As usual, you should study everything we discussed in class; however, the

material below will be emphasized on the final. Additionally, there will be

two bonus questions adding up to 10 bonus points. Make sure to bring all
handouts.

Know the microevolutionary processes that affect allele frequencies in

populations

1) natural selection increases the frequency of certain alleles-- the ones that
contirbute to success in survival and reproduction. 2) genetic drift causes allele
frequencies to change randomly, possibly causing alleles that decrease fitness to
increase in frequency. 3) gene flow when individuals leave one population, join
another, and breed, meaning gene flow may occur. 4) mutation modifies allele
frequencies by continually introducing new alleles that may be beneficial,
detrimental, or have no effect on fitness.

Know the four geological eras and what major events occurred during them

Pre-Cambrian Era Earth formed and became a planet 600-3,300 million years ago

Paleozoic Era Ancient life.Volcanoes and mountains formed. Age of marine vertebrates.
Land vegetation. Amphibians and reptiles. 230-600 million years ago.

Mesozoic Era Middle life. Mammals and birds appear. Dinosaurs were dominant. Plants
adjusted to seasonal changes. Continents shifted. 63-230 million years ago.
Cenozoic Era Present life. Mammals are dominant. Birds and fish evolve. Raw materials
came into existence- oil, gas, coal, and metallic minerals were formed. Recent times-63
million years ago.

Know the three outcomes of natural selection

Know pre- and postzygotic isolating mechanisms (reproductive isolation is driving
force behind speciation. Speciation depends on 1. Isolation
2. Genetic divergence)
prezygotic barrier- prevent mating or fertilization between different species
temporal (isoloation in time) isolation - prezygotic barrier; when different species
reproduce at different times
One firefly population mates right after sundown, and another mates in the middle of the
night.
ecological isolation - prezygotic barrier; the species remain isolated because they breed in
different habitats - the columbine flower had lived at different altitudes in the same area.
When the two were reunited, they could no longer breed.
behavorial isoloation - prezygotic barrier; the species have differences in mating rituals
A female cricket does not understand the mating call of a male cricket
structural isolation - prezygotic barrier; the species are physically unable to reproduce,
no compatible apparatus Black sage (S. mellifera), which is pollinated by small bees, has
a different floral structure from that of white sage (S. apiana), which is pollinated by large
carpenter bees.

isolation of gametes – prezygotic barrier - sperms of one species may not be able to
fertilize eggs of another species and vice versa – example sea urchins – gametes of
different species – red and purple – are unable to fuse

postzygotic barrier reproductive barrier that operates should interspecies mating occur
and form hybrid zygotes
hybrid inviabiity - postzygotic barrier; the offspring (called a hybrid) does not survive - A
leopard frog and a wood frog mate and produce offspring, which die within a few days.
hybrid infertility - postzygotic barrier; the hybrid is infertile
A cross between a male tiger and a female lion is called a tigon. The tigon is sterile.
gametic incompatability - postzygotic barrier; sperm from one population can’t fertilize
eggs from another population
Know what a species is –

Know what the founder and bottleneck effects are

Bottlenecks and founder effects. Genetic drift can cause big losses of genetic variation for
small populations. Genetic drift is the change in allele frequency in a population, as some
alleles pass to the next generation and some disappear. This causes some phenotypic traits
to become rarer or more common. Population bottlenecks occur when a population's size
is reduced for at least one generation. In population genetics, the founder effect The
reduced genetic diversity that results when a population is descended from a small
number of colonizing ancestors that interbreed. It was first fully outlined by Ernst Mayr
in 1942, using existing theoretical work by those such as Sewall Wright.

Founder effect - When Christopher Columbus came to the Americas, he randomly chose
3 chickens from Spain to bring along. These 3 chickens were the only chickens to breed
in the Americas for hundreds of years.
Genetic bottleneck - In 2013, Typhoon Haiyan is estimated to have killed over 500 water
buffalo in the Philippines. Water buffalo are used in the Philippines to plow crops. Many
of the water buffalo that perished were concentrated near farms. These animals are more
muscular than buffalo allowed to roam free.

Understand phylogenetic (evolutionary) trees (what they are, how they are used,
etc)
Know what homologous and analogous structures are

Homologous a trait found in two species that inherited if from the same common
ancestor; any differences result from adaptive radiation
lizard legs and turtle flippers

Analogous a trait with a similar function found in two unrelated species; similarities
result from convergent evolution
dolphin and shark body shape
Know what background and mass extinctions are
Mass Extinctions

The five great mass extinctions—Ordovician, Devonian, Permian, Triassic, and

Cretaceous—resulted from different causes, but the results were the same: the loss of the
majority of existing living species.
The Ordovician mass extinction, which occurred 439 million years ago, may have been
caused by rapid plate tectonic shifting combined with an ice age that reduced sea levels.
Up to 60% of marine genera died in this extinction, and up to 86% of all species became
extinct.

The Devonian extinction may have been a single catastrophic event, such as an asteroid
striking Earth, or it may have been the result of another ice age. In this extinction, which
occurred 367 million years ago, ocean and sea life suffered the greatest losses, but up to
80% of species disappeared.

The Permian episode, which occurred 245 million years ago, had the greatest impact on
living organisms, destroying 95% of all marine species as well as trilobites, large land
insects, and seed ferns; 96% of all species became extinct during this event. It was most
likely caused by several smaller events that resulted in a complete collapse of the
environment.

The Triassic has been a frustrating mystery to scientists because there appears to be no
single cause and extinctions cascaded over a period of 10,000 years. This extinction
occurred 208 million years ago, and 76% of species became extinct.

The most recent, the Cretaceous extinction, brought about the end of the dinosaurs as
well as many reptiles, birds, and mammals. It is possible that the Cretaceous extinction
was caused by an asteroid striking near Mexico's Yucatan peninsula and a simultaneous
climate cooling period, possibly due to mass volcanic activity in Siberia. This extinction,
which occurred 65 million years ago, resulted in 76% of species becoming extinct.
Know the four lines of macroevolutionary evidence

Know what adaptive radiation and adaptive zones are

Adaptive radiation - An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a

single ancestral species
a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude
of new forms
Most famous example Darwin’s finches
Results the speciation and phenotypic adaptation of an array of species exhibiting
different morphological and physiological traits

Know what mammalian characteristics are

Know the evolutionary changes that led to the development of humans

Know what primates are and how man fits into that lineage

Evolved approximately 70 MYA during the Paleocene

> Tree shrew-like organisms: fast, good sense of smell, omnivorous diet
> Lived in trees
During the Eocene (54-38 MYA), primates in trees displayed natural
selection evolutionary trends:

> Shift from smell to sight (brain modified)

> Odors are dispersed by air currents; it is better to use sight where one can
judge depth, shape, movement, color, distance, suitability of landing
destination
> During the Oligocene (35 MYA): Anthropoids

> Tree dwelling (evolved in tropical forests)

Ancestors of monkeys, apes, and man

> New species of primates adapted to the grasslands — 1 st hominids

(hominoids)! Others remained in the trees

> Also notable at this time: the Dryopithecines (ancestor of the Hylobatid
gibbons) Dryopithecines found in Africa, Asia, Europe

Miocene (5 MYA)
Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and Human (Hominin) lineages all diverged!

Miocene-Pliocene boundary (5 MYA):

Cooler, drier climates; in Africa (where early hominin evolution occurred)

rainforest becomes woodland and grassland mix

With these changes, hominins needed specialized use of their hands

Australlopiffiecus afarensis
ü "Lucy" (in the Sky with Diamonds)
ü —3.2 MYA
ü Ethiopia
· It is thought that A. afarensis was more closely related to the genus Ha-No (which
includes the modern human species Homo sapiens), whether as a direct ancestor
or a close relative of an unknown ancestor, than any other known primate from the
same time

Austraiopithecus sediba
· '-2MYAca
· Gracile form
· Australopithecine and Homo lineage traits; new line of ancestry instead of A.
afarensis (?)

Australopithecus garhi
ü -2.5MYA
ü Ethiopia
ü Gracile form
ü "Surprise"
ü Long legs like Homo lineage, but long forearms like apes
ü Oldest tool user (butcher carcasses to prepare meat)
ü The hominin remains are believed to be a human ancestor species and possibly
the direct ancestor to the human genus, Homo (?)

Australopithecus (Paranthropus) rnbustus

ü —2rVIYA
ü South Africa
,
r Robust form
ü Head shaped a bit like a gorilla's with a more massive built jaw and teeth in
comparison to hominins within the Homo lineage, compared to gracile forms

Australopithecus (Paranthropus) boisei

 ü —1.75MYA
ü Tanzania
ü Robust form
ü End of the robust line!

ü Homo lineage: Smaller faces, bigger brains, not ape-like in

appearance, omnivorous, less specialized teeth, accomplished tool
maker and user

Homo habilis

ü —1.75MYA
ü Tanzania
ü "Handy Man"
ü Tool maker and user
ü May have preyed upon A. robustus and boisei

Homo erectus

ü —1.5MYA
ü "Upright Man"
ü Direct ancestor of man
ü Much like modern man, except for heavy brow ridge
ü During the Ice Ages, migrated to SE Asia, China, and Europe
ü Increased brain size, rapid cultural evolution, tools, and FIRE

Homo sapiens
 · 7 300,000-200,000YA in Europe, Near East, and China
ü Smaller teeth and jaws
ü Larger brains
ü Thinner facial bones
ü Rounder, higher skull
· —1.5MYA the skull's base changed in groups of man/hominins, angled
downward forcing the larynx down, ultimately SPEECH developed

Homo (sapiens) neanderthalensis

ü 130,000YA
ü Germany (Neander Valley)
ü Large-brained
ü Probably not accomplished language
ü Male hunters; not exploit game
ü Extinct(?) 35,000-40,000YA

Homo (sapiens) sapiens

(AKA. Cm-Magnon Man)

ü EEMH (European Early Modern Humans)

ü 43,000YA
ü Stored and shared food
ü Community hunting
ü Tools/speech/culture

Homo sapiens
ü —40,000YA to the present: Man has changed culturally rather than
biologically!
Know the following scientists:
Charles Darwin – in 1858 published his theory on natural selection
While on the voyage of the HMS Beagle, Darwin nurtured his love of studying nature,
exploring plant and animal diversity, and collecting fossils and read Lyell’s Principles of
Geology
Darwin read Malthus' "Essay on the Principle of Population." - Darwin realized that
favorable variations are preserved, and unfavorable ones destroyed, rather than certain
catastrophe for all.
Darwin discovered that the finches and turtles varied from island to island, which helped
him to develop his theory of natural selection. Came up with natural selection

Alfred Russel Wallace – Also read Malthus’ Essay and laid out a clear description
of natural selection and told Darwin to publish if he thinks it is worthy. Credited
along with Darwin for the first description of evolution by natural selection

Charles Lyell – Argued that geological forces had gradually shaped the earth and
continue to do so. Wrote Principles of Geology which Darwin read. Heretical ideas
inspired Darwin

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck –
lamarck was a naturalist (botanist) who believed that if an organism changes during its
life to adapt to its environement, then those traits will be passed on to its offspring. he
also believed that evolution happened according to a pre-determined plan
Living species might change over time.