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OPEN CAISSON: UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE AND

PLACEMENT

Conference Paper · April 2015

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International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for Development”
ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

OPEN CAISSON: UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION

TECHNIQUE AND PLACEMENT
Jitesh Mehta1, Jayeshkumar Pitroda2, J.J.Bhavsar3
First Year Student, ME C E & M., BVM Engineering College, VallabhVidyanagar, Gujarat, India 1
Assistant professor, Civil Engineering Dept., BVM Engineering College, VallabhVidyanagar, Gujarat, India 2
Associate professor, Civil Engineering Dept., BVM Engineering College, VallabhVidyanagar, Gujarat, India 3

Abstract: Underwater construction works as observed by the engineers and designers are
considered as the most difficult work. Caissons are sunk through ground or water to exclude
water and semi-fluid material during the process of excavation of foundations and which
subsequently becomes an integral part of the substructure. In this paper, a brief description
of the open caisson is done which is constructed using under water techniques. tremie method
for concrete placement is discussed. The general description of open caisson in detail, its
technical aspects, improvement in new techniques and also its advantages and disadvantages
are discussed. The aim of this paper is to focus on small aspects included in under water
construction through caisson which are highly cost consuming structures, to give a better and
stable foundation for carrying heavy and dynamic load.
Keywords: Under water construction,Concreting,open caisson,Tremie method

INTRODUCTION
I.
A.Overveiw of Underwater Construction

Underwater construction is a critical component of the entire project works of

construction. It is technically demanding to take on the effective and viable methods as it
involves complex construction logistics. Therefore, its significance in the project far beyond
the concreting operations themselves, in essence, underwater concrete can be constructed
with the same degree of reliability as above-water construction. Underwater construction
works as observed by the engineers and designers are considered as the most difficult work.
But if it is not carried out properly, with the proper concrete mixture and placement
procedure, underwater concrete construction can result in a major cost and schedule overrun.
This is the area where sound design and competent construction planning can achieve a
meaningful reduction in risk and cost.
The caissons and cofferdams are the techniques used for the construction of
underwater structures. A caisson is a retaining, watertight structure used, for example, to

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 1
International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for Development”
ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

work on the foundations of a bridge pier, for the construction of a concrete dam, or for the
repair of ships.
Caissons are sunk through ground or water to exclude water and semi-fluid material
during the process of excavation of foundations and which subsequently becomes an integral
part of the substructure.
A cofferdam is an enclosure within a water environment constructed to allow water to
be displaced by air for the purpose of creating a dry work environment commonly used for oil
rig construction and repair, bridge and dam work. The cofferdam is usually a temporary
welded steel structure, typically dismantled after work is completed. Its components consist
of sheet piles, Wales, and cross braces.

B.Under Water Construction Techniques

caisson:

The term caisson is derived from Latin, which means box or case. Caissons are hollow
inside and usually constructed at site and sunk in place into a hard bearing stratum.It‟s a
prefabricated hollow box or cylinder.It is sunk into the ground to some desired depth and then
filled with concrete thus forming a foundation.Most often used in the construction of bridge
piers and other structures that require foundation beneath rivers & other bodies of water.This
is because caissons can be floated to the job site and sunk into place.Basically it is similar in
form to pile foundation but installed using different way Used when soil of adequate bearing
strength is found below surface layers of weak materials such as fill or peat.
It‟s a form of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then sunk to
the required level by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson.A caisson
foundation consists of concrete columns constructed in cylindrical shafts excavated under the
proposed structural column locations. Caissons are drilled to bedrock or deep into the
underlying strata if a Geotechnical engineer find the soil suitable to carry the building load.
It‟s created by auguring a deep hole in the ground. Then, 2 or more „stick‟ reinforcing bar is
inserted into and run the full length of the hole and the concrete is poured into the caisson
hole.The caisson foundations carry the building loads at their lower ends, which are often
bell-shaped.The outer walls of large caissons should be at least 1m thick, and the caissons
should have horizontal and vertical stiffening walls.Often the caissons have high construction
cost and their construction is restricted to major foundation works.

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 2
International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for Development”
ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

Uses of caissons:

1) To reach the hard bearing stratum for transferring the load coming on supports for
bridge piers and building columns.
2) To serve as an imperious core wall of earth dams, when placed adjacent to each other.
3) To provide an access to a deep shaft or a tunnel.
4) To provide an enclosure below water level for installing machinery, pump, etc.

Advantages of Caissons:
The construction of caisson is advantageous to other deep foundations when the soil
contains large boulders which obstruct penetration of piers and drilled piers, When a massive
substructure is required for protection against floating objects and sand scour or when
foundations subjected to lateral forces such as waves.For conditions other than these, caissons
are generally more expensive than other deep foundations.

Materials used for the construction of caissons:

The common materials which are usually employed for the construction of a caisson are as
follows,
Cast-iron Reinforced cement Steel Timber
concrete

Source: http://imgarcade.com/1/open-caisson-foundation/
The cast-iron is suitable for caissons of open-well type. New segments of cast-iron
are bolted as the caisson sinks. This material is unsuitable for pneumatic caissons as there is
risk of failure due to tension developed by the compressed air. The cost also works out to be
more in relation to the steel or R.C.C.
The reinforced cement concrete is suitable for caisson shoes. This material has more
weight and therefore it creates difficulties in handling and floating the caisson in the early
stage of construction. It therefore becomes economical to construct a steel caisson with
concrete filling.

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 3
International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for Development”
ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

The steel is found to be the most suitable material for the construction of a caisson. It
is usually in the form of a double skin of steel plating and the hollow space is then filled with
cement concrete.
The timber was used as a material for the construction of a caisson in the early stages
of development of a caisson. But this material is now practically not adopted mainly because
of its bulk and risk of fire.

C.Open Caisson

The structure is open at the top and is manufactured wholly or partially at ground
level. In those phases it rests in the shoe, the making of which requires special care and
experience. The sinking process begins with the step-by step removal of material inside the
structure under atmospheric pressure first,above groundwater level, the material is excavated
then, below ground water level, it is dredged. Interior and exterior groundwater levels must
always be the same to prevent piping and to prevent material being sucked in from
the outside as a result. Friction between the structure and the surrounding soil is minimized
by a gap around the structure filled with bentonies. As a rule it is 5 to 10cm wide and is
produced automatically as the shoe projects beyond the outer wall of the caisson. Since the
friction forces increase with increasing depth, the weight must be raised by additional loads.
When the final depth is reached, an underwater concrete floor is built in to facilitate
subsequent pumping of the interior, attention always being paid to safety against uplift.
Open caisson used in soft grounds or high water tables, where open trench excavation
are to be filled with concrete. Adjustable anchoring systems combined with a GPS survey
allow engineers to position a box caisson with pinpoint accuracy. Elaborate anchoring
systems may be required in tidal zone. Figure 1 shows a diagram of open caisson.

Figure 1: Open Caisson

Source file: ///G: /data0/under%20water%20construction/UNDERWATER%20CONSTRUCTION.

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 4
International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for Development”
ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

Advantages of Open Caissons-

1) The advantages of open caissons are their feasibility to be sunk to great depths.
2) Construction cost is relatively low.

Disadvantages of Open Caissons-

1) The disadvantages of the open caissons are that the bottom of the caisson cannot be
thoroughly cleaned and inspected.
2) The concrete seal placed in water is not satisfactory and soil near the cutting edge may
require hand excavation by diver.
3) If obstruction like boulders or logs are encountered the construction gets slowed down.

D.The Process: Construction of a Caisson

After some initial form work and concrete pours, the cutting edge is floated to the
breakwater by towboat and fastened to the caisson guide. Concrete is placed (poured) into
steel forms built up along the perimeter of the box. With every concrete placement, the box
becomes heavier and sinks into the water along the caisson guide Forms are also built inside
the box around the air domes and concrete is placed in between. The resulting open tubes
above the air domes are called dredge wells When the caisson finally touches the river
bottom, the air domes are removed and earth is excavated through the long dredge well tubes,
as shown in the animation below. The caisson sinks into the river bottom. Excavation
continues until the caisson sinks to its predetermined depth as a final step, concrete is placed
(poured) into the bottom 30 feet of the hollow dredge wells and the tops are sealed.
E.Underwater Concreting
For in-the-wet construction of the navigation structure, underwater concrete
construction is a critical component of the entire project. It is technically demanding, usually
on the critical path of the project. It is technically demanding, usually in the critical path of
the project schedule, and involve complex construction logistics. Therefore, its significance
in the project far beyond the concreting operations themselves, in essence, can be constructed
with the same degree of reliability as above-water construction. But if it is not carried out
properly, with the proper concrete mixture and placement procedure, underwater concrete
construction can result in a major cost and schedule overrun. This is the area where sound
design and competent construction planning can achieve a meaningful reduction in risk and
cost.

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 5
International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for Development”
ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

F.Tremie Method
The principle of this method is that concrete is poured down a pipe or tube from
above the surface and is forced into the mass of concrete already in place by the weight of
concrete in the tube. The tube is surmounted by a hopper („tremie‟ in French) and the whole
is suspended from a staging or frame, mounted so that it can be moved vertically when held
by a crane. As the pour rises, sections of the tube can be removed to facilitate working. A
convenient diameter for the tube is 8 to 16 times the maximum aggregate size and 250 mm is
a common diameter. Figure 2 shows a diagrammatic representation of a tremin.

Figure 2: Tremie Method

Sources: file:///H:/data0/under%20water%20construction/Specialist%20Techniques
Before starting the pour, a plug is inserted into the tube to stop the concrete and
water intermixing. This plug can be purpose-made (similar to a bath plug), a sponge rubber
ballor exfoliated vermiculite, which is the most common method in the UK.
At start-up the bottom of the tube should be on or very close to the sea or river
bed,sufficient to allow the water in the tube to escape and to force the first load of concrete to
spread out horizontally into a mound shape. The concrete pouring should be continuous with
the bottom of the tube always inside previously placed concrete. If this immersion depth,
normally at least 0.5 m, is not sufficient, a breakthrough will occur and the poor will have to
be abandoned for the day. Any air that is in the concrete being placed will pass through the
previously placed concrete and bubble to the surface, disrupting the settled concrete as it
goes.The flow of concrete in the tube is governed by gravity and friction with the tube wall,

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 6
International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for Development”
ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

so the tremie has to be moved up and down to regulate the flow. The tube should be
restrained from lateral movement whilst placing concrete.
The placed concrete spreads out horizontally on the bed in a circle, with the top of the
pour domed upwards.Tremies are best used for thick pours of any area. For large area pours,
multiple tremie are used, spaced at about 4–6 m apart, depending on the flatness required for
the top level. The slope of the concrete surface from a tremie is likely to be in the range 1 in 9
for tremies close together to 1 in 6 for those spaced far apart as the slope increases
with distance from the pipe.The concrete flow pattern is dependent upon the consistency of
the concrete mixture and the placement rate. In addition, the flow pattern is also affected by
the thickness of the concrete placement and the tremie embedment depth of concrete.

CONCLUSION
These are the following conclusion carried out from the literature review and case studies:
1) Caissons are permanent structures and becomes economical in cases where the plan area
of foundation is small, large depth of water and for loose soils.
2) At present, the tremie placement method is the standard way of placing high-quality
concrete underwater. The other placement method are not able to reliably place high-
quality underwater concrete for major structures, although they may find application in
special cases.
3) High quality concrete can be placed underwater in drilled shafts.However,proper concrete
mix and proper placement techniques are essential as well as performing effective non-
destructive testing to confirm sound concrete
4) Open caissons are small cofferdam that are placed and then pumped dry and filled
with concrete. These are generally used in the formation of a pier.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Authors thankfully acknowledge Dr. C. L. Patel, Chairman, Charutar Vidya Mandal,
Er.V.M.Patel, Hon. Jt. Secretary, Charutar Vidya Mandal, Dr. F.S.Umrigar, Principal, BVM
Engineering College, Dr. L. B. Zala, Professor and Head, Civil Engineering Department,
BVM Engineering College, Prof. J. J. Bhavsar, Associate Professor and P.G. Coordinator
(Construction Engineering and Management), B.V.M. Engineering College, Mr. Yatinbhai
Desai, Jay Maharaj construction, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India for their motivations,
infrastructural support and cooperation to carry out this research.

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 7
 International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for Development”
ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

REFERENCES
[1] file:///H:/data0/under%20water%20construction/Caissons
[2] file:///H:/data0/under%20water%20construction/Specialist%20Techniques
[3] http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/caisson-pier-foundation/503/
[4] http://bestengineeringprojects.com/civil-projects/caissons-types-of-caissons/
[5] Rakesh Borker BS, A Seminar Report on“Underwater Construction”Bangalore-560 078November- 2009,
[6] Sam X. Yao and Robert B. Bittner,“Underwater Concrete in Drilled Shafts: the Key Issues and Case
Histories”
AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY

Jitesh meht was born in 1993 in banswara town. He received his

Bachelor of Technology degree in Civil Engineering from the Arya
college of engineering and research centre, Rajasthan Technical
University, in 2013. At present, he is First year student of Master's
Degree in Construction Engineering & Management from Birla
VishvakarmaMahavidyalaya, Gujarat Technological University. He has
published papers in National Conferences.

Prof. Jayeshkumar R. Pitroda received his Bachelor of Engineering

degree in Civil Engineering from the Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya,
Sardar Patel University in 2000. In 2009 he received his Master's Degree
in Construction Engineering and Management from Birla
VishvakarmaMahavidyalaya, Sardar Patel University. He joined Birla
VishvakarmaMahavidyalaya Engineering College as a faculty in 2009,
where he is Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering Department with a
total experience of 14 years in the field of Research, Designing and
education. He is guiding M.E. (Construction Engineering &
Management) Thesis work in the field of Civil/Construction Engineering.
He has published many papers in National Conferences and International
Journals.

Prof. Jaydevbhai J. Bhavsar received his Bachelor of Engineering degree

in Civil Engineering from the Birla VishvakarmaMahavidyalaya, Sardar
Patel University in 1978. In 1986 he received his Master's Degree in
Building Science and Technology from University of Roorkee. He joined
Birla VishvakarmaMahavidyalaya Engineering College as a faculty
where he is an Assistant lecturer of Civil Engineering Department with a
total experience of 32 years in the field of Research, Designing and
education. He is guiding M.E. (Construction Engineering &
Management) Thesis work in the field of Civil/ Construction
Engineering. He has published many papers in National Conferences and
International Journals.

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 8

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