

COMPRESSION SIDE
rendered equivalent by identical treatment in each case. If brittle

coatings were used, the point of maximum stress due to the
application of the load would be obscure in certain designs. The
fatigue results, he believed, gave the best clue presented in the
paper as to the value of hook design formula This implied, of
course, that the method of stress analysis would correlate with the
fatigue test results on the materials when not in the form of hooks.
He believed that ductility in metals used for chains and hooks
was desirable for specific reasons. The load distribution across the
section of a link or hook was very much enhanced by the increase
in the force diagram (Fig. lo), with the result that the breaking load
was greater than that which the formde for calculating the
operating stress would indicate for such materials. This increase
in value was not obtainable in brittle materials. A ductile link or
hook would, therefore, distort much more and give a more positive
visual warning to the works maintenance staff when overload had

occurred. An evaluation of' this factor for various materials was

vahable in service. I n the factory which he represented nearly
every load, a few years ago, was lifted by chain and hook. To-day,
as far as possible, the chain had given way to the cable and the
hook had been made relatively stronger. All lifting equipment
to-day should be given periodic proof loadings which should be a
definite percentage heavier than the anticipated maximum loads.
Chains should be inspected and annealed a t given periods. These
precautions had reduced the load-lifting hazards to practically
nothing. He did not believe that the general chain and hook problem
was normally one of fatigue or of impact, although he appreciated
that there were occasions when operators used such equipment
carelessly.
He had recently obtained stress-strain diagrams in compression
for several materials of construction. This involved a very short
specimen which was progressively loaded between two parallel
plattens. The specimen was removed after each successive
application of load and measured with a sensitive micrometer. The
change of length was plotted against the applied stress. In this
manner the compression diagram could be developed. Below the
yield point no change of length was discovered when the load was
removed. For most steels the curve above t h e elastic limit in
compression would not parallel that shown for tension values.
The stress values in tension and compression represented by a
deformation of 6 per cent might vary by as much as 40 per cent
in a number of the common ductile load-carrying steels.
Mr. W. A. JOHNSON wrote to congratulate the authors on a paper

upon which the design of hooks and other components might be
unified on a more scientific and less empirical basis. British
Standard Specification No. 482 (1933) for wrought iron and mild
steel hooks had, for instance, admittedly been built up around the
theoretical investigation and experimental work contained in the
paper, and the tables of standard dimensions for different types of
hook given in the Specification provided a much needed guide to the
safe and economical use of metal for this purpose.
He asked for the authors' assurance that such a hook as that
shown in Fig. 8 b, p. 270, would be equally suitable for haulage
purposes, i.e. when its working position was 90 deg. t o that of the
position shown, omitting of course such considerations as the design
of the hook point. This type of hook (with many variations) was
the one most commonly employed in coal mines as a component
of tub couplings. I n these circumstances hooks might not

DE@. 1034. DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS. 34 1
infrequently be subjected to accidental overload, and a factor in

design not commonly appreciated was the greater stability and
progressive strengthening of hooks when deformation occurred,
which was obtained by making the sections between the horizontal
and vertical sections greater in area than the vertical section.
He noted that in the case of hooks fitted with an eye the
dimensions of the latter should be adequate to support the specified
proof load without serious deformation and it was therefore worthy
of mention that in the examination of a large number of hooks which
had failed in service in mines, no cases of failure of the eye had
been recorded. In view, however, of the statement that comparative
tests using mild steel and wrought iron had shown that, whilst mild
steel was slightly superior in strength, the difference was not
sufficient to justify discrimination between the materials in the
adoption of design stresses, it was interesting to note that the
strength of wrought iron in shear was considerably influenced by
the plane of the piling with respect to the direction of loading. If
the plane of the piling in the hook eye was also that of an attached
link, the eye would be much weaker than if these planes were mutually
at right-angles,
Dr. JOHNPRESCOTT (College of Technology, Manchester) wrote

that the paper was very satisfactory for designers who were looking
for results only. But for students, who wished to follow the
theoretical reasoning, it was not so valuable. The beam on p. 258
was supposed to be subjected to a tension and a bending moment,,
and the expression " the bending moment " was used as if it needed
no definition. The bending moment was a moment of the stresses
taken about some line in the beam section, and, in the case of bent
beams, there were two equally correct lines about which this moment
might be taken, (1) the neutral axis, and (2) a line parallel to this
axis, through the centre of gravity of the section. The value of
M, was different about both sections. It was true that the axis
which was meant could be decided by examining the expression for
M, in terms of an integral, but this hardly excused the earlier
vagueness.
Again, on p. 258 confusing statements were made about the
minimum energy principle. Two different quantities were stated to
have minimum values, and two mysterious quantities a and /3 were
introduced. Moreover, the process of arriving a t the undoubtedly
correct stress equation (I), p. 259, was not shown. He regretted that
equation (1) had not been derived by the simple analysis of stresses
in a bent beam, much in the same way as for a straight beam. By

the latter process the meaning of all the quantities would be clear
to any student ; moreover, this would be using much more straight-
forward principles than the energy principle. Further, it would
show that the essential assumption in this problem was that plane
cross-sections remained plane.
The authors rightly pointed out that Morley's suggestion for
finding A' by a graphical method would in practice be far from
correct. But they did not themselves push their correction of
Morley's method far enough. If A' were calculated graphically it
would, of course, be known to the same accuracy as A itself. Now
A' - A was always small in practice. A typical result in such
examples would be A' = 1-04A, to three-figure accuracy. Thus
A' - A = 0.04A, and so A, the quantity really needed in addition
to A, was obtainable only to one-figure accuracy. But equation (1)
showed that A should be calculated at least as accurately as A
because, as a rule, the 1/X term in the expression forf was the largest
term having the factor M,. Thus the graphical method should
be applied to find A and (A' - A) directly. The latter was just as
easy to find as A' itself, for
A three-figure accuracy here gave a three-figure accuracy in A, and

therefore also in f. The method suggested in the paper did not
get appreciably nearer its object of giving the same accuracy in
A' - A as in A. The last point appeared to be the one feature in
the paper which was unsatisfactory for the designer who was
concerned only with results.
The theory given in Appendix I, p. 321, together with applications
to the actual problems worked out earlier in the paper by the use
of an inaccurate but simpler form of energy expression, must be
taken as justifying the use of that simpler form in all such problems.
It was well known that, in the usual theory, even for straight
beams, assumptions were made which could only be justified by more
exact solutions of t,he equations of elasticity ; the corresponding
assumptions for beams with an initial radius of curvature which
was only a small multiple of the thickness were much harder to
justify. Now there was one almost exact solution of the elastic
equations which approached very nearly to the real problem of a
curved beam. It was mentioned under Pilon's name in the footnote,
p. 256, as the case of plane stress. This was the case of a split hollow
cylinder bent by couples on the end generators, the body being
regarded as a beam of great depth compared with its thickness. In

DEC. 1934. DESIGN 01 CRANE HOOKS. 343
his own book * a very similar problem was worked out; but there the
depth was small compared with the thickness, yet the analysis was
the same as for Filon’s case of a thick beam. In this book a case
was worked out in which the radius of curvature was twice the
thickness, corresponding to the value 6 for the ratio r @ in the paper.
He had there calculated the value of (R y’)/(R - yl), where y‘ +
referred to the neutral axis, and had found that this ratio was 0-693,
to three-figure accuracy. He had never before noticed that this
number agreed with log,2 to these three figures. Now log,2 mas
exactly what the beam theory used in the paper gave for this identical
ratio, and consequently it must be taken as strong justification of
the usual beam theory ; that mas to say, justification of the process
of calculating stresses from the assumption that plane sections
remained plane, although it was well known that they did not
actually remain plane.
Mr. J. LUMSDEN RAEwrote that the formula for the proof load
of a ring, in tons,
where d was the diameter of the material in inches and D, the internal
diameter in inches, was a modification of the formula used up to the
present by reliable makers, and might give more satisfactory results.
The limits to its application did not appear to be clearly defined in
the paper, and this might be rectified.
A well-known chain maker recently carried out, a t his suggestion,
two experiments on rings. In one experiment the ring was of
chain iron 1 inch in diameter, i.e. l& inches actual diameter, with
an average internal diameter of 11%inches ; it was found that a
permanent deformation of =&inch occurred with a load of 12 cwt.,
which would probably represent about 10.8 cwt. as a safe proof
load. By the suggested formula, the proof load would be 1-3 tons ;
by the old formula, about 1.5 tons.
A second experiment was with a ring of chain iron 146 inches in
diameter, having an internal diameter of 6% inches. It deformed
& inch a t a load of 8 tons, the safe proof load being about 7.2 tons ;
by the suggested formula this should be 7.1 tons.
A third ring, made by a well-known firm, had an internal diameter
of 24 inches, the material being 64 inches nominal diameter, and
indicated a proof load of 162 tons. The second and third rings, it
~~
* “ Applied Elasticity,” John Prescott, 1924 (Longmans, Green and

Company, Ltd., London), p. 666.

would be noted, gave results in agreement with the formula, whereas

the first indicated a very different strength.
The conclusion concerning rings was that any ring having the
same ratio of internal diameter to the diameter of the material
would be governed by the same constant, which in the paper
was taken as a fibre stress of 24 tons per sq. in. under elastic
conditions. It was probable that the extreme fibre stress varied
in accordance with the proportions of the ring, and it might be
possible to give some indication of the variation. Whilst such a
figure might only be an approximation, a few experiments would
indicate to what extent it was necessary to vary the modified formula
and within what limits this variation could be used.
Reference to the Anchor and Chain Cables Act showed that for
chain up to about 2$ inches in diameter, the proof stress was 11.48
tons per sq. in., whereas with a cable 4& inches in diameter the proof
stress was only about 60 per cent of this amount, namely 6.88 tons.
The third ring indicated that no reduction in the elastic fibre stress
was necessary, but obviously this could only be so if the material
in the ring was of first-class quality, if the fuel was entirely
suitable, and if the smith was a highly experienced man.
It would seem that if with an increase in diameter of material
there was under normal conditions such a serious reduction in the
strength of the finished link or ring as the Anchor and Chain Cables
Act indicated, there would be a point, probably about 4 inches
diameter, beyond which, with the ordinary methods of manufacture,
there was no advantage in increasing the diameter of the iron.
Finally, experience showed that for chains, rings, etc., in material
over, say, 2 inches in diameter, the welds should only be made by
craftsmen.
Mr. L. W. SCRUSTER wrote as a member of the British Standards

Institution Committee considering hooks, rings, and shackles, to
point out that the problems that had to be faced consisted not merely
in determining the theoretical stresses in simple parts but in extending
the analysis t o parts of complex shape and section, and in interpreting
the results in a practical manner. Though similar problems had
arisen in other countries, the authors' solutions were the most
comprehensive and theoretically accurate of all those that he had
seen. Their ingenuity and patient labour certainly merited the
highest appreciation.
The authors very rightly dismissed the Andrews-Pearson formula
from consideration. Their words on p. 257 would, however, seem to
imply that the defects of this formula were exposed for the first

time by Winslow and Edmonds a t the end of 1926. But he himself

in a work published in 1924 * stated that the formula was not only
cumbersome but misleading, and that it introduced elastic constants
which, if assumptions had not been made, would have disappeared
from the final expression. He found subsequently that the error
had first been exposed as early as 1913 by the late H. M. Martin,
M.1.Mech.E.t
As this formula was not altogether a dead horse that it would be
folly to flog, but was in fact a super-cat with more than nine lives,
which was constantly being resurrected, he would take the
opportunity to discuss it further. The reason why the error it
contained had escaped attention would seem to be as follows, When a
beam was subjected to a pure bending moment the Bach theory gave
nearly accurate results for the degree of curvature existing in crane
hooks ; but when the bending moment was due to the application
of a transverse load, and allowance had been made for the so-called
direct stress, the position was reversed, and the Andrews-Pearson
formula gave more accurate results. Though the error given by the
Andrews-Pearson formula was high when the beam was subjected t o
a pure moment, i t was the cancellation of errors that caused it to
give tolerably accurate results when applied to a crane hook. Thus
the errors in the formula had been overlooked.
A point perhaps deserving notice was that the Bach theory
assumed the " direct load " to be evenly distributed across the
whole section. The use of the strain-energy method adopted by
Winslow and Edmonds and by the authors did not make this
assumption, but rightly introduced the expression fbdy =P ;
the formula derived would thus a t first sight appear to be a distinct
I"y1
improvement. However, as the authors remarked on p. 259, the final

result showed that the direct load P set up a unyorm stress, and
inspection revealed that the derived formula for an open-ended beam
was the same as Bach's. Both methods, however, neglected the
effect of radial stress. The true distribution of the " direct load "
was obtainable from Inglis's formuls $ for two-dimensional stress,
formulae which unfortunately applied to rectangular beams only.
By use of these formuls it could be shown that, if a semicircular
beam with free ends were considered, and if on the one hand a
* Technical Report, British Engine, Boiler and Electrical Insurance

Company, Ltd., 1924, p. 143.
t Engineering, 1913, vol. 96, p. 307.
3 Technical Report, British Engine, Boiler and Electrical Insurance
Company, Ltd., 1924, p. 154.

transverse load was applied to the ends and on the other a bending
moment of value PR was applied, the difference between the
respective stresses was not constant a t each radius of any given
cross-section. The change in value of this difference, which
corresponded to what was usually termed the direct stress, was
exemplified by the curves in Big. 39. Curve A showed that for a
beam of very small curvature the variation in the stress was
inappreciable. Curve B, however, showed that when the curvature
FIU. 39.-Tangential Stress set u p by Direct Load at naid-section of

narrow curved beam of rectangular section.
.t-
2.91 00 I
:I
I
:I I -
:I
:I I
:I
:I
I
‘ I
I\
I
Ln:1
m . 1
I
: : I I
POSITION ALONG BEAM
was increased the variation could become considerable ; in fact,

when z = 7 the stress a t the intrados reached 2.9 times the mean
value across the section, while for the proportions of the crane hook
standardized by the British Standards Institution Committee, where
R/d = 1.11, it reached 1.43 times. This, though an appreciable
error, did not purport to represent the error in the total stress. It
was of interest to notice that for small curvatures the tangential
stress a t the extrados was slightly below the average, but for large
curvatures it was slightly above. In addition the “ direct load ”
set up an appresiable radial stress, and naturally, a t sections inclined

FIG. CO.-Percentage to be Added to Results given by Bach'cr formula f o r

rectangular beams loaded transversely at the ends.
11.0
10'0 USUAL RA
CRANE ;/~~?
9.0
8'0
e I
o"7*0
I
a
W
I
I I
W
v) I
a
W6.0 --__c_-
0
5 I
I
I
5' 0
1
I
I
4'0
I
3.0
2.0
ii ___t___
I
I
I
I
4.0 4
2.64
=w
to the horizontal, a shear stress also ; the latter became considerable
in beams with B large curvature.

The authors referred in the footnote on p. 265 to the correction

to be made when radial stress was allowed for. As a matter of
academic interest, the error a t the intrados of a beam of rectangular
section loaded transversely (as a crane hook) was given in Fig. 40.
Yor rectangular crane hooks of the curvature recommended by the
British Standards Institution the error was just under 4.5 per cent,
a lower figure than in the usual design of crane hooks. Unfortunately
the formula could not be applied accurately to a crane hook of
trapezoidal section, and the rounding of the profile a t the front and
t,he back of the hook led to further complication which was more
important than the error due t o neglecting the effect of radial stress.
Hence the British Standards Institution Panel responsible for
the design was faced with the need for a more complete solution,
and the outcome was the analysis given by the authors.
On p. 259 the authors rightly referred to the inward displacement
of the neutral axis of a beam subjected to a pure bending moment.
Similar statements had, however, often been misconstrued, and it
was not generally realized that, when a curved beam, such as a crane
hook, was stressed within the ela.stic limit by a transverse force-
the cross-section of the beam being symmetrical in relation t o the
centroid-the axis of zero tangential stress actually lay slightly
nearer the extrados than the centroid, the displacement becoming
greater as the curvature of the beam was increased, until
+
y = 0.08d. This was shown by Inglis’s formula for two-
dimensional stress. Equally, when the beam was subjected to pure
bending, the true displacement of the neutral axis towards the
intrados was less than that given by the usual analyses.
Mr. G . STEVENSON TAYLOR,O.B.E., wrote that the whole theory

of the curved components of lifting gear, coupled with the results of
tests showing the general sufficiency of the theory for practical
purposes had never before been put on a scientific basis and brought
within the compass of a single paper.
I n the theory of the stresses in chain links, given on p. 280, the
assumption was made that the load on a half-link was distributed
over a plane section a t the crown, and not applied by the distributed
bedding pressure of the next link on it. By the method adopted,
whch was admittedly the only one lending itself to ready
mathematical analysis, the calculated “ apparent ” stress of 18 tons
per sq. in. a t the points of the crowns of short links was obtained.
It must be admitted that the distribution of pressure by bedding of
the attached links would, t o some extent, influence the actual stress,
so that conditions envisaged under the calculated stress of 18 tons

per sq. in. a t the crowns were not in fact realized. From the
foregoing consideration it would appear likely that the actual
maximum stresses in chain links might approximate to the actual
maximum stresses in rings designed for a maximum stress of 15 tons
per sq. in.
The curves in Pig. 16, p. 287, were very useful in determining the
maximum stresses in links, but from the practical aspect it would
appear that if they were used for calculations in the design of links
of exceptional length and width, the presence of the long weld and
the big curve a t the crown ought to be taken into account, and a
lower " apparent )' stress than that for short links should be used
for the calculation.
The fatigue test results of the hooks showed that good margins
of safety were provided by the designs, and that a hook so designed
should never fail by fatigue caused by the safe working load. The
impact tests showed the ample margin against shock loading possessed
by hooks designed according to the formula, and that any impact
to which a hook was likely to be subjected in service would not be
sufficient to cause fracture.
Before the publication of the paper the theory of the stresses
in eyebolts had not been satisfactorily set out ; the paper clarified the
position, and the tests showed that the margins provided by the
designs given were ample. The scientific and practical aspects of
loose lifting gear were now readily available to manufacturers and
should give them confidence in matters of design.
Dr. H. J. GOUGH,Mr. H. L. Cox, and Mr. D. G. SOPWITH wrote

in reply that in discussing the possibility that conatant variation
of stress might affect the corrosion of mooring chains, Mr. Bowen
had referred to the results of some tests carried out a t the National
Physical Laboratory, and his remarks tended to give the impression
that no interaction between corrosion and stress variation had been
found. This was not the case. The specimens tested in salt spray
gave much smaller endurances a t all ranges of reversed bending
stresses than the specimens tested a t the same ranges of stress in
air. Moreover, the results of the tests in salt spray did not indicate
any definite fatigue limit, whereas in air the limiting safe range was
quite well defined. On the other hand, the behaviour of the
material both in salt spray and in air was quite unaffected by previous
overstrain in air beyond the elastic limit. Presumably it was to
this latter result that Mr. Bowen referred. I n general, immersion
of a chain in a corrosive medium would not be expected appreciably
to reduce the resistance of the chain to static loading, nor had it

350 DISCUSSION ON DEU.1934.
been established that static loading caused increased corrosion ;

but if the load on the chain were wholly or even partially alternating,
failure by corrosion fatigue might occur, although the effect on the
total corrosion might not be obvious.
Mr. Bowen quoted the results of some tensile tests on chain links
in which plastic deformation was not observed until the nominal
stress exceeded 6-7 tons per sq. in. The values of the actual
FIU.41.-Variation of Stress round Open Chain Link under different

conditions of loading.
maximum stress corresponding to this range were about 37-43 tons

per sq. in. for open links and 25-29 tons per sq. in. for studded
links. In annealed components plastic deformation would be
expected to occur when the actual maximum stress exceeded the
yield stress (15 tons per sq. in., say). It appeared probable therefore
that the components tested by Mr. Bowen had not been annealed
since subjection t o the proof load, by which test they would already
have been subjected to about 79 tons per sq. in. nominal stress.

The type of loading shown in Fig. 32 a was not possible, as the

applied loads were not in equilibrium. Two cases of oblique loading
had therefore been worked out for the link dimensions given by
Mr. Bowen and the results were shown in Fig. 41 (open link) and
Fig. 42 (studded link). I n the first case (Figs. 41 a and 42 a) the
link was loaded longitudinally a t one end, whilst a t the other end
two loads, one inclined a t 30 deg. t o the axis of the link and the
other perpendicular to this axis, were applied, both through the
centre of curvature of the crown of the link. I n the second case
(Figs. 41 b and 42 b) loads were applied a t each end through the
FIQ.4Z.-Variation of Stress round Studded Chain Link under differettt

conditions of loading.
-8
-4"
LOAD W 1
centres of curvature of the two crowns a t 15 deg. to the axis of the

link, whilst the side load was balanced by a force perpendicular
to the axis of the link applied a t the centre of the straight portion
on the same side of the axis as the two inclined loads. This case
would produce the special type of deformation observed by
Mr. Bowen. In both cases the inclined load was regarded as the
actual load on the chain. The results showed that the maximum
stress in the first case was set up a t the intrados above the side load
(open link) or a t 87-3 deg. from the inclined load (studded link) and
gave stress factors of 7-76 (open) and 5.62 (studded), whilst the
maximum stress in the second case occurred a t the intrados above

the side load (open link) or at the extrados a t the end of the stud
opposite the side load (studded link) with factors of 8.38 (open) and
6.44 (studded). These factors were to be compared with the values
6-14 (open) and 4.20 (studded) for a link loaded axially (Figs. 41 G
and 42 c).
The type of jamming shown in Fig. 32 b could only occur if the
friction between the links were sufficient to cause the resultant
thrust of the foul link on either of the jammed links to pass through
the point of contact of the two jammed links ; for otherwise there
would be a resultant couple on the foul link which would cause it to
rotate and free the jammed links. Thus jamming could be rendered
impossible if the inside width of the link were made less than
2d/(l+ p2),where d was the diameter of the section of the links
and p was the coefficient of friction. It was important to notice
that the pressure between the jammed links was not the primary
cause of jamming. The essential condition was that the friction
between the links should be sufficient to bring the two resultant
thrusts on the foul link into the same line. Thus if jamming could
occur in position A (Fig. 43) it could also occur in any position
intermediate between A and B, although in the latter case there was
no pressure between the jammed links. The only effect of the
pressure between the jammed links was to render jamming possible
a t larger angles in position A than in position B. The load on the
foul link was, however, greatest in the extreme position A, when
both jammed links were parallel to the tangent a t the point of
contact. Neglecting friction between the jammed links, the ratio
of the reaction R on the foul link to the load W on the chain was
given by the formula R cos 8 = W cos u, where 6 and cc were the
angles between the directions of the loads R and W and the common
tangent a t the point of contact of the two jammed links. For the
type of link in question 6 was tan-1 2 and the least possible value of
0: was tan-1 &, so that the greatest possible value of R was 2.22W.
The foul link was subjected to the highest stresses if the line of the
loads R passed through the centre point of the link (Fig. 43). The
actual stresses produced were shown in Fig. 44. It should be
emphasized that this Figure represented the worst possible case, and
that in practice the stresses might be somewhat lower.
Mr. Broughton asked whether the results of tests on a number of
small hooks were regarded as sufficient to justify the specification
of hooks up to 75 tons capacity. Since all sizes of the standard
hooks were geometrically similar, there was no reason why large
hooks should behave differently from small ones, unless the material
were different. Differences in material were of course possible ;

DEC. 1934. DESIGN 03 CRANE HOOKS. 353
but there seemed to be no obvious reason why material in large

sizes should be inferior to smaller pieces. I n preparing the
specification for crane hooks, the British Standards Institution
Committee had purposely provided a wide range, alt.hough it
FIQ.43.Jamkng o j Linka in Wide-Link Chain.
recognized that the larger sizes of ordinary crane hooks had only
a limited application; it had been proposed, a t a later date, t o
prepare specifications for other types, such as the Ramshorn. The
issue of a specification could not absolve the user from the
responsibility of choosing the type of hook and material most
suitable to his purpose. 00 the other hand, if users specified hooks
to the British Standards Institution Specification, presumably hook
manufacturers would supply them.
23

Dr. Dick gave some very interesting data, much of which

reinforced their conclusions. The results of the tests on springs
were particularly interesting, although it was doubtful whether
sufficient tests had been made to establish clearly the limiting fatigue
ranges. The effect of plastic deformation on the mean stress and
thus on the limiting safe range might of course explain Dr. Dick’s
results ; but, since the material of the springs was presumably in a
Fra. 44.-Variation of Stress round Fouled O p e n ChcGin Link, worst

possible condition.
heat-treated condition, it was possible that the differences might be

due to dissimilarities between the material of the larger and smaller
coils.
I n preparing the diagrams for the paper, considerable attention
had becn paid to the presentation of the theoretical results in a
form suitable for practical application. It was gratifying to learn
that Mr. Griffin considered that this aim had been achieved and that
the paper should prove useful as a work of reference.
Professor Jasper questioned whether buckling of lifting gear

DEC. 1934. DESIGN OF CRANE 8 O O E . 8 . 355
components due t o high compressive stresses might occur, but

suggested that this effect might be negligible in the type of
components considered in the paper. The possibility of buckling
had not been considered ; but the effect was certainly quite negligible
in all practical cases. They agreed with Professor Jasper that lifting
gear components scarcely ever failed by fatigue ; but the utility
of the fatigue test lay in the check it afforded upon the theoretical
stress calculations. Professor Jasper reviewed the other means of
obtaining such a check and they were pleased to note his agreement
with their view that fatigue tests provided the best advance. They
could not, however, agree that the subjection of lifting gear
components to impact was unusual. The majority of lifting or
hauling operations necessarily involved some impact forces and,
although the force of the blows could be minimized by careful usage,
it was practically impossible to avoid impact entirely. The behaviour
of wrought iron or mild steel above the yield was often very different
in tension and in compression; but in the elementary treatment
adopted in the paper, it did not appear necessary t o include
consideration of this difference.
/They had no hesitation in assuring Mr. Johnson that the hooks
described in the paper would be suitable for haulage purposes;
they agreed with him that in wrought iron sling hooks the plane of
piling should be perpendicular to the axis of the hook eye. .,
Dr. Prescott drew attention to the omission from the analysis
of the stresses in a bent curved beam, on p. 258 of the paper, of a
statement as to the axis of the bending moment. As Dr. Prescott
pointed out, the axis uscd could be decided from the context ; but
they agreed that this did not excuse the omission. The moment was
of course taken about an axis through the centroid of the section.
The reason for the adoption of the method used in the paper for
deriving the fundamental relation between the loads and the stresses
in a curved beam was clearly stated in the paper (p. 257). This
method seemed to them remarkably easy and concise ; moreover
it seemed to bring out clearly that the essential assumption was not
that plane sections remained plane but that shearing and radial
stresses could be neglected. It was, of course, true that the second
assumption implied the first, but the second appeared far more
fundamental, as was evident since the first did not obviously imply
the second. The two quantities which were postulated to have
minimum values differed by a constant quantity, therefore the
minima of one corresponded to the minima of the other.
Dr. Prescott's suggestion that it would be preferable to calculate
(A' - A) directly rather than A' and A separately was of course

sound, and the remarks on p. 262 of the paper were not intended to
preclude this method ; but in practice the calculation by slide rule
+
of successive values of b/(R y) was so much simpler than that of
+
successive values of by/(R y) that it was more convenient to
calculate A’ to six figures than to calculate (A’ - A) to three. They
regretted that they had unconsciously allowed this very practical
consideration to influence their statement of the best met,hod of
procedure.
Mr. Lumsden Rae asked what were the limits of application of
the simplified formula for the proof load of rings. The formula was
stated in the paper to be applicable for values of k > and < $
(p. 297). This range might be extended to include slightly lower
values of k ; but for values of k > 0.27, the maximum stress was
set up a t a different position and the analysis on which the formula
was based became inapplicable.
The formula for the proof load of a ring was based upon a specified
maximum stress of 24 tons per sq. in. under the proof load. An
annealed ring subjected t o the proof load would therefore certainly
yield, although the actual plastic deformation might be very small.
The comparison made by Mr. Rae between the theoretical proof
loads and the loads at which measurable permanent set was observed
was therefore not entirely logical and could scarcely be expected to
yield reliable results. In any case the load a t which measurable
permanent set was observed could only be expected to be a constant
proportion of the theoretical proof load if each ring were made of
the same material and were in the same state of initial stress. Such
differences as were quoted by Mr. Rae were probably due to
differences in the yield points of the different materials and to
imperfect annealing after previous proving or use. In general there
was no reason to believe that the elastic properties of normal
engineering materials varied with the size of the piece tested and
therefore there was no logical ground for using different values of
the allowable stress for different sizes of component. These points
had, in fact, received the careful consideration of the responsible
Technical Committee of the British Standards Institution before
the specification was issued in its present form.
That the defects of the Andrews-Pearson formula were discussed
by Mr. Schuster and others long before the publication of Winslow
and Edmonds’s paper was of course well known t o thein ; Winslow
and Edmonds were quoted in this context because that reference
appeared t o be one of the most accessible. They apologized for
making the reference in a way open t o misconstruction.
In calculations of the stresses in hooks and similar curved beams

of not very simple section, some simplifying assumption had to be

made or the analysis became quite intractable. Mr. Schuster had
simplified the problem by adopting a simplified section and had
therefore been able t,o include consideration of the effect of radial
stresses. They had chosen rather to use the true section, but to
neglect radial stresses, being guided in their choice by the fact that
the effect of radial stresses appeared from Mr. Schuster's results
to be fairly small.
The effect of distributing the load over the crown of the link,
to which Mr. Stevenson Taylor referred, had already been considered
by them and was in fact included in the first draft of the paper ;
the results were subsequently omitted from the paper owing to the
necessity for reducing its length. Goodenough and Moore * had
considered the case in which the load was distributed as a uniform
radial pressure over an arc of the crown of the link ; this appeared
to them to be a very improbable condition. If it were assumed that
the radial pressure between the links was distributed sinusoidally
over a total arc of 2a, then the pressure would be w ocos no, where
wo was the maximum pressure, n = 7r/2a, and 0 was the angle of
the section from the longitudinal axia of the link. Hence the load
i
w = 2 w0 cos cos oRae = 2 R n2
n
.2-1 w
W ~cos
R cc
-1
or wo = -
in seca
There would be in the crown of the link a tension due to the transverse
components of the radial pressure equal to
4
H = wocos n8 sin ORd8 = - (tan a
b
If Mo were the bending moment a t the crown
W
2
1
- - sec a)
n
MoCa '= M, + H R (1- cos 0) - cos sin 0 - +R2+
Me>, = Mo + HR (I - cos 0) - rwocos rq5 sin C + R 2 +

WR
Mx --M'-- [If' = Mo + HR]
2
6U
Equating - to zero
SI&
..
..
p o = -W
- ( t a, n : r - - s e1c a ) ; F ~ =W= -
2 , 12 2
Whence maximum tensile stress factor a t extrados (crown)
and a t intrados (end of straight side)

1
I( - 1 - P J
1-
.rr-2seca
(1 - %A .
~-
. (14b)
k r4-m
I n the case of two similar links in contact, the load distributed
over the crown of one link could be balanced only by a load on the
other link concentrated at the mid-section of the crown. Hence
by symmetry one-half only of the load should be considered as
distributed, and the other half as concentrated a t the crown. The
actual stress factors would therefore be midway between those for
concentrated and distributed loads, namely
1 + seca(1 --&)1 + '117,
-"[
K O-k
77 + 97) n
. . (15a)

DEO.1934. DESIGN ON CRANE HOOKS. 359
and K l = l - - - P1
k
T-1-secu
.rr+m
1--
( i2)
. . (15b)
Values of KOand K1 were shown in Pig. 45 for various values of

u for the British standard link (maximum dimensions). The broken
FIU.45.-Effcct on Maximum Tensile Stresses i n Chain Link of distributing

load sinusoidally over a total arc of a.
-- - Full distribution of load.
-Distribution in chain.
lines represented the values for fully distribubed loads (equations (14a)
and (14b))and the full lines thosefor the practical case (equations (15a)
and (156)). It would be seen that the value of the maximum tensile
stress a t the crown fell much more rapidly than did that a t the end
of the straight side, the two becoming equal a t about Q = 14 deg.

360 DEEIQN OF CRANE HOOK& DEO. 1934.
It was difficult to make any estimate of the value of the angle a,

but they agreed with Mr. Stevenson Taylor that a would be less
for wide than for narrow links and the stresses consequently
somewhat higher. I n some experiments on the fatigue strength of
short link crane chain, failures occurred almost invariably at the
ends of the straight sides of the links, and measurement of the arc
polished by the continual loading indicated a possible value of CI of
about 45 deg. This would correspond to a decrease in stress of
about 8 per cent.
In conclusion, they recorded their appreciation of the cordial
reception given to the paper by the industry, users, and other
interested technical bodies. The necessary funds and facilities
for the work had been provided by the Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research and the Executive Committee of the
National Physical Laboratory in the belief that the results would be
of direct value to the indnst,ry and engineers ; the discussion on thc
paper appeared t,o indicate that this belief had been amply justified.

Design of Crane Hooks and Other Components Lifting Gear

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Design of Crane Hooks and Other Components Lifting Gear

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DEC. 1934.

DESIGN OF CRANE HOOKS AND OTHER COMPONENTS

BY H. J. GOUGH, M.B.E., D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S., M.I.MEcH.E.,*

[Xekcted for publication, with written discusszon.]

* Superintendent, Engineering Department, National Physical

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The results of tests on components designed according to the

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The strength of chains and chain fittings was brought t o the

* GOTJGH,H. J., and MURPHY, A. J. (I) “The Causes of Failure of

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of the applied loads.* The determination of the stresses set up in

111. STRESSESIN CURVED BEAMS.

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section, it is, of course, inapplicable to that of circular and other

* WINSLOW,A. M., and EDMONDS, R. H. G., “ Tests and Theory of

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the centres of gravity of the.sections be R and let the radial distance

the breadth of section a t radius R + y be B and let the tensile stress

(.f2(B+ y) - 2ufy - 2 f ) b d y must be a minimum,

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Substituting in the original equations,

- =A' [Hence also llRyfbydy -

Solving for 0: and j3 and substituting in the expression for f,

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2(1 - cos 2w)

At the extrados and intrados respectively,

The coefficient of M/rA can conveniently be termed the “ curvature

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of the extrados to that of the intrados. In the case of the rectangular

FIG. 2.--Curvature Pactors for curved b e a m of circular section.

analytic function of the dimensions is often impracticable, and the

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moderately large, h may be very small and considerable care is

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The normal type of lifting hook consists essentially of a single

Coefficients multiplying the " apparent stress t o give the "

actual stress, such as those multiplying W/A in equations (In) and

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* LOC.cit. It will be noticed that Schuster applies a correction to the

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the size of fittings that can be accommodated on the hook.* For

FIG. 5-Stress Factors for hoolcs of circular section.

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and using a given form of section, what depth of section is necessary

FIQ. 6.--Depth of Section for hooks of circular section.

Putting y1 = E d and A = ad2 (d being the depth of the section and r

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FIG. 'i.-Depth of Section for hooks of trapezoidal section.

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In practice, the usual range of p is from 1.5 to 2.0 with extension

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are slightly greater in depth, the maximum increase being about

(C) LIVERPOOL HOOK

section could, of course, be reduced approximately in proportion to

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to a load sufficient to cause the stress a t the intrados to exceed the

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FIG. O.--Strees-Strain Diagram for mild steel (Dalby record).

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be subjected to ranges of stress equal t o the " apparent " stresses,