Analysis of Structural Member Systems - Jerome J. Connor PDF

JEROME J. CONNOR, Sc.D.
, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, is Professor of Civil Engineering at Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology. He has been active in
teaching and research in structural analysis and mechanics
at the U.S. Army Materials and Mechanics Research
Agency and for some years at M.I.T. His primary inter-
est is in computer based analysis methods, and his current
research is concerned with the dynamic analysis of pre-
stressed concrete reactor vessels and the development of
finite element models for fluid flow problems. Dr. Connor
is one of the original developers of ICES-STRUDL, and
has published extensively in the structural field.
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ANALYSIS OF
STRUCTURAL MEMBER
SYSTEMS
JEROME J. CONNOR
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY • NEW YORK
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Copyright © 1976 by
Ttrn RONALD PRESS COMPANY
All Rights Reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced

in any form without permission in writing
from the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74—22535

PRINTED IN ThE UNITCD STATES OF AMERICA
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Preface
With the development over the past decade of computer-based analysis

methods, the teaching of structural analysis subjects has been revolutionized.
The traditional division between structural analysis and structural mechanics
became no longer necessary, and instead of teaching a preponderance of solu-
tion details it is now possible to focus on the underlying theory.
What has been done here is to integrate analysis and mechanics in a sys-
tematic presentation which includes the mechanics of a member, the matrix
formulation of the equations for a system of members, and solution techniques.
The three fundamental steps in formulating a problem in solid mechanics—.
enforcing equilibrium, relating deformations and displacements, and relating
forces and deformations—form the basis of the development, and the central
theme is to establish the equations for each step and then discuss how the com-
plete set of equations is solved. In this way, a reader obtains a more unified
view of a problem, sees more clearly where the various simplifying assumptions
are introduced, and is better prepared to extend the theory.
The chapters of Part I contain the relevant topics for an essential back-
ground in linear algebra, differential and matrix transformations.
Collecting this material in the first part of the book is convenient for the con-
tinuity of the mathematics presentation as well as for the continuity in the
following development.
Part II treats the analysis of an ideal truss. The governing equations for
small strain but arbitrary displacement are established and then cast into
matrix form. Next, we deduce the principles of virtual displacements and
virtual forces by manipulating the governing equations, introduce a criterion
for evaluating the stability of an equilibrium position, and interpret the gov-
erning equations as stationary requirements for certain variational principles.
These concepts are essential for an appreciation of the solution schemes de-
scribed in the following two chapters.
Part III is concerned with the behavior of an isolated member. For com-
pleteness, first are presented the governing equations for a deformable elastic
solid allowing for arbitrary displacements, the continuous form of the princi-
ples of virtual displacements and virtual forces, and the stability criterion.
Unrestrained torsion-flexure of a prismatic member is examined in detail and
then an approximate engineering theory is developed. We move on to re-
strained torsion-flexure of a prismatic member, discussing various approaches
for including warping restraint and illustrating its influence for thin-walled
iii
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PREFACE
open and closed sections. The concluding chapters treat the behavior of
planar and arbitrary curved members.
How one assembles and solves the governing equations for a member sys-
tern is discussed in Part IV. First, the direct stiffness method is outlined;
then a general formulation of the governing equations is described. Geo-
metrically nonlinear behavior is considered in the last chapter, which dis-
cusses member force-displacement relations, including torsional-flexural
coupling, solution schemes, and linearized stability analysis.
The objective has been a text suitable for the teaching of modern structural
member system analysis, and what is offered is an outgrowth of lecture notes
developed in recent years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. To
the many students who have provided the occasion of that development, I am
deeply appreciative. Particular thanks go to Mrs. Jane Malinofsky for her
patience in typing the manuscript, and to Professor Charles Miller for his
encouragement.
JEROME J. CONNOR
Cambridge, Mass.
January, 1976
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Contents
I—MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARiES
1 Introduction to Matrix Algebra

1—i Definition of a Matrix 3
1—2 Equality, Addition, and Subtraction of Matrices 5
1—3 Matrix Multiplication 5
1—4 Transpose of a Matrix 8
1—5 Special Square Matrices 10
1—6 Operations on Partitioned Matrices 12
1—7 Definition and Properties of a Determinant 16
1—8 Cofactor Expansion Formula 19
1—9 Cramer's Rule 21
1—10 Adjoint and Inverse Matrices 22
1—11 Elementary Operations on a Matrix 24
1—12 Rank of a Matrix 27
1—13 Solvability of Linear Algebraic Equations 30
2 Characteristic-Value Problems and Quadratic Forms 46

2—1 Introduction 46
2—2 Second-Order Characteristic-Value Problem 48
2—3 Similarity and Orthogonal Transformations 52
2—4 The nth-Order Symmetrical Characteristic-Value
Problem 55
2—5 Quadratic Forms 57
3 Relative Extrema for a Function 66

3—1 Relative Extrema for a Function of One Variable 66
3—2 Relative Extrema for a Function of n Independent
Variables 71
3—3 Lagrange Multipliers 75
4 Differential Geometry of a Member Element 81
4—1 Parametric Representation of a Space Curve 81

4—2 Arc Length 82
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CONTENTS
4—3 Unit Tangent Vector 85

4—4 Principal Normal and Binormal Vectors 86
4—5 Curvature, Torsion, and the Frenet Equations 88
4—6 Summary of the Geometrical Relations for a Space
Curve 91
4—7 Local Reference Frame for a Member Element 92
4—8 Curvilinear Coordinates for a Member Element 94
5 Matrix Transformations for a Member Element 100

5—1 Rotation Transformation 100
5—2 Three-Dimensional Force Transformations 103
5—3 Three-Dimensional Displacement Transformations 109
Il—ANALYSIS OF AN IDEAL TRUSS
6 Governing Equations for an Ideal Truss

6—1 General 115
6—2 Elongation—Joint Displacement Relation for a Bar 116
6—3 General Elongation—Joint Displacement Relation 120
6—4 Force-Elongation Relation for a Bar 125
6—5 General Bar Force—Joint Displacement Relation 130
6—6 Joint Force-Equilibrium Equations 130
6—7 Introduction of Displacement Restraints;
Governing Equations 132
6—8 Arbitrary Restraint Direction 134
6—9 Initial Instability 137
7 Variational Principles for an Ideal Truss 152

7—1 General 152
7—2 Principle of Virtual Displacements 153
7—3 Principle of Virtual Forces 159
7—4 Strain Energy; Principle of Stationary Potential
Energy 162
7—5 Complementary Energy; Principle of Stationary
Complementary Energy 165
7—6 Stability Criteria 169
8 Displacement Method—Ideal Truss 178

8—1 General 178
8—2 Operation on the Partitioned Equations 178
8—3 The Direct Stiffness Method 180
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CONTENTS
8—4 Incremental Formulation; Classical Stability

Criterion 191
8—5 Linearized Stability Analysis 200
9 Force Method—Ideal Truss

9—1 General 210
9—2 Governing Equations—Algebraic Approach 211
9—3 Governing Equations—Variational Approach 216
9—4 Comparison of the Force and Mesh Methods 217
Ill—ANALYSIS OF A MEMBER ELEMENT
10 Governing Equations for a Deformable Solid 229

10—1 General 229
10—2 Summation Convention; Cartesian Tensors 230
10—3 Analysis of Deformation; Cartesian Strains 232
10—4 Analysis of Stress 240
10—5 Elastic Stress-Strain Relations 248
10—6 Principle of Virtual Displacements; Principle of
Stationary Potential Energy; Classical Stability
Criteria 253
10—7 Principle of Virtual Forces; Principle of
Stationary Complementary Energy 257
11 St. Venant Theory of Torsion-Flexure of

Prismatic Members 271
11—1 Introduction and Notation 271
11—2 The Pure-Torsion Problem 273
11—3 Approximate Solution of the Torsion Problem for
Thin-Walled Open Cross Sections 281
11—4 Approximate Solution of the Torsion Problem for
Thin-Walled Closed Cross Sections 286
11—5 Torsion-Flexure with Unrestrained Warping 293
11—6 Exact Flexural Shear Stress Distribution for a
Rectangular Cross Section 303
11—7 Engineering Theory of Flexural Shear Stress
Distribution in Thin-Walled Cross Sections 306
12 Engineering Theory of Prismatic Members 330

12—2 Force-Equilibrium Equations 331
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CONTENTS
12—3 Force-Displacement Relations; Principle of

Virtual Forces 333
12—4 Summary of the Governing Equations 339
12—5 Displacement Method of Solution—Prismatic Member 340
12—6 Force Method of Solution 349
13 Restrained Torsion-Flexure of a Prismatic Member 371

13—2 Displacement Expansions; Equilibrium Equations 372
13—3 Force-Displacement Relations—Displacement Model 375
13—4 Solution for Restrained Torsion—Displacement Model 379
13—5 Force-Displacement Relations—Mixed Formulation 383
13—6 Solution for Restrained Torsion—Mixed Formulation 389
13—7 Application to Thin-Walled Open Cross. Sections -395
13—8 Application to Thin-Walled Closed Cross Sections 405
13—9 Governing Equations—Geometrically Nonlinear
Restrained Torsion 414
14 Planar Deformation of a Planar Member 425

14—1 Introduction; Geometrical Relations 425
14—3 Force-Displacement Relations; Principle of
Virtual Forces 429
14—4 Force-Displacement Relations—Displacement
Expansion Approach; Principle of Virtual
Displacements 435
14—5 Cartesian Formulation 445
14—6 Displacement Method of Solution—Circular Member 449
14—7 Force Method of Solution 458
14—8 Numerical Integration Procedures 473
15 Engineering Theory of an Arbitrary Member 485

15—1 Introduction; Geometrical Relations 485
15—3 Force-Displacement Relations—Negligible Warping
Restraint; Principle of Virtual Forces 490
15—4 Displacement Method—Circular Planar Member .493
15—5 Force Method—Examples 499
15—6 Restrained Warping Formulation 507
15—7 Member Force-Displacement Relations—Complete
End Restraint 511
15—8 Generation of Member Matrices 517
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CONTENTS
15—9 Member Matrices—Prismatic Member 520

15—10 Member Matrices—Thin Planar Circular Member 524
15—11 Flexibility Matrix—Circular Helix 531
15—12 Member Force-Displacement Relations—Partial
End Restraint 535
tV—ANALYSIS OF A MEMBER SYSTEM
16 Direct Stiffness Method—Linear System 545

16—2 Member Force-Displacement Relations 546
16—3 System Equilibrium Equations 547
16—4 Introduction of Joint Displacement Restraints 548
17 General Formulation—Linear System 554

17—2 Member Equations 555
17—3 System Force-Displacement Relations 557
17—4 System Equilibrium Equations 559
17—5 Introduction of Joint Displacement Restraints;
Governing Equations 560
17—6 Network Formulation 562
17—7 Displacement Method 565
17—8 Force Method 567
17—9 Variational Principles 570
17—10 Introduction of Member Deformation Constraints 573
18 Analysis of Geometrically Nonlinear Systems 585

18—2 Member Equations—Planar Deformation 585
18—3 Member Equations—Arbitrary Deformation 591
18—4 Solution Techniques; Stability Analysis 597
Index 605
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Part I
MATHEMATICAL
PRELIMINARIES
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1
Introduction to
Matrix Algebra
1—1. DEFINITION OF A MATRIX
An ordered set of quantities may be a one-dimensional array, such as
a two-dimensional array, such as
a11, a12, . . ,a1,

.
a21, a22, . , . .
ami,
a two-dimensional array, the first subscript defines the row location of an

element and the second subscript its column location.
A two-dimensional array having ,n rows and n columns is called a matrix
of order m by n if certain arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multi-
plication) associated with it are defined. The array is usually enclosed in square
brackets and written as*
a11 a12 - - a1,,

a21 a22 - a2,,
= = a
a,,,1 am2 a,,,,,
Note that the first term in the order pertains to the number of rows and the
second term to the nuiñber of columns. For convenience, we refer to the order
of a matrix as simply m x n rather than of order m by n.
* In print, a matrix is represented by a boldfaced letter.
3
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4 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix. Similarly, a matrix
having only one column is called a column matrix or column vector.* Braces
instead ofbrackets are commonly used to denote a column matrix and the
column subscript is eliminated. Also, the elements are arranged horizontally
instead of vertically, to save space. The various column-matrix notations are:
C11 C1
C21 C2
{c1, c2,. . . , {c1} =c
If the number of rows and the number of columns are equal, the matrix is said
to be square. (Special types of square matrices are discussed in a later section.)
Finally, if all the elements are zero, the matrix is called a null matrix, and is
represented by 0 (boldface, as in the previous case).
Example 1—1
3 x 4 Matrix
4 2—1 2
3 —7 1 —8
2 4 —3 1
1 x 3 Row Matrix
[3 4 2]
3 x 1 Column Matrix
f3]
or 4Jor{3,4,2}
2 2 Square Matrix
5
[2 7
2 x 2 Null Matrix
[0 0
[o o
* This is the mathematical definition of a vector. In mechanics, a vector is defined as a quantity
having both magnitude and direction. We will denote a mechanics vector quantity, such as force
or moment, by means of an italic letter topped by an arrow, e.g., F. A knowledge of Vector algebra
is assumed in this text. For a review, see Ref. 2 (at end of chapter, preceding Problems).
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SEC. 1—3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
1—2. EQUALITY, ADDITION, AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

Two matrices, a and b, are equal if they are of the same order and if cor-
responding elements are equal:
a= b when
If a is of order m x n, the matrix equation
a=b
corresponds to mn equations:
= 1, 2,. . . ,m
=
= 1, 2,.. . ,
Addition and subtraction operations are defined only for matrices of the same
order. The sum of two m x n matrices, a and b, is defined to be the m x n
matrix +
+ = +
Similarly,
— = — bLJ]
For example, if
[1 2 ii [0
b=[3 —1 —1
—d i
then
[1 1 0
1 —1
and
[1 3 2
—1 —1
It is obvious from the example that addition is commutative and associative:

a+b=b+a (1—6)
a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c (1—7)
1—3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

The product of a scalar k and a matrix a is defined to be the matrix
in which each element of a is multiplied by k. For example, if
k=5 and
then
+35
ka=[[—10
10 5
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Scalar multiplication is commutative. That is,

ka = ak = {ka11]
To establish the definition of a matrix multiplied by a column matrix, we
consider a system of m linear algebraic equations in n unknowns, x1, .x2
+ a12x2 + + C1
a21x1 + a22x2 + + = C2
l2miXi + am2x2 + +
This set can be written as
alkxk C1 i= 1, 2, . . . ,rn
where k is a dummy index. Using column matrix notation, (1—9) takes the form
i=
Now, we write (1—9) as a matrix product:
= {c1}
i= 1,2,..,,rn (1—11)
1,2
Since (1—10) and (1—Il) must be equivalent, it follows that the definition
equation for a matrix multiplied by a column matrix is
ax = ulkxk} j = 1, 2,. . . ,m
This product is defined only when the column order of a is equal to the row
order of x. The result is a column matrix, the row order of which is equal to
that of a. In general, if a is of order r x s, and x of order s x 1, the product
ax is of orderr x 1.
Example 1—2
1
11 2
a= 8 x={3}
-4j
1(1)(2) + (—1)(3)
4
+ (3)(3) 9
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SEC. 1—3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
We consider next the product of two matrices. This product is associated

with a linear transformation of variables. Suppose that the n original variables
x1, x2,. . . ,x,, in (1—9) are expressed as a linear combination of s new variables
Y1,Y2, . . . ,ys:
Xk = k= 1, 2,. . . ,n (1—13)
1=
Substituting for Xk in (1—10),
= i 1, 2,. . . ,m
Interchanging the order of summation, and letting

i = 1,2 in
(1—14)
k=i j—
the transformed equations take the form
= i 1,2,.. .,
Noting (1—12), we can write (1—15) as

py = C
where p is in x .s and y is S x 1. Now, we also express which defines

the transformation of variables, in matrix form,
x = by
where b is n x s. Substituting for x in (1—11),
aby=c
and requiring (1—16) and (1—18) to be equivalent, results in the following
definition equation for the product, ab:
=
ab = [bkJ] = [pt,] k 1,2,. . . ,n
This product is defined only when the column order of a is equal to the row
order of b. In general, if a is of order r x n, and b of order n x q, the product
ab is of order r x q. The element at the ith row and jth column of the product
is obtained by multiplying corresponding elements in the ith row of the first
matrix and the jth column of the second matrix.
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Example 1—3
(1)(1) + (0)(O) (IXI) + (O)(1) (1)(O) + 1) (1)(— 1) + (01(3)

ab = (—l)(1) + (1)(O) (—1)(l) + (1)(l) (—1)(O) + (—1)(—1) + (1)(3)
(O)(1) + (2)(O) (O)(1) + (2)(l) (0)(0) + (2)(—1) (0)(—1) + (2)(3)
[+1 +1 0 —l
ab=J_1 0 —1 +4
[ 0 +2 —2 +6
If the product ab is defined, a and b are said to be confbrmable in the order

stated. One should note that a and b will be conformable in either order only
when a is in x n and b is n x in. In the previous example, a and b are con-
formable but b and a are not since the product ha is not defined.
When the relevant products are defined, multiplication of matrices is as-
sociative,
a(bc) = (ab)c (1—20)
and distributive,
a(b + c) = ab + ac
(b + c)a = ha + Ca
but, in general, not commutative,
ab ba (1—22)
Therefore, in multiplying b by a, one should distinguish preinultiplication, ab,

from postrnultiplication ha. For example, if a and b are square matrices of order
2, the products are
[a11 a121[bij b121 — [aitbji + a12b21 a11b12 + a12b22
[a21 a22j[b21 b22j [a21b11 + a22b21 a21b12 + a22b22
[b11 b121[aji aizl — [bjjaj1 + b12a21 b11a12 + b12a22

[b21 b22j[a21 a22] [b21a11 + b22a21 b21a12 + b22a22
When ab = ha, the matrices are said to commute or to be permutable.
1—4. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

The transpose of a = is defined as the matrix obtained from a by
interchanging rows and columns. We shall indicate the transpose of a by
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SEC. 1—4 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX 9
aT = {a79]:
a11 a12 a1,
021 a22 a2,
a
= = (1—23)
amj am2 a,,,

a21
012 022 am2
= [a79] =
a,,,
The element, a79, at the ith row and jth column of aT, where now i varies from 1
to n and j from 1 to m, is given by
a79 = (1—24)
where is the element at the jth row and ith column of a. For example,
[3 2
T r3 7 5
1
a =[2 1 4
Since the transpose of a column matrix is a row matrix, an alternate notation

for a row matrix is
[a1, a2 a,] = (1—25)
We consider next the transpose matrix associated with the product of two
matrices. Let
p==ab (a)
where a is m x n and b is n x s. The product, p, is m x s and the element,
Pu,
m
= Ilukbkf —1 (b)
.1 —
The transpose of p will be of order s x m and the typical element is
p79 = (c)
where now I = 1, 2 s and j = 1, 2,. . . ,m. Using (1—24) and (b), we can
write (c) as
1, 2,. S
p79 = = (d)
k1 k1 j =—
It follows from (d) that
= (ab)T = bTaT
Equation (1—26) states that the transpose of a product is the product of the
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transposed matrices in reversed order. This rule is also applicable to multiple

products. For example, the transpose of abc is
(abc)T = cT(ab)T cTbTaT (1—27)
Example 1—4
ab = 13 (ab)T = [4 13 6]
6
Alternatively,
aT = [2 —1]
=
(ab)T = bTaT = [2 —1] = [4 13 6]
1—5. SPECIAL SQUARE MATRICES

If the numbers of rows and of columns are equal, the matrix is said to be square
and of order n, where n is the number of rows. The elements (i = 1, 2,. .. , n)
lie on the principal diagonal. If all the elements except the principal-diagonal
elements are zero, the matrix is called a diagonal matrix. We will use d for
diagonal matrices. If the elements of a diagonal matrix are all unity, the diagonal
matrix is referred to as a unit matrix. A unit matrix is usually indicated by
where n is the order of the matrix.
Example 1—5
Square Matrix, Order 2

[1 7
[3 2
Diagonal Matrix, Order 3

[2 0 0
5 0
[o 0 3
Unit Matrix, Order 2
12[ LO
0
I
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SEC. 1—5. SPECIAL SQUARE MATRICES
We introduce the Kronecker delta notation:

oij=0 (1—28)
+1 i—j
With this notation, the unit matrix can be written as
= i,j = 1, 2 n (1—29)
Also, the diagonal matrix, d, takes the form

d= (1—30)
where d1, d2,. .. , are the principal elements. If the principal diagonal elements
are all equal to k, the matrix reduces to
= = (1—31)
and is called a scalar matrix.

Let a be of order rn x n. One can easily show that multiplication of a by a
conformable unit matrix does not change a:
a
(1—32)
Ima = a
A unit matrix is commutative with any square matrix of the same order.
Similarly, two diagonal niatrices of order n are commutative and the product
is a diagonal matrix of order a. Premultiplication of a by a conformable
diagonal matrix d multiplies the ith row of a by and postmultiplication
multiplies the jth column by
Example 1—6
[2 01[3 01[2 01 [6 0
[o —i][o 5j[O 5j[O _ij[o —5
[2 01[3 'l_[ 6 2
—
ij [2 7] — [—2 —7
[3 11[2 01 [6 —'
[2 7j[0 _1j[4 —7
A square matrix a for which =

is called symmetrical and has the
property that a = If = j) and the principal diagonal elements
(i
all equal zero, the matrix is said to be skew-symmetrical. In this case, aT = — a.
Any square matrix can be reduced to the sum of a symmetrical matrix and a
skew-symmetrical matrix:
a=b+c
= +
(1-33)
= —
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The product of two symmetrical matrices is symmetrical only when the matrices
are commutative.* Finally, one can easily show that products of the type
(aTa) (aaT) (aTba)
where a is an arbitrary matrix and b a symmetrical matrix, result in symmetrical

matrices.
A square matrix having zero elements to the left (right) of the principal
diagonal is called an upper (lower) triangular matrix. Examples are:
Upper Triangular Matrix

352
071
004
Lower Triangular Matrix
300
570
214
Triangular matrices are encountered in many of the computational procedures
developed for linear systems. Some important properties of triangular matrices
are:
1. The transpose of an upper triangular matrix is a lower triangular matrix
and vice versa.
2. The product of two triangular matrices of like structure is a triangular
matrix of the same structure.
[a11 0 1[b11 0 1 [aijbij 0
I I=
[a21 b22j [a21b11 + a22b21 a22b22
1-6. OPERATIONS ON PARTITIONED MATRICES

Operations on a matrix of high order can be simplified by considering the
matrix to be divided into smaller matrices, called .subina.trices or cells. The
partitioning is usually indicated by dashed lines. A matrix can be partitioned
in a number of ways. For example,
a11 012 0131 a11 a12 013 a11 a12 a13
a a21 a22 023 = a1 =
031 a32 a33J 031 032 a33 a31 a32 a33
Note that the partition lines are always straight and extend across the entire
matrix. To reduce the amount of writing, the submatrices are represented by
* See Prob. 1—7.
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SEC. 1—6. OPERATtONS ON PARTITIONED MATRICES
asingle symbol. We will use upper case letters to denote the submatrices
whenever possible and omit the partition lines.
Example 1-1
We represent
[au a12 a13
a=Ia,i a22 a23
as
[A11 A121 a = [A11 A12
a or
[A21 A22J [A21 A22
where
Ia11 a121 Ia13
A11 = [a21
I A12 = I
La23
A21 = [a31 a32] A22 = [a33]
If two matrices of the same order are identically partitioned, the rules of
matrix addition are applicable to the submatrices. Let
[A11 A121 [B11 8121
I
(134)
[A23 A22J [823 B22j
where BLJ and A13 are of the same order. The sum is
[A11 + 8fl A12+ B121

a +b = (1-35)
LA2I + B21 A22 + B22j
The rules of matrix multiplication are applicable to partitioned matrices
provided that the partitioned matrices are conformable for multiplication. In
general, two partitioned matrices are conformable for multiplication if the
partitioning of the rows of the second matrix is identical to the partitioning of
the columns of the first matrix. This restriction allows us to treat the various
submatrices as single elements provided that we preserve the order of mul-
tiplication. Let a and b be two partitioned matrices:
a [A131t
= 1, 2,.. , M
(1—36)
b = [B1d I = 1,2 M
k= 1,2,...,S
We can write the product as
C = ab = [CIk]
C
M
1 ,,...,
— ik i . i1, —
when the row partitions of b are consistent with the column partitions of a.
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As an illustration, we consider the product

au a12 a13 h1
ab = 1221 a22 a23 h2
1233 a32 033 b3
Suppose we partition a with a vertical partition between the second and third
columns,
1211 1212 a13
a= a21 a22 a23 = [A11A12]
a31 a32 a33
For the rules of matrix multiplication to be applicable to the submatrices of a,

we must partition b with a horizontal partition between the second and third
rows. Taking
the product has the form

= [A,1A12] = A11B11 + A12B21
The conformability of two partitioned matrices does not depend on the

horizontal partitioning of the first matrix or the vertical partitioning of the
second matrix. To show this, we consider the product
a12 a13 b11 b12
ab £121 1222 a23 1322
1231 a32 1233 b31 b32
Suppose we partition a with a horizontal partition between the second and

third rows:
a11 1212 C1j3
r A11
a 1221 a22 1223 =
1231 a32 a33
Since the column order of A11 and A21 is equal to the row order of b, no
partitioning of b is required. The product is
[A111 [A11b
ab = LA2ijb = [A21b
As an alternative, we partition b with a vertical partition.
b12
b= b21 b22 = [811B12]
b31
In this case, since the row order of B11 and B12 is the same as the column
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SEC. 1—6. OPERATIONS ON PARTITIONED MATRICES
order of a, no partitioning of a is necessary and the product has the form

ab = a[B11B12] = [aBj1 aBi2]
To transpose a partitioned matrix, one first interchanges the off-diagonal
submatrices and then transposes each submatrix. If
A11 A12 A1,,
a= A21 A22
Arnt Am2
then
AT1 AT1
AT AT . . . AT
AT AT . . . AT
A particular type of matrix encountered frequently is the quasi-diagonal

matrix. This is a partitioned matrix whose diagonal submatrices are square of
various orders, and whose off-diagonal submatrices are null matrices. An
example is
a11 0 0
a= 0 a22
0 a32 a33
which can be written in partitioned form as

= [Ai
a
A2]
where
A2 = [a22 a23]
A1 = [a11]
a32 a33
and 0 denotes a null matrix. The product of two quasi-diagonal matrices of

like structure (corresponding diagonal submatrices are of the same order) is
a quasi-diagonal matrix of the same structure.
A1 0 ... 0 B1 0 ... 0 A1B1 0 ... 0
0
A 0
A and are of the same order.
We use the term quasi to distinguish between partitioned and unpartitioned
matrices having the same form. For example, we call
(1—40)
a lower quasi-triangular matrix.

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16 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA Cl-lAP. 1
1—7. DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF A DETERMINANT

The concept of a determinant was originally developed in connection with
the solution of square systems of linear algebraic equations. To illustrate how
this concept evolved, we consider the simple case of two equations:
a11x1 + a12x2 =
a21X1 + a22x2 = C2
Solving (a) for x3 and x2, we obtain
(a11a22 — a12a21)x1 c2a12

(a11a22 — a12a21)x2 = —c1a21 + c2a11
The scalar quantity, a1 1a22 — a21 a2 defined as the determinant of the second-
order square array (i,j 1, 2). The determinant of an array (or matrix) is
usually indicated by enclosing the array (or matrix) with vertical lines:
a11 a12
= al = a31a22 — a12a21
a21 a22
We use the terms array and matrix interchangeably, since they are synony-
mous. Also, we refer to the determinant of an eth-order array as an nth-order
determinant. It shou'd be noted that determinants are associated only with
square arrays, that is, with square matrices.
The determinant of a third-order array is defined as
a11 a12 a13 +a11a22a33
a21 a22 a23 = —a12a21a33 + a12a23a31 (1—42)
a31 a32 a33 +a13a21a32 — a13a22a31
This number is the coefficient of x1, x2, and x3, obtained when the third-order
system ax c is solved successively for x1, x2. and x3. Comparing (l—41) and
(1—42), we see that both expansions involve products which have the following
properties:
1. Each product contains only one clement from any row or column and
no element occurs twice in the same product. The products differ only
in the column subscripts.
2. The sign of a product depends on the order of the column subscripts,
e.g., +a11a22a33 and —a11a23a32,
These properties are associated with the arrangement of the column subscripts
and can be conveniently described using the concept of a permutation, which
is discussed below.
A set of distinct integers is considered to be in natural order if each integer
is followed only by larger integers. A rearrangement of the natural order is
called a permutation of the set. For example, (1, 3, 5) is in natural order and
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SEC. 1—7. DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF A DETERMINANT
(1,5,3) is a permutation of(1, 3,5). If an integer is followed by a smaller integer,

the pair is said to form an inversion. The number of inversions for a set is defined
as the sum of the inversions for each integer. As an illustration, we consider
the set (3, 1, 4, 2). Working from left to right, the integer inversions are:
Integer Inversions Total

3 (3, 1)(3, 2) 2
1 None 0
4 (4,2) 1
2 None 0
3
This set has three inversions. A permutation is classified as even (odd) if the
total number of inversions for the set is an even (odd) integer. According to
this convention, (1, 2, 3) and (3, 1, 2) are even permutations and (1, 3, 2) is an
odd permutation. Instead of cbunting the inversions, we can determine the
number of integer interchanges required to rearrange the set in its natural order
since an even (odd) number of interchanges corresponds to an even (odd)
number of inversions. For example, (3,2, 1) has three inversions and requires
one interchange. Working with interchanges rather than inversions is practical
only when the set is small.
Referring back to (1—41) and (1—42), we see that each product is a permutation
of the set of column subscripts and the sign is negative the permutation
is odd. The number of products is equal to the number of possible permutations
of the column subscripts that can be formed. One can easily show that there
are possible permutations for a set of n distinct integers.
We let , ce,,) be a permutation of the set (1, 2,.
. . . , n) and define . .
• as
• + I when . . , is an even permutation

(1—43)
— 1 when . .. , a,,) is an odd permutation
Using (1—43), the definition equation for an ,ith-order determinant can be
written as
a11 a12 a1,,

a21 a22 a2,,
= (1—44)
where the summation is taken over all possible permutations of (1, 2, . . , n).
Factorial n = = n(n — 1)(n — 2) . • (2)(1).
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Example 1—8
The permutations for n = 3 are

a1=1 a33 e123=+1
cxi—1 x23 a32 e132=—1
=2 1 =3
z1=2 a3=1 e231=+1
a32 e312=+1
a3=1 e321—-—1
Using (1—44), we obtain
a11 a12 a13 a11a22a33 — a11a23a32
a21 a22 a23 = —a12a21a33 + a12a23a31
a32 a33 +a13a21a32 — a13a22a31
This result coincides with (1—42).
The following properties of determinants can be established* from (1—44):

1. If all elements of any row (or column) are zero, the determinant is zero.
2. The value of the determinant is unchanged if the rows and columns are
interchanged; that is, aT! = a!.
3. If two successive rows (or two successive columns) are interchanged, the
sign of the determinant is changed.
4. If all elements of one row (or one column) are multiplied by a number k,
the determinant is multiplied by k.
5. If corresponding elements of two rows (or two columns) are equal or in
a constant ratio, then the determinant is zero.
6. If each element in one row (or one column) is expressed as the sum of
two terms, then the determinant is equal to the sum of two determinants,
in each of which one of the two terms is deleted in each element of that
row (or column).
7. If to the elements of any row (column) are added k times the cor-
responding elements of any other row (column), the determinant is
unchanged.
We demonstrate these properties for the case of a second-order matrix. Let

= [a31
a
[a21 a22
The determinant is
a! = a11a22 — a12a21
Properties 1 and 2 are obvious. It follows from property 2 that laTl a!. We
* See Probs. 1—17, 1—18, 1—19.
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SEC. 1—8. COFACTOR EXPANSION FORMULA
illustrate the third by interchanging the rows of a:
a' = [a21 a22

a12
a'! = a21a12 — a11a22 = —Ia!
Property 4 is also obvious from (b). To demonstrate the fifth, we take
a21 = ka11 a22 = ka12
Then
a! = a11(kaj2) a12(ka1j) = 0
Next, let
a11 + c11 a12 = b12 + c12
According to property 6,
al hi + ci
where
b11 b12 =
ibi ci
a21 a22 a21 a22
This result can be obtained by substituting for O.ii and a12 in (b). Finally, to
illustrate property 7, we take
b12 = a12 + ka22

b21 = a21
b22 = a7,
Then,
ibi = (a11 + ka21)a22 — (a12 + ka22)a21 = a!
1-8. COFACTOR EXPANSION FORMULA

If the row and column containing an element, in the square matrix, a,
are deleted, the determinant of the remaining square array is called the minor
of and is denoted by The cofactor of denoted by is related to
the minor of by
= (— (1—45)
As an illustration, we take
328
a= 1 7 4
531
The values of and associated with a23 and a22 are
M23. = = —1 A23 = (— 1)5M23 = + 1
M22 = = —37 A22 = (—1)4M22 = —37
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Cofactors occur naturally when (.1 —44) is expanded9 in terms of the elements
of a row or column. This leads to the following expansion formula, called
Laplace's expansion by cofactors or simply Laplace's expansion:
a1kAIk akJAkJ (1 —46)

=
Equation (1—46) states that the determinant is equal to the sum of the products
of the elements of any single row or column by their cofactors.
Since the determinant is zero if two rows or columns are identical, if follows
that
= 0
k1
(147)
0 s
k I
The above identities are used to establish Cramer's rule in the following section.
Example 1—9
(1) We apply (1—46) to a third-order array and expand with respect to the first row:
a11 a12 a13
(121 a23 a23
a31 a32 a33
a22 023 023 a22

= 2
+ + 0j3(— 1)
a33 a31 (133 035 a32
a11(a22a33 — a23a32) + a52(—a21a33 + a23a31) + a53(a21a32 — 022035)
To illustrate (1 —47), we take the cofactors for the first row and the elements of the second
row:
= a21(a22a33 — a23a32) + a22(—a21a33 + a23a31) + a23(a21a32 — a22a31) 0
(2) Suppose the array is triangular in form, for example, lower triangular. Expanding
with respect to the first row, we have
0 0
(122 0
a21 a22 0 = a11 = (a51)(a22a33) = a11a22a33
032 033
031 a32 033
Generalizing this result, we find that the determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to
the product of the diagonal elements. This result is quite useful.
* See Probs. 1—20, 1—21.

f See Ref. 4, sect. 3 15, for a discussion of the general Laplace expansion method. The expansion
in terms of cofactors for a iow Or a COlUmn is a special case of the general method.
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SEC. 1—9. CRAMER'S RULE
The evaluation of a determinant, using the definition equation (1—44) or the

cofactor expansion formula (1—46) is quite tedious, particularly when the array
is large. A number of alternate and more efficient numerical procedures for
evaluating determinants have been developed. These procedures are described
in References 9—13.
Suppose a square matrix, say c, is expressed as the product of two square
matrices,
c='ab
and we want cJ. It can be shown* that the determinant of the product of two
square matrices is equal to the product of the determinants:
ci = a! hi (1—48)
Whether we use (1—48) or first multiply a and b and then determine lab! depends
on the form and order of a and b. If they are diagonal or triangular, (1—48)
is quite efficient. t
Example 1—10
[1 31 r2 3
5] 4
a! = hi = Ic! = —20
Alternatively,
c [[11 29J
and cj = —20
[1 31 r2 0
a=[0 b__[1
5]
a! = 5 bi = 8 Ic! = +40
Determining c first, we obtain
rs 121
and ci = +40
= [5 20]
1—9. CRAMER'S RULE

We consider next a set of n equations in n unknowns:
= j = 1, 2, . . . , ii (a)
* See Ref. 4, section 3—16.

t See Prob. 1 —25 for an important theoretical application of Eq. 1—48.
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Multiplying both sides of (a) by Air, where r is an arbitrary integer from 1 to n,

and summing with respect to j, we obtain (after interchanging the order of
summation)
Xk =
k1 j=1
Now, the inner sum vanishes when r k and equals al when r = k. This
follows from (1—47). Then, (b) reduces to
lalxr =
The expansion on the right side of (c) differs from the expansion
al ajrAj.
=
only in that the rth column of a is replaced by c. Equation (c) leads to Cramer's
rule, which can be stated as follows:
A set of n linear algebraic equations in n unknowns, ax = c, has a
unique solution when 0. The expression for Xr (r = 1, 2 n) is
the ratio of two determinants; the denominator is al and the numerator
is the determinant of the matrix obtained from a by replacing the rth
column by c.
If jaf = 0, a is said to be singular. Whether a solution exists in this ease will
depend on c. All we can conclude from Cramer's rule is that the solution, if
it exists, will not be unique. Singular matrices and the question of solvability
are discussed in Sec. 1 —13.
1—10. ADJOINT AND INVERSE MATRICES

We have shown in the previous section that the solution to a system of n
equations in n unknowns,
i,j 1, 2,..., n
can be expressed as
1 1, 2,. . ., ii
(note that we have taken r = I in Eq. c of Sec. 1—9). Using matrix notation,
(b) takes the form
[Au]T{cj}
Equation (e) leads naturally to the definition of adjoint and inverse matrices.
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SEC. 1—10. ADJOINT AND INVERSE MATRICES 23
We define the adjoint and inverse matrices for the square matrix a of order n as
adjoint a = Adj a = (1—49)
inverse a = a1 Adj a (1—50)
Note that the inverse matrix is defined only for a nonsingular square matrix.
Example 1—11
We determine the adjoint and inverse matrices for
123
a= 2 3 1
412
The matrix of cofactors is
5 0 —10
—1 —10 +7
—7 +5 —1
Also, al = —25. Then
5 —i —7
Adja 0 —10 +5
—10 +7 —1
—1/5 + 1/25 +7/25
= —-- Adj a= 0 + 2/5 — 1/5
a
+2/5 —7/25 + 1/25
Using the inverse-matrix notation, we can write the solution of (a) as

x=
Substituting for x in (a) and c in (d), we see that a1 has the property that
a1a = aa'
=
Equation (1—51) is frequently taken as the definition of the inverse matrix
instead of (1—50). Applying (1—48) to (i—Si), we obtain
It follows that (1—Si) is valid only when 0. Multiplication by the inverse

matrix is analogous to division in ordinary algebra.
If a is symmetrical,, then a is also symmetrical. To show this, we take the
1
transpose of (1—5 1), and use the fact that a =. aT:

(a_la)T =
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Premultiplication by a' 1
results in
— a"'
and therefore a1 is also symmetrical. One can also show* that, for any
nonsingular square matrix, the inverse and transpose operations can be inter-
changed:
bT,_t = (1—52)
We consider next the inverse matrix associated with the product of two square
matrices. Let
c= ab
where a and b are both of order n x n and nonsingular. Premultiplication
by and then b1 results in
a'c = b
(b'a'')c =
It follows from the definition of the inverse matrix that
(ab)1 = (1—53)
In general, the inverse of a multiple matrix product is equal to the product of

the inverse matrices in reverse order. For example,
=
The determination of the inverse matrix using the definition equation (1 —50)
is too laborious when the order is large. A number of inversion procedures
based on (1—51) have been developed. These methods are described in Ref. 9—13.
1—11. ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS ON A MATRIX

The elementary operations on a matrix are:'
1. The interchange of two rows or of two columns.
2. The multiplication of the elements of a row or a column by a number
other than zero.
3. The addition, to the elements of a row or column, of k times the cor-
responding element of another row or column.
These operations can be effected by premultiplying (for row operation) or
postmultiplying (for column operation) the matrix by an appropriate matrix,
called an elementary operation matrix.
We consider a matrix a of order x n. Suppose that we want to interchange
rowsj and k. Then, we premultiply a by an rn x in matrix obtained by modifying
the mth-order unit matrix, I,,,, in the following way:
1. Interchange and 5k•
2. Interchange and
* See Prob. 1—28.
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SEC. 1—11. ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS ON A MATRIX 25
For example, if a is 3 x 4, premultiplication by
001
010
100
interchanges rows 1 and 3 and postmultiplication by
1000
0001
0010
0100
interchanges columns 2 and 4. This simple example shows that to interchange
rows, we first interchange the rows of the conformable unit matrix and pre-
multiply. Similarly, to interchange columns, we interchange columns of the
conformable unit matrix and postmultiply.
The elementary operation matrices for operations (2) and (3) are also obtained
by operating on the corresponding conformable unit matrix. The matrix which
multiplies row j by is an mth order diagonal matrix having d1 = 1 for i j
and = Similarly, postmultiplication by an nth order diagonal matrix
having = 1 for i j and = will multiply thejth column by Suppose
that we want to add times row jto row k. Then, we insert in the kth row
and jth column of and premultiply. To add z times column jto column k,
we put in the jth row and kth column of and postmu-ltiply.
We let e denote an elementary operation matrix. Then, ea represents the
result of applying a set of elementary operations to the rows of a. Similarly,
ac represents the result of applying a set of elementary operations to thc columns
of a. In general, we obtain e by applying the same operations to the conformable
unit matrix. Since we start with a unit matrix and since the elementary opera-
tions, at most, change the value of the determinant by a nonzero scalar factor,*
it follows that e will always be nonsingular.
Example 1—12
We illustrate these operations on a third matrix:
1 1/2 1/5
a= 3 7 2
—2 1 5
We first:
1. Add (—3) times the first row to the second row.
2. Add (2) times the first row to the third row.
*
See properties of determinants (page 18).
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These operations are carried out by premultiplying by
100
—3 0 1
201
and the result is
1 1/2 1/5
0 11/2 7/5
0 2 27/5
Continuing, we multiply the second row by 2/11:
1 0 0 1 1/2 1/5 1 1/2 1/5
0 2,'Il 0 0 11/2 7/5 = 0 1 14/55
0 0 1 0 2 27/5 0 2 27/5
Next, we add (—2) times the second row to the third row:
1 0 0 1 1/2 1/5
1 1 1 14/55
1 0 0 269/55
Finally, we multiply the third row by 55/269. The complete set of operations is
100 1 0 0110 0 100 11/21/5

010 0 1 012/110 —310 372
0 0 55/269 0 —2 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 —2 1 5
1 1/2 1/5
= 0 1 14/55 =b
00 1
This example illustrates the reduction of a square matrix to a matrix using

elementary operations on rows, and is the basis for the Gauss elimination solution scheme
(Refs. 9, 11, 13). We write the result as
ea = b
where e is the product of the four operation matrices listed above:
0 0
e —6/11 2/11 0
+ 1870/2959 —220/2959 55/269
We obtain e by applying successive operations, starting with a unit matrix. This is more
convenient than listing and then multiplying the operation matrices for the various steps.
The form of e after each step is listed below:
Initial Step 1 Step 2
100 100 1 0 0
0 0 1 —3 0 1 —6/11 2/11 0
001 201 2 0 1
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SEC. 1—12. RANK OF A MATRIX 27
Step 3 Step 4
1 0 0 [1 0 0
—6/11 2/11 0 }
—6/11 2/11 0
+34/11 —4/11 0 L+187o/2959 —220/2959 55/269
Two matrices are said to be equivalent if one can be derived from the other
by any finite number of elementary operations. Referring to Example 1 —12, the
matrices
1 1/2 1/5 1 1/2 1/5
3 7 2 and 0 1 14/55
—21 5 00 1
are equivalent. Tn general, a and b are equivalent if

b = paq (1—54)
where p and q are nonsinqular. This follows from the fact that the elementary
operation matrices are nonsingular.
1-12. RANK OF A MATRIX

The rank, r, of a matrix is defined as the order of the largest square array,
formed by deleting certain rows and columns, which has a nonvanishing deter-
minant. The concept of rank is quite important since, as we shall see in the
next section, the solvability of a set of linear algebraic equations is dependent
on the rank of certain matrices associated with the set.
Let a be of order in x n. Suppose the rank of a is r. Then a has r rows
which are linearly independent, that is, which contain a nonvanishing deter-
minant of order r, and the remaining rn — r rows are linear combinations of
these r rows. Also, it has n — r columns which are linear combinations of r
linearly independent columns.
To establish this result, we suppose the determinant associated with the first r
rows and columns does not vanish. If a is of rank r, one can always rearrange
the rows and columns such that this condition is satisfied. We consider the
(r + 1)th-order determinant associated with the first r rows and columns, row
p, and column q where r < p in, r < q n.
a11 a12 aIr 01q
a21 a22 azq
(1—55)
an ar2 arr 0rq
apq
We multiply the elements in rowj by (j 1, 2,. . . ,r) and subtract the result
from the last row. This operation will not change the magnitude of Ar+t (see
Sec. 1—7). In particular, we determine the constants such that the first r elements
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in the last row vanish:

a11 021 -
012 022 a,2 = 0p2

(1—56)
a1, a2r apr

Equation (1—56) has a unique solution since the coefficient matrix is non-
singular. Then (1 —55) reduces to
a11 012 a1,
a21 022
Ar+i (1—57)
a,2 0rr
0 0 0
where
= apq — Orq] (1—58)
Applying Laplace's expansion formula to (1—57), we see that A,÷1 vanishes

when
a is of rank r, A,÷1 vanishes for all combinations of p and q. It
follows that
apq = [aiq. 02p .,

: m
(1—59)
Apr
Combining (1—56) and (1—59), we have

a11 a21 0r1 4p1 0p1
012 022
r r+2 m (1—60)
Equation (1—60) states that the last m — r rows of a are linear combinations
of the first r rows. One can also show* that the last n — r columns of a are
linear combinations of the first r columns.
Example 1—13
Consider the 3 x 4 matrix

1234
a=21 32
5 7 12 14
? See Prob. 1—39.

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SEC. 1—12. RANK OF A MATRIX 29
We see that a is at least of rank 2 since the determinant associated with the first two rows
and columns is finite, Then, the first two rows are linearly independent. We consider the
determinant of the third-order array consisting of columns 1, 2, and q:
1 2 ajq
2 1 a2q
5 7 a3q
Solving the system,
+ 223 = 5
22 = 7
we obtain
If a is of rank 2, A3 must vanish. This requires

a3q = 2 101q + 22a2q = 3ajq + a3q
q = 3,4
Since a33 and (134 satisfy this requirement, we conclude that a is of rank 2. The rows are
related by
(third row) = + 3 (first row) + (second row)
One can show* that the elementary operations do not change the rank of
a matrix. This fact can be used to dctcrmine the rank of a matrix. Suppose b
defined by (1—61) is obtained by applying elementary operations to a. We know
that band a have the same rank. It follows that a is of rank p. A matrix having
the form of b is called an echelon matrix. When a is large, it is more efficient
to reduce it to an echelon matrix rather than try to find the largest nonvanishing
determinant:
(pxpt
a11
I b12 ...
0 II, b2p B12
(121
(1—61)
0 0
Example 1—14
[i 2 3 4
a=)2 1 3 2
[5 7 12 12
First, we eliminate and a31, using the first row:

1 2 3 4
0 —3 —3 —6
0 —3 —3 —8
* See Prob. 1—40.

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Next, we eliminate aW, using the second row:

—1 2 3 4
0 —3 —3 —6
0 0 0 —2
At this point, we see that r = 3. To obtain b, we multiply the second row by — 1/3, the third
row by — 1/2, and interchange the third and fourth columns:
1243
b= 0 1 2 1
0010
Suppose a is expressed as the product of two rectangular matrices:
(rnxn) (nxs)
a = b c (1—62)
One can show* that the rank of a cannot be greater than the minimum value
of r associated with b and C:
r(a) ruin [r(b), r(c)] (1—63)
As an illustration, consider the product
[—1/2 +1/2 01
a
— [—1/2 +1/2 1]
0 I
Since each matrix is of rank 2, the rank of a will be Evaluating the product,
we obtain
[0 0
1
It follows that a is of rank 1.
1—13. SOLVABILITY OF LINEAR ALGEBRAiC EQUATIONS

We consider first a system of two equations in three unknowns:
[:: :: (1-64)
Suppose a is of rank 2 and

a11
0 (1—65)
a21 a22
* See Prob. 1—44.
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SEC. 1—13. SOLVABILITY OF LINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
If a is of rank 2, we can always renumber the rows and columns such that (1—65)
is satisfied. We partition a and x,
[a11 a12 a131
a [A1 A2] (1—66)
[a21 a22 a23j
X1
çx1
1x2
and write (1—64) as A1X1 + A2X2 = c. Next, we transfer the term involving
X2 to the right-hand side:
A1X1 = c — A2X2 (1—67)
Since jA1j 0, it follows from Cramer's rule that (1—67) has a unique solution
for X1. Finally, we can write the solution as
= Aj'(c — A2X2) (1—68)
Since X2 is arbitrary, the system does not have a unique solution for a given c.
The order of X2 is generally called the defect of the system. The defect for this
system is 1.
If a is of rank 1, the second row is a scalar multiple, say A, of the first row.
Multiplying the second equation in (1—64) by 1/A, we have
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 = C1

(1—69)
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 = c2/A
Tf c2 2cr, the equations are inconsistent and no solution exists. Then, when
a is of rank 1, (1—64) has a solution only if the rows of c are related in the same
manner as the rows of a. If this condition is satisfied, the two equations in (1—69)
are identical and one can be disregarded. Assuming that 0, the solution is
x1 = (1/a11)(c1 — a12x2 — a13x3) (1—70)
The defect of this system is 2.

The procedure followed for the simple case of 2 equations in 3 unknowns is
also applicable to the general case of in equations in n unknowns:
a11 a12 a1,, x1 C1
(221
a is of rank in, there exists an mth order array which has a nonvanishing
determinant. We rearrange the columns such that the first in columns are
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linearly independent. Partitioning a and x,
a11 a12 ai,m+1

az,,, a2m÷1 az,,
= [ A1 A2 ]
(mxm)
am2 amni am,m÷1 a,,,, (1—72)
{x1 X2 Xm Xm+i •.. x4 = { X1 X2 }
(m 1) ((n—rn)x 1)
we write (1—71) as
A3X1 c — A2X2 (1—73)
Since IA1I 0, (1—73) can be solved for X1 in terms of c and X2. The defect
of the set is n — m, that is, the solution involves n — m arbitrary constants
represented by X2.
Suppose a is of rank r where r < m. Then, a has r rows which contain an
rth-order array having a nonvanishing determinant. The remaining m — r rows
are linear combinations of these r rows. For (1—71) to be consistent, that is,
have a solution, the relations between the rows of c must be the same as those
for a. The defect for this case is n — r.
Example 1—15
As an illustration, consider the third-order system
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 = C1
a21x1 + a22x2 + a73x3 = (a)

a31x1 + a32x3 + = C3
Suppose that r = 2 and the rows of a are related by

(third row) = (first row) + (second row) (b)
For (a) to be consistent, the elements of c must satisfy the requirement,

A1C1 + 22C2 (c)
To show this, we multiply the first equation in (a) by the second by —A2, and add to
these equations the third equation. Using (b), we obtain
0= C3 — — I12C2 (d)
Unless the right-hand side vanishes, the equations are contradictory or inconsistent and no
solution exists. When e 0, (c) is identically satisfied and we see that (a) has a nontrivial
solution (x 0) only when r < 3. The general case is handled in the same manner.*
See Prob. 1—45.
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REFERENCES 33
In general, (1 —71) can be solved when r < ,n if the relations between the rows
of a and c are identical. We define the augmented matrix, ci, for (1—71) as
a11 a12 C1
= a2,,
[a cJ (1—74)
afl,2 a,flfl Cm
When the rows of a and c are related in the same way, the rank of tz is equal to
the rank of a. It follows that (1—71) has a solution only if the rank of the aug-
mented matrix is equal to the rank of the coefficient matrix:
= r(a) (1—75)
Note that (1—75) is always satisfied when r(a) = m for arbitrary c.

We can determine r(cz) and i(a) simultaneously using elementary operations
on provided that we do not interchange the elements in the last column. The
reduction can be represented as
(1-76)
where is of rank r(a). If has a nonvanishing element, > r(a) and

no solution exists.
When r(a), (1—71) contains r independent equations involving n un-
knowns. The remaining m — r equations are linear combinations of these
r equations and can be disregarded. Thus, the problem reduces to first finding
r@) and then solving a set of r independent equations in n unknowns. The
complete problem can be efficiently handled by using the Gauss elimmation
procedure (Refs. 9, 11, 13).
REFERENCES
1. R. A., W. J. DUNCAN and A. R. cOLLAR: Elementary Matrices, cambridge
University Press, London, 1963.
2. THOMAS, G. B., JR.: Calculus and Analytical Geometry. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Reading, Mass., 1953.
3. BODBWIG, E.: Matrix calculus, Interscience Publishers, New York, 1956.
4. HOUN, F. E.: Elementary Matrix Algebra, Macmillan Co., New York, 1958.
5. HADLEY, G.: Linear Algebra, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Mass., 1961.
6. HOUSEHOLDER, A. S.: The Theory of Matrices in Numerical Analysis, Blaisdell,
Waltham, Mass., 1964.
7, NOBLE, B.: Applied Linear Algebra, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1969.
8. HIL DEBRAND, F. B.: Methods of Applied Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, New York,
1952.
9. Faddeeva, V. N.: Computational Methods of Linear Algebra, Dover Publications,
New York, 1959.
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10. RALSTON, A. and H. S. WILF: Mathematical Methods for Digital Computers, Vol. 1,
New York, 1960.
Wiley,
11. RALSTON, A. and H. S. WILF: Mathematical Methods for Digital Computers, Vol. 2,
Wiley, New York, 1967.
12. BEREZIN, I. S. and N. P. ZHIDKOV: Computing Methods, Vols. I and 2, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Reading, Mass., 1965.
13. FORSYTHE, G. E., and C. B. MALER: Computer Solution of Linear Algebraic Systems,
Prentice-Hall, New York, 1967.
14. VARGA, R. S.: Matrix Iterative Analysis, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1962.
15. CONTE, S. D.: Elementary Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.
PROBLEMS
1—1. Carry out the indicated operations:
(a)
1 4 0 2 .3 5
321 +713
510 056
(b)
[2 1
1 6j[ 3 —1 2
(c)
3[3 4j+2[[—i0 ii
[1 21 [2
3j4[l
3
(d)
[i
[—3
—2152
4J 55
(e)
[—i l][4 1
[ 2 —3j [2 3
[4 11 [—i I
[2 3j [ 2 —3
1—2. Expand the following products:
[a1, a2, . . . , {b1, b2, . . . , b,j

(b)
{ai, a2, . . . , [b1, b2
(c)
[c1 01 [a11 a12
[o c2j [a21 a22
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PROBLEMS 35
(d)
[Cii a121 0
[021 022j [0 C2
1—3. Show that the product of
Sl= a1+ a2 + 03 =
S2 = + b2 + b3 bk
=
can be written as
3 3
S1S2
I 1
Generalize this result for the sum of n elements.

1—4. Suppose the elements of a and b are functions of y. Let
cia — db — [dblk]
dy [dv j dy — [dy j
Using (1—19), show that if
c = ab
then
dc db da
=a—+—b
dy dy dy
1—5. Consider the triple product, abc. When is this product defined? Let
p = abc
Determine an expression for What is the order of p? Determine for the
case where c aT.
1—6. Evaluate the following products:
(a)
F 41 [1 21 [5 1
[—2 ij [2 sj [4 1
(b)
(a + b)(a + b) where a is a square matrix.
1—7. Show that the product of two symmetrical matrices is symmetrical
only when they are commutative.
1—8. Show that the following products are symmetrical:
(a)
aTa
(b)
aTba where b is symmetrical
(c)
bTaTcab where c is symmetrical
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36 INTRODUCTION TO MATRtX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
1-9. Evaluate the following matrix product, using the indicated sub-
matrices:
1
3 1 3
4 51
1—10. Let c = ab. Show that the horizontal partitions of c correspond to
those of a and the vertical partitions of c correspond to those of b. Hint: See
Eq. (1—37).
1—11. A matrix is said to be symmetrically partitioned if the locations of
the row and column partitions coincide. For example,
a11 012 0131
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
is symmetrically partitioned and
a11 a12 a13
a31 a32 033
is unsymmetrically partitioned. Suppose we partition a square matrix with

N— 1 symmetrical partitions.
a i,j = 1, 2,. ., N
.
(a) Deduce that the diagonal submatrices are square and Ars, have
the same order.
(b) If a = aT, deduce that
Ars =
1—12. Consider the product of two square nth order matrices.
c= ab
(a) If a and b are symmetrically partitioned, show that CJk, AJk, are of
the same order. Illustrate for the case of one partition, e.g.,
[A11 A12
a
— [A2, A22
(b) Suppose we symmetrically partition c. What restrictions are placed

on the partitions of a and b? Does it follow that we must also partition
a and b symmetrically? Hint: See Prob. 1—10.
1—13. Consider the triple product,
C=
a symmetric rth-order square matrix and a is of order r x ii. Suppose
we symmetrically partition c. The order of the partitioned matrices are indicated
in parentheses.
(pxp) (pxq)
(nxn) — [C11 C12
— [c21 c22
(q><p) (qxg)
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PROBLEMS 37
(a) Show that the following partitioning of a is consistent with that of c.

(r x n) (r X p1 (r x q)
a ={A1 A2]
(b) Express (j, k = 1,2) in terms of A1, A2, and b.
1—14. Let d = [Di] be a quasi-diagonal matrix. Show that
da = [DJAJk]
bd = [BJkDk]
when the matrices are conformably partitioned.
1—iS. Determine the number of inversions and interchanges for the
following sets.
(a) (4,3,1,2)
(b) (3, 4, 2, 1)
1—16. How many permutations does (1,2, 3, 4, 5) have?

1—17. Consider the terms
1a1122a1h3
The first subscripts in (a) are in natural order. We obtain (b) by rearranging (a)
such that the second subscripts are in natural order. For example, rearranging
e231 a12 a23 a31 = (2, 3, 1)
we obtain
e312a31a12a23 fi = (3, 1,2)
Show that if is an even permutation, (fl1, is also an even
permutation. Using this result, show that
=
p
and, in general,
al =
1—18. Consider the terms
Suppose that
= = =
Then, (b) takes the form
Show that
(c) = —(a)
Generalize this result and establish that the sign of a determinant is reversed
when two rows are interchanged.
1—19. Consider the third-order determinant
a! =
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Suppose the second row is a multiple of the first row:

=
Show that = 0. (Hint: = — Generalize this result and establish
properties 5 and 7 of Sec. 1—7.
1—20. Suppose all the integers of a set are in natural order except for one
integer, say n, which is located at position p. We can put the set in natural
order by successively interchanging adjacent integers. For example,
3 l2—* 132—* 123
231 —*21 3—* 123
Show that In — p1 adjacent interchanges (called transpositions) are required.
It follows that the sign of the resulting set is changed by
1) In —
1—21. We can write the expansion for the third-order determinant as

\
i=1
(
\j k
)
/ t,J,
. . —
—
Using the result of the previous problem,

=
and (a) reduces to
3 3
—
=
Following this approach, establish Laplace's cofactor expansion formula for
an nth-order determinant.
1—22. Use Laplace's expansion formula to show that
1 0 0
0 0
9
o o ...i a
(pxp)
-
(pxn)
b11 b12 a11 012 (un bFa (nXn)

= al
b22 b2P a22 (12,7
bni k12 0n1 0n2
1—23. Consider the quasi-diagonal matrix,

(pxp)
d_[D1 0
[o(qxp) D2
(qxq)
By expressing d as
0
[o Iqj[0 D2
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PROBLEMS
show that dl = D11 D21. Verify this result for

1100
2 3 0 0
d—
0021
0053
Generalize for
d [A,
1—24. Let
(pxp) (pxq)
[Gii 0
g
— [G2, G22
(qxq)
Show that
= jG1 G221
Generalize for a quasi-triangular matrix whose diagonal submatrices are square,

of various orders.
1—25. Suppose we express a as the product of a lower triangular matrix, g,
and an upper triangular matrix, b.
a11 a12 g11 0 0 b11 b12
a21 a22 az,, = g21 g22 0 b22
?
'1n2 1n2 Yflfl 0 0 bflfl
We introduce symmetrical partitions after row (and column) p and write the
product as
(pxp) (pxq) (pxp) (pxq) (pxp) (pxq)
[A1, A121 [G1, 0 1[Bi, B12
LA21 A22J — [G2, G22J[0 B22
(qxp) (qxq) (qxp) (qxq) (qxp) (qxq)
Note that the diagonal submatrices of g and b are triangular in form.

(a) Show that
= A.11
G11B12 = A12
G21B11 = A21
G21B12 + G22B22 = A22
(b) Show that
A111 = 1G111 BijI
and
al = 1G111 G22j 1B111 1B221
(c) Suppose we require that
By taking p = 1, 2,. . . ,n — 1, deduce that this requirement leads to the

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following n conditions on the elements of a:

a11 a12
aj1 aj2
The determinant of the array contained in the firstj rows and columns is called
the jth-order discriminant.
1—26. Does the following set of equations have a unique solution?
1 2 3 x1 2
1 3 5 X2 = 3
3 7 ii x3 5
1—27. Determine the adjoint matrix for

123
a= 1 3 5
3 7 11
Does a exist?
T =
1—28. Show that b1' bT,
Find the inverse of
(a)
[1 3
[3 2
(b)
[2 4
[i S
(c)
[1 31[2 4
[3 2J[l s
(d)
[2 O1[2
[o 3j[l s
Let
a12
[A11 A12
a
= = [A2, A22
31 32 33
and
— B32
[8,, 82,
where the order of BJk is the same as AJ1. Starting with the condition
aa' 13
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PROBLEMS 41
determine the four matrix equations relating BJk and Aft (j, k 1, 2). Use this
result to find the inverse of
124
212
121
1—3!. Find the inverse of
A
L0 lq
Note that A is (p x q).

1-32. Find the inverse of
0
D2
1—33. Use the results of Probs. 1—31 and 1—32 to find the inverse of
— [B11 B12
b
[o B22
where B11, B22 are square and nonsingular. Hint: write has
[B11 01[1 0
b
[o ij[o 1 j[o B22
1—34. Consider the 3 x 4 matrix
1121
a= 1 3 2 2
1211
Determine the elementary row operation matrix which results in a21 = a31 =
= Oand a11 022 033 = +1.
1—35. Let
(pxp) (p'<q)
[A11 A12
a
[A2, A22
(qxq)
where 0 and 0. Show that the following elementary operations

on the partitioned rows of a reduce a to a triangular matrix. Determine
°1 [ 01 01 [A11 Aizi — AW
L0 cj [A21 lqj [0 Iqj [A21 A22J — [o Iq
—
A AIA \1
1—36. Suppose we want to rearrange the columns of a in the following way:
1 2 3
a= 2 1 3 col2—+coll
col3—*col2
3 4 5
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(a) Show that postmultiplication byIl(which is called a permutation matrix)

results in the desired column rearrangement:
o 0 11
H= 1 0 01
o i oj
Note that we just rearrange the corresponding columns of 13.
(b) Show that pre;nultiplication by rearranges the rows of a in the
same way.
(c) Show that 11TH 13.
(d) Generalize for the case where a is n x n.
(e) Show that
= a!
1—37. Let a be of order 2 x n, where n 2.. Show that a is of rank 1 when

the second row is a multiple of the first row. Also, show that when r = 1, the
second, third nth columns are multiples of the first column.
1—38. Determine the rank of
(a)
1 3 7
5 2 4
3 —4 —10
(b)
1 2 3 —1
2 4 6 —2
—1 —2 —3 1
1—39. Let a be of order in x ii and rank r. Show that a has n — r columns

which are linear combinations of r linear independent columns. Verify for
a= 2
1234 1 3 2
5 7 12 14
1—40. Using properties 3, 4, and 7 of determinants (see Sec. 1—7), deduce

that the elementary operations do not change the rank of a matrix. For con-
venience, consider the first r rows and columns to be linearly independent.
1—41. Find the rank of a by reducing it to an echelon matrix.
1122
a—
2132
4 2 1
7797
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PROBLEMS 43
1—42. Show that c is at most of rank 1.

a1
a2
C
:
When will r(c) 0?

1—43. Consider the product,
a11 a12 r b11b12
b is of rank 1 and b11 0. Then, we can write

cblk)
(j)2kj
Show that the second, third,. , nth columns of c are multiples of the
.
first column and therefore r(c) 1. When will r(c) = 0?

(b) Suppose r(a) = 1 and a11 0. In this case, we can write
= j = 2,3,...,m
Show that the second, third mth rows of c are multiples of the first
row and therefore r(c) 1. When will r(c) = 0?
1 —44. Consider the product
a11 a12 ' a1., b11 b12 -
a21 a22 b21 h22 ..

Let
a,,1 a,,,2 h2 ..
= - - -
B1 {b11b21 - -
Using (b), we can write (a) as

A1
A2
Am
Suppose r(a) = r4, r(b) rb. For convenience, we assume the first r0 rows
of a and the first r1 columns of b are linearly independent. Then,
A3 = j = ra + 1, ra + 2, -. , m .
p= 1
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rb
Bk = XkqBq k— + 1, Tb + 2, . . . ,
q 1
(a) Show that rows ra + 1, + 2,. . . , in of c are linear combinations of

the first rows.
(b) Show that columns Tb + 1, + 2,.. . , n of c are linear combinations
of the first columns.
(c) From (a) and (b), what can you conclude about an upper bound on
r(c)?
(d) To determine the actual rank of e, we must find the rank of
A1 A1B1 A1B2 A1Br1,
A2 A2B1 A2B2 •. A2Brb
BB
[1 2 •.. rb]
AraB2
Suppose ra Tb. What canyou conclude about A1 is orthogonal
toB1,B2 Br?
(e) Utilize these results to find the rank of
—1/2 1/2 0 1 0 1
—1/2 1/2 1 1 0 1
—1 1 1 1 1 2
(f) Suppose ra = rb = s. Show that r(e) = s. Verify for
U
1—45. Consider the m x n system
a12 X1 C1
021 022 0 C2
Gm i 2 0R111 X,,
Let
= . . .
j 1, 2,. . . , fl2
Using (b), we write (a) as

A3x == 1, 2 in j (c)
Now, suppose a is of rank r and the first r rows are linearly independent. Then,
A1 k = r + 1, r + 2 m
=
(a) Show that the system is consistent only if
Ck k= i• + 1, r + 2,.. . , in
p=1
Note that this requirement is independent of whether in < n or in > n.
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PROBLEMS 45
(b) If m < n and r = m, the equations are consistent for an arbibrary c.

Is this also true when rn > n and r = n? Illustrate for
[i —1 11
X2
fc1
[i 2 4]
and
1 1 C1
—1 2 c2
1 4 c3
1—46. Consider the following system of equations:

x1 + X2 + 2x3 + 2x4 4
2x1+x2+3x3+2x4=6
3x1-l-4x2+2x3+x4=9
7x1 +7x2+9.x3+7x4=23
(a) Determine whether the above system is consistent using elementary
operations on the augmented matrix.
(b) Find the solution in terms of x4.
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2
Characteristic-Value
Problems and
Quadratic Forms
2—i. INTRODUCTION
Consider the second-order homogeneous system,
(ajj 2)x1 + at2xz 0
a25x1 + (a22 — A)x2 = 0
where A is a scalar. Using matrix notation, we can write (2—i) as
ax Ax (2—2)
or
(a — 212)x 0 (2—3)
The values of 2. for which nontrivial solutions of (2—i) exist are called the
characteristic values of a. Also, the problem of finding the characteristic values
and corresponding nontrivial solutions of (2—i) is referred to as a second-order
characteristic-value problem,*
The problem occurs naturally in the free-vibration
analysis of a linear system. We illustrate for the system shown in Fig. 2—1.
The equations of motion for the case of no applied forces (the free-vibration
case) are
d2y2
+ k2(y2 — 0
d2y
m1 + k1y1 — k2(y2 — y1) = 0
*
Also called "eigenvalue" problem in some texts. The term "cigenvalue" is a hybrid of the
German term Elgenwerte and English "value."
46
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SEC. 2—1. NTRODUCT$ON 47
Assuming a solution of the form

— A iwt
y2zize A
and substituting in (a) lead to the following set of algebraic equations relating
the frequency, w, and the amplitudes, A1, A2:
(k1 + k2)A1 — k2A2 = in1w2A1
—k2A1 + k2A2 = m2w2A2
We can transform (c) to a form similar to that of(2—1) by defining new amplitude
measures,*
2—co2
A2 =
and the final equations are
k1+k2_A — —==
k2
2=
—
rn1
k2
A1 + A2 = 2A2
'fl2
The characteristic values and corresponding nontrivial solutions of (e) are

related to the natural frequencies and normal mode amplitudes by (d). Note
that the coefficient matrix in (e) is symmetrical. This fact is quite significant,
as we shall see in the following sections.
I
Fig. 2—1. A system with two degrees of freedom.
Although the application to dynamics is quite important, our primary reason

for considering the characteristic-value problem is that results obtained for the
characteristic value problem provide the basis for the treatment of quadratic
* See Prob. 2—i.
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48 PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
forms which are encountered in the determination of the relative extrema of a

function (Chapter 3), the construction of variational principles (Chapter 7), and
stability criteria (Chapters 7, 18). This discussion is restricted to the case where
a is real. Reference 9 contains a definitive treatment of the underlying theory
and computational procedures.
2—2. SECOND-ORDER CHARACTERISTIC-VALUE PROBLEM

We know from Cramer's rule that nontrivial solutions of
— 2)x1 + a12x2 — 0
(2—4)
a21x1 + (a22 — A)x2 = 0
are possible only if the determinant of the coefficient matrix vanishes, that is,
when
a11 — A a12
0 (2-5)
a21 a22—).
Expanding (2—5) results in the following equation (usually called the charac-
teristic equation) for 1:
22 — (a11 + a22)). + (a11a22 — a21a12) = 0 (2—6)
We let
= a11 + a22
(2—7)
= a11a22 — a12a21 = H
and the characteristic equation reduces to
22 — + P2 = 0 (2—8)
The roots of (2—8) are the characteristic values of a. Denoting the roots by
22, the solution is
21,2 = (P1 ± (2—9)
When a is symmetrical, a12 = a21, and

— = (a11 a22)2 + 4(a12)2
Since this quantity is never negative, it follows that the characteristic values for a
symmetrical second-order matrix are always real.
Example 2—i
[2 2
a={2
=2÷ 5= 7
P2 = (2)(5) — (2)(2) = 6
The characteristic equation for this matrix is
22 — 72 +6= 0
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SEC. 2—2. SECOND-ORDER CHARACTERISTIC-VALUE PROBLEM 49
Solving (a),
[1 —2
—!
131=0
A.1 2— ±j where i=
By definition, nontrivial solutions of (2—4) exist only when 2 = or 22.

In what follows, we suppose the characteristic values are real. We consider
first the case where A A.1. Equation (2—4) becomes
(a11 — A.1)x1 + a12x2 = 0

a21x1 + (a22 — = 0
The second equation is related to the first by
second eq. times the first eq.
This follows from the fact that the coefficient matrix is singular.
(Oii — %1)(a22 — — a12a21 = 0
Since only one equation isindcpendcnt and there are two unknowns, the solu-
tiOn is not unique. We define as the solution for A = Assuming*
that a12 0, the solution of the first equation is
xi') = C1
1)
=
012
where c1 is an arbitrary constant. Continuing, we let
and take c1 such that = 1. This operation is called normalization,

and the resulting column matrix, denoted by Q1, is referred to as the charac-
teristic vector for
= (2—10)
a12
—_2112
= +
L J
By definition,
Q1Q1 = 1 - (2—11)
if a12 0, we work with the second equation.
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50 CHARACTERISTIC-VALUE PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
Since Qi is a solution of (2—4) for A = we see that

aQ1 = A1Q1 (2—12)
Following the same procedure for A = A2, we obtain
Q2 = c2 (2—13)
)
where
= +
Also,
L j
(2—14)
aQ2 =
It remains to discuss the case where A1 = A2. If a is symmetrical, the char-
acteristic values will be equal only when a11 a22 and a12 = c121 = 0. Equa-
tion (2—4) takes the form
(a11 — A)xi + (0)xz 0
(O)x1 + (a11 A)x2 = 0
These equations are linearly independent, and the two independent solutions
{c1, 0}
{0, c2}
The corresponding characteristic vectors are

Q1 = {+1,0} (2—15)
Q2 = {0, +1}
If a is not symmetrical, there is only one independent nontrivial solution when
the characteristic values are equal.
It is of interest to examine the product, QfQ2. From (2—10) and (2—13),
we have
Q1Q2
—
— —C1C2 /1 + (a11
-
— A1)(a11
2
— A2)
a12
Now, when a is symmetrical, the.right-hand term vanishes since
a11 — A2 —(a22 — A1) = —

a11 —
and we see that QrQ2 = 0. This result is also valid when the roots are equal.
In general, QIQ2 0 when a is unsymmetrical. Two nth order column vectors
U, V having the property that
UTV=VTU=0 (2—16)
are said to be orthogonal. Using this terminology, Q1 and Q2 are orthogonal

for the symmetrical case.
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SEC. 2—2. SECOND-ORDER CHARACTERISTIC-VALUE PROBLEM
Example 2—2
[2 2
a=[2
A1=+6 A2=+1
The equations for A = +6 are
—4x1 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 — =0
We see that the second equation is times the first equation. Solving the first equation,
we obtain
= c1 = = 2c1
Then,
2}
and the normalized solution is
Q1
Repeating forA = A2 = +1, we find
= c2{1,
and
Q2
One can easily verify that
= j = 1,2
and
— —
—
Ii
a=[t 8
3
The characteristic values and corresponding normalized solutions for this matrix are
Q2 = {4, — l}
We see that 0. Actually,
QTQ2 =
[1 —2
—l
A1—_+i A2=—i
We have included this example to illustrate the case where the characteristic values are
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52 PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
complex. The equations corresponding to 2 are

(1 — i)x1 — 2x2 0
x5 (1 + i)x2 = 0
Note that the second equation is (1 — i) times the first equation. The general solution is
x(1t = c1
Repeating for 2= 12, we find

1-3-i}
= c2
When the roots are complex, 12 is the complex conjugate of Now, we take c2 = c1.
Then, xt2> is the complex conjugate of We determine c1 such that
= I
Finally, the characteristic values and characteristic vectors are
21,2 =
Qt,2 =
In general, the characteristic values are complex conjugate quantities when the elements
of a are real. Also, the corresponding characteristic vectors are complex conjugates.
2—3. SIMILARITY AND ORTHOGONAL TRANSFORMATIONS

The characteristic vectors for the system satisfy the following
relations:
aQ1 = (a)
aQ2 = 22Q2
We can write (a) as
Q2] = EQ1 2j (b)
Now, we let
q=[Qj Q2]
(2—17)
=
Column j of q contains the normalized solution for We call q the normalized
modal matrix* for a. With this notation, (b) takes the form
aq = (2—18)
* This terminology has developed from dynamics, where the characteristic vectors define the
normal modes of vibration for a discrete system.
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SEC. 2—3. AND ORTHOGONAL TRANSFORMATIONS 53
We have shown that the characteristic vectors are always linearly indepen-
dent when a is symmetrical. They are also independent when a is unsym-
metrical, provided that 11.2. Then, 0 except for the case where a is
unsymmetrical and the characteristic values are equal. If 0, q1 exists
and we can express (2—18) as
q'aq = (2—19)
The matrix operation, p is arbitrary, is called a similarity trans-

formation. Equation (2—19) states that the similarity transformation, q1( )q,
reduces a to a diagonal matrix whose elements are the characteristic values
of a.
If a is symmetrical, the normalized characteristic vectors are orthogonal,
that is,
— —
— —
Also, by definition,
— —
Using these properties, we see that
[Qfl [1 0
q q = [QTJ [Qi Q2]
[o 1
and it follows that

qT (2—20)
A square matrix, say p, having the property that = p'

is called an
orthogonal matrix and the transformation, pT( )p, is called an orthogonal
transformation. Note that an orthogonal transformation is also a similarity
transformation. Then, the modal matrix for a symmetrical matrix is orthog-
onal and we can write
qTaq = (2—21)
Example 2—3
[2 2
5
+6
Q2{2,-1}
—[0 0 +1]
q=[Qi
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54 PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
We verify that qT = q' and qTaq =

1 [1 21 [1 21 1 [5 01 [1 0
—lj[2 sj[o i
aq
1 [2 21[1 21 1 [6 2
— [2 —ij — [12 —1
— I [1 21[6 01
—ij[o
T
i[i 21[6 21 [6 01
q aq
= 5L2 _-1][12 —ii = [o ij =
(2)
[1 8
= +5 Qi = +1}
01 —
Lo —ij
Since a is not symmetrical, qT q Actually,
-1 ( 1— —[,15/6
q
[— j — [\/17/6
[5 01
q
[1 —2
01
Lo —iJ
[1 1
q involves complex elements. Since the characteristic vectors are complex

conjugates, they are linearly independent and q -' exists. We find q — 1, using the defi-
nition equation for the inverse (Equation (1—50)):
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SEC. 2—4 THE nth-ORDER SYMMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 55
q -1
[+i 01
0
2—4. THE nth-ORDER SYMMETRICAL CHARACTERISTIC-VALUE

PROBLEM
The nth order symmetrical characteristic-value problem involves deter-
mining the characteristic values and corresponding nontrivial solutions for
a11x1 + a12x2 + + = Ax1
a12x1 + + + — AX2
(2—22)
+ + +
We can write (2—22) as
ax = AX
(2—23)
(a — 0
In what follows, we suppose a is real.
For (2—23) to have a nontrivial solution, the coefficient matrix must be
singular.
a — AI,4 0 (2—24)
The expansion of the determinant is

+ + = 0
where
= a11 + a22 ± + (2—25)
-
and is the sum of all the jth order minors that can be formed on the diag-
onal.* Letting 22,. . , denote the roots, and expressing the characteristic
.
equation in factored form, we see that
= 2522 + 2523 + ... + (2-26)
We summarize below the theoretical results for the real symmetrical case.
The proofs are too detailed to be included here (see References 1 and 9):
1. The characteristic values 22,. . , are all real.
.
2. The normalized characteristic vectors Q1, Q2,. . , Q,,, are orthogonal:

.
QTQJ = i,j = 1,2

* Minors having a diagonal pivot (e.g.. delete the kth row and column). They are generally called
principal minors.
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56 CHARACTERiSTIC-VALUE PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
3. a is diagonalized by the orthogonal transformation involving the nor-

malized modal matrix.
qTaq
where
Example 2—4
5—2 0
a= —2 3 —.1
0 —1 1
Since a is symmetrical, its characteristic values are all real. We first determine /3k, $2, f33,
using (2—25):
5+ 3 +1 +9
$2 +11 + 5 + 2 +18
/33 = 5(2) — (—2)(—2) = +6
The characteristic equation is
182—6=0
and the approximate roots are
+0.42
22 +2.30
+6.28
To determine the characteristic solutions, we expand ax = 2x,
(5 — 2)x1 = 2x2
—x3 = —(3 — 2)x2
(l—,t)x3= x2
Solving the first and third equations for x1 and x3 in terms of x2, the general solution is
j=l,2,3
Finally, the modal matrix (to 2-place accuracy) is

+0.22 +0.51 —0.84
q = [Q1Q2Q3] = +0.50 +0.68 +0.54
+0.85 —0.52 —0.10
(2)
120
a= 2 1 0
0 .0 3
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SEC. 2—5. QUADRATIC FORMS 57
The expansion of Ia — 213J = 0 is
and the roots are

22—3 23=—i
Writing out ax = 2x, we have
(1—2)x1 +2x2 =0
2x1 +(1 — 1)x2 = 0 (a)
(3 — 2)x3 = 0
When 2 = 3, (a) reduces to
—2x3 +2x2 = 0
—2x2 = 0 (b)
(0)x3=0
We see from (b) that (a — 213) is of rank 1 when 2 = 3. The general solution of (b) is
xI=c1 x2=cl x3=cz
By specializing the constants, we can obtain two linearly independent solutions for the
repeated root. Finally, the characteristic vectors for 22 = 3 are
Q2 = (0,01)
When 2 = 23 = —1, (a) reduces to
2x3 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 + 2x2 0
4x3 =0
The general solution and characteristic vector for are
and = 0
o}
-
This example illustrates the case of a symmetrical matrix having two equal characteristic
values. The characteristic vectors corresponding to the repeated roots are linearly inde-
pendent. This follows from the fact that a — 213 is of rank I for the repeated roots.
2-5. QUADRATIC FORMS

The homogeneous second-degree function
F + 2a12x1x2 +
a quadratic form in x2. Using matrix notation, we can express
F as
[a11 ajal T
F=[xix2]t[a12
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In general, the function

F= = (2—27)
j=1
where afk = for] k, is said to be a quadratic form in xj, x2, .. . , x,,.
If F = x x
a we a positive definite
for is zero for some x
0, we say that F is positive
semidefinite. We define negative definite and negative semidefinite quadratic
forms in a similar manner. A quadratic form is negative definite if F 0 for
all x and F = 0 only when x = 0. The question as to whether a quadratic form
is positive definite is quite important. For example, we will show that an
equilibrium position for a discrete system is stable when a certain quadratic
form is positive definite.
Consider the quadratic form
F=
b1
b2 0 x2 (2—28)
LXIX2
13 1
When F involves only squares of the variables, it is said to be in canonical form.

According to the definition introduced above, F is positive definite when
b1 >0 b2 >0
It is positive semidefinite when
b1 0
and at least one of the elements is zero.
Now, to establish whether is positive definite, we first reduce a to a
diagonal matrix by applying the transformation, q '()q, where q is the orthog-
onal normalized modal matrix for a. We write
xTax = (xTq)(q_taq)(qlx)
=
Then, letting
y= qTx x qy (2—29)
(a) reduces to a canonical form in y:

F = xTax = (2—30)
It follows that F is positive definite with respect to y when all the characteristic
values of a are positive. But y is uniquely related to x and y = 0 only when
x = 0. Therefore, F is also positive definite with respect to x. The problem of
establishing whether xTax is positive definite consists in determining whether
all the characteristic values of a are positive.
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SEC. 2—5. QUADRATIC FORMS
We consider first the second-order symmetric matrix

[a11 cz12
Laiz a22
Using (2—26), the characteristic values are related by

+ =aii -F a22
,t122 = 132 = a11a22 — = aJ
We see from (a) that the conditions

132>0
are equivalent to
,t2>0
Suppose we specify that
au > 0
at —. a11a22 — > 0
Since a1 > 0, it follows from the second requirement in (d) that a22 > 0.
Therefore, (d) is equivalent to (b). We let
= aj1j = a11
A2 = a11a12
a12a12
= at (2—31)
Then, a is positive definite when

132>0
(2—3 2)
A1>O A2>0
The quantities and are called the invariants and discriminants of a.
The above criteria also apply for the case. That is, one can show
that a is positive definite when all its invariants are greater than zero.
131 > 0 > 0 •.. /3,, > 0 (2—33)
where is the sum of all the jth-order principal minors. Equivalent conditions
can be expressed in terms of the discriminants. Let represent the deter-
minant of the array consisting of the first j rows and columns.
a11 a12 aU
A= £112 a22
(2—34)
a2J
The conditions,
A1 > 0 A2 > 0 ... A,, > 0 (2—35)
are sufficient for a to be positive definite.*

* Ref. 1 for a detailed proof. Also see Prob. 2—15.
See
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Example 2—5
111
122
123
The discriminants are
A1 = +1
= 2 — 1 = +1
= 1(6—4)— 1(3—2) + 1(2—2) = +1
Since all the discriminants are positive, this matrix is positive definite. The corresponding
invariants are
= 1 + 2 + 3 = +6
$2(2—1)+(3—1)+(64) +5
/13 = A3 = +1
1 1 1
1 —2 2
1 2 3
Since A2 is negative = —3), this matrix is nor positive definite.
Suppose b is obtained from a by an orthogonal transformation:

b = pTap p1ap (2—36)
If a is symmetrical, b is also symmetrical:

bT = pTaTp pTap (2—37)
Now, b and a have the same characteristic values.* This follows from
— = — a — (2—38)
Then, if a is positive definite, b is also positive definite. In general, the positive

definite character of a matrix is preserved under an orthogonal transformation,
REFERENCES
1. HILDSBRAND, F. B.: Methods of Applied Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, New York,
1952.
2. BODEWIG, E.: Matrix Calculus, Interscience Publishers, New York, 1956.
3. SMiRNOV, V. I.: Linear Algebra, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Mass.,
1964.
4. TURNBULL, H. W., and A. C. AITKEN: An Introduction to the Theory of Canonical
Matrices, Dover Publications, New York.
5. HADLEY, G.: Linear Algebra, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Mass., 1961.
* See Prob. 2—5.
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PROBLEMS
6. CRANDALL, S. H.: Engineering Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956.

7. NOBLE, B.: Applied Linear Algebra, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1969.
8. FRAZER, R. A., W. J. DUNCAN and A. R. COLLAR: Elementary Matrices, Cambridge
University Press, London, 1963.
9. WILKINSON, 3. H.: The Algebraic Eigenvalue Problem, Oxford University Press,
London, 1965.
10. FADDEVA, V. N.: Computational Methods of Linear Algebra, Dover Publications,
New York, 1953.
11. RALSTON, A., and H. S. WILF: Mathematical Methods for Digital Computers, Vol. 2,
Wiley, New York, 1967.
12. FORSYTHE, G. E., and C. B. MALER: Computer Solution of Linear Algebraic Systems,
Prentice-Hall, New York, 1967.
13. PETERS, G., and J. H. WILKINSON: "Eigenvalues of AX = with Band Synimetric
A and B," Comput. J., 12, 398—404, 1969.
PROBLEMS
2—1. Consider the system
Ay =
where A and B arc symmetrical nth-order matrices and is a scalar. Suppose
B can be expressed as (see Prob. 1—25)
B = brb
where b is nonsingular. Reduce (a) to the form
ax =
where x by. Determine the expression for a in terms of A and b.
2—2. Let x1, x2 be two nth-order column matrices or column vectors and
let c1, c2 be arbitrary scalars. If
c1x_I + c2x2 0
only when c1 = = 0, x1 and x2 are said to be linearly independent. It follows
that x1 and x2 are linearly dependent when one is a scalar multiple of the other.
Using (2—10) and (2—13), show that and Q2 arc linearly independent when
2—3. Determine the characteristic values and the modal matrix for
[3 2
(a)
[2 7
[2 0 3
(b) to s 0
[3 0 2
2—4. Following the procedure outlined in Prob. 2—I, determine the charac-
teristic values and modal matrix for
+ 12Y2
l2Y1 + =
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.2—5. Suppose that b is derived from a by a similarity transformation.

b = p'ap
Then,
lb — t1,4 = a —
and it follows that b and a have the same characteristic equation.

(a) Deduce that
2(b) — '(a)
k
a(b) — p(a) k = 1, 2,.. ., n
Yk Pk
Demonstrate for
[1 —21
P[2[1 1
The fact that . . , /3,, are invariant under a similarity trans-

formation is quite useful.
(b) Show that
Q U') _. —1 (a)
k P k
2—6. When a is symmetrical, we can write

qTaq =
Express in terms of q and Use this result to find the inverse of
[3 2
a=[2
2—7. Positive integral powers of a square matrix, say a, arc defined as
a2 = aa
a3 = aa2
ar =
If al # 0, exists, and it follows from the definition that
= a''
(a) Show that ar is symmetrical when a is symmetrical.
(b) Let 2L be a characteristic value of a. Show that is a characteristic
value of ar and is the corresponding characteristic vector.
Hint: Start with = 2,Q, and premultiply by a.

2—8. A linear combination of nonnegative integral powers of a is called a
polynomial function of a and written as P(a). For example, the third order
polynomial has the form
P(a) = c0a3 + c1a2 + c2a + c3L
Note that P(a) is symmetrical when a is symmetrical.
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PROBLEMS
Let F(1) 0 be the characteristic equation for a. When the characteristic

values of a are distinct, one can show that (see Ref: 1)
F(a) = 0
where 0 is an nth-order null matrix. That is, a satisfies its own characteristic
equation. This result is known as the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
(a) Verify this theorem for
[2 1
2
Note: F(a) = a2 f31a + /3212.

(b) Show that
= '(a2 — /31a + /3213) forn = 3
(c) Establish a general expression for a —' using (2—25).

2—9. Determine whether the following quadratic forms are positive definite.
(a) F= + 4x1x2 +
(b) F = 34 + + — 4x1x2 + 6x1x3 — 8x2x3
2—10. Show that a necessary but not sufficient condition for a to be positive
definite is
a11>O,a22>O
(Hint: = Oforj 1,] = 1,2,.. .,n)
2—11. If = 0, ax = 0 has a nontrivial solution, say x1. What is. the
value of xfax1? Note that 2 0 is a characteristic value of a when a is singular.
2—12. Let C be a square matrix. Show that CTC is positive definite when
IC! 0 and positive sernidefinite when CI = 0.
(hint: Start with F = xT(CTC)x and let y = Cx. By definition, F can equal
zero only when x 0 in order for the form to be positive definite.)
2—13. Consider the product CTaC, where a is positive definite and C is
square. Show that C1aC is positive definite when CI 0 and positive semi-
definite when CI = 0. Generalize this result for the multiple product,
. . . . .
2—14. Let a be an mth-order positive defInite matrix and let C be of order

m x n. Consider the product,
b = CTaC
Show that b is positive definite only when the rank of C is equal to n. What
can we say about b when r(C) < n?
2—15. Consider the quadratic form
a11 a12 x1
a12 a22 x2
: :
a27, x,,
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We partition a symmetrically,
(pxp) (pXl)
NzTvTl [A11 A121 f Xt
AT A MV
("2
(qxp) (qxq)
where q= n — p. The expansion of F = XTaX has the form

F= XfA11X1 -i- 2XTA12A2 +
Now, we take X2 0 and denote the result by
XTAIIX1
For > 0 for arbitrary X1, A11 must be positive definite. Since 1A111 is equal
to the product of the characteristic values of A11, it follows that Ajj must be
positive.
(a) By taking p = 1, 2,.. . , n, deduce that
p=1,2,...,n
are necessary conditions for a to be positive definite. Note that it
remains to show that they are also sufficient conditions.
(b) Discuss the case where = 0.
2-46. Refer to Prob. t—25. Consider a to be symmetrical.
(a) Deduce that one can always express a as the product of nonsingular
lower and upper triangular matrices when a is positive definite.
(b) Suppose we take
Show that a is positive definite when

j=1,2,...,n
and positive semi-definite when
j=1,2,...,n
and at least one of the diagonal elements of g is zero.
Suppose we take g = hT. Then,
=
and
A — Ati.11 —..h2i.2 ,..i.2
Upp
Show that the diagonal elements of b will always be real when a is

positive definite.
2—17. If a quasi-diagonal matrix, say a, is symmetrically partitioned, the
submatrix A11 is also a quasi-diagonal matrix. Establish that
a= i,j = 1, 2,. . ., N
is positive definite only when A, (i = 1, 2,. . . , N) are positive definite.
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PROBLEMS 65
Hint: Use the result of Prob, 1—23. Verify for

1100
2300
0021
0052
2—18. Suppose we express a as the product of two quasi-triangular matrices,
for example,
(pxp) (pxq)
(nxn) [G11 1) 1 [B11 B12
a
= [G2, G22j[O B22
(qxp)
where p + q = n. We take
B11 1P 8221q
Show that the diagonal submatrices of g are nonsingular for arbitrary p when
a is positive definite.
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3
Relative Extrema
for a Function
3—1. RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION OF ONE VARIABLE
Letf(x) be a function of x which is defined for the interval x1 x x2. If
f(x) — f(a) 0 for all values of x in the total interval x1 x x2, except
x a, we say the function has an absolute minimum at x a. If f(x) — f(a)> 0
for all values of x except x = a in the subinterval, x containing x = a,
we say that f(a) is a relative minimum, that is, it is a minimum with respect to
all other values of f(x) for the particular subinterval. Absolute and relative
maxima are defined in a similar manner. The relative maximum and minimum
values of a function are called relative extrema. One should note thatf(x) may
have a number of relative extreme values in the total interval x1 x x2.
As an illustration, consider the function shown in Fig. 3—1. The relative
extrema are [(a), f(h), f(c), f(d). Using the notation introduced above, we say
that f(b) is a relative minimum for the interval x fib. The absolute
maximum and minimum values of f occur at x = a and x = d, respectively.
f(x)
x
x1 a b c X2
Fig. 3—i. Stationary points at points A, 8, C, and 0.
66
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SEC. 3—1. RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION OF ONE VARIABLE 67
In general, values of x at which the slope changes sign correspond to relative

extrema. To find the relative extrema for a continuous function, we first deter-
mine the points at which the first derivative vanishes. These points are called
stationary points. We then test each stationary point to see if the slope changes
sign. If the second derivative is positive (negative) the stationary point is a
relative minimum (maximum). If the second derivative also vanishes, we must
consider higher derivatives at the stationary point in order to determine whether
the slope actually changes sign. In this case, the third derivative must also
vanish for the stationary point to be a relative extremum.
Example 3—1
Setting the first derivative equal to zero,
x2 + 4x + I = 0
dx
and solving for x, we obtain
x1,2 = —2 ±
The second derivative is
d2f
= 2x +4= 2(x + 2)
Thcn,x = x1 = —2 + = x2 = —2—
corresponds to a relative maximum.
J(x) = (x — a)3 +c
The first two derivatives are
= 3(x —
a)
Since both derivatives vanish at x = a, we must consider the third derivative:
d3f
6
dx3
The stationary point, x = a, is neither a relative minimum nor a relative maximum since
the third derivative is finite. We could have also established this result by considering the
expression for the slope. We see from (a) that the slope is positive on both sides of x = a.
The general shape of this function is shown in Fig. E3—l.
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66 RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION CHAP. 3
Fig. E3—1
f(x)
I
a
x
The sufficient condition for a stationary value to be a relative extremum

(relative minimum (maximum) when d2f/dx2 > 0 (< 0)) follows from a con-
sideration of the geometry of the f(x) vs. x curve in the vicinity of the stationary
point. We can also establish the criteria for a relative extremum from the Taylor
series expansion of f(x). Since this approach can he readily extended to func-
tions of more than one independent variable we will describe it in detail.
Suppose we know the value of f(x) at x = a and we want f(a + Ax) where
Ax is some increment in x. If the first n + 1 derivatives off(x) are continuous
in the interval, a x a + Ax, we can express f(a + Ax) as
f(a + Ax) f(a)

Ax + (Ax)2 + (Ax)" + (3.1)
=
where denotes the jth derivative of f(x) evaluated at x a, and the

remainder is given by
1
(3-2)
where is an unknown number between a and a + Ax. Equation (3—1) is called

the Taylor series expansion* of f(x) about x = a. If f(x) is an eth-degree
polynomial, the (n + 1)th derivative vanishes for all x and the expansion will
yield the exact value off(a + Ax) when n terms are retained. In all other cases,
there will be some error, represented by due to truncating the series at n
terms. Since depends on we can only establish bounds on The fol-
lowing example illustrates this point.
See Ref. 1, Article 16—8.
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SEC. 3—1. RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION OF ONE VARIABLE 69
Example 3—2
We expand sin x in a Taylor series about x = 0 taking n = 2. Using (3—1) and (3—2),
and noting that a = 0, we obtain
sin Ax = Ax + R2
The bounds on R2j are

cos Ax < R21
If we use (a) to find sin (0.2), the upper bound on the truncation error is 0.0013.
If Ax is small with respect to unity, the first term on the right-hand side of
(3—1) is the dominant term in the expansion. Also, the second term is more
significant than the third, fourth nth terms. We refer to df/dx Ax as
the first-order increment in f(x) due to the increment, Ax. Similarly, we call
4d2f/dx2(Ax)2 the second-order increment, and so on. Now, f(a) is a relative
minimum when f(a + Ax)— f(a) > 0 for all points in the neighborhood of
x a, that is, for all finite values of Ax in some interval, — Ax e, where
and e are arbitrary small positive numbers. Considering Ax to be small, the
first-order increment dominates and we can write
f(a + Ax) — f(a) = Ax + (second- and higher-order terms) (3—3)
For f(a + Ax) — f(a) to be positive for both positive and negative values of
Ax, the first order increment must vanish, that is, df(a)/dx must vanish. Note
that this is a necessary but not sufficient condition for a relative minimum, if
the first-order increment vanishes, the second-order increment will dominate:
f(a + Ax) — f(a) = (Ax)2 + (third- and higher-order terms) (3—4)
It follows from (3—4) that the second-order increment must be positive for
f(a + Ax) — > 0 to be satisfied. This requires d2f(a)/dx2 > 0. Finally,
the necessary and sufficient conditions for a relative minimum at x = a are
df(a) — d2f(a)
dx
0
dx2
> 3 5
lithe first two derivatives vanish at x = a, the third-order increment is now

the dominant term in the expansion.
f(a + Ax) + f(a) = (Ax)3 + (fourth- and higher-order terms) (3—6)
Since the third-order increment depends on the sign of Ax, it must vanish for
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RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION CHAP. 3
f(a) to be a relative extremum. The sufficient conditions for this case are as
follows:
Relative Minimum
d3f d4f
dX4>
(3—7)
Relative Maximum
d3f d4f
The notation used in the Taylor series expansion off(x) becomes somewhat
cumbersome for more than one variable. In what follows, we introduce new
notation which can be readily extended to the case of 11 variables. First, we
define to be the total increment in f(x) due to the increment, Z\x.
41 = f(x + Ax) — f(x) (3—8)
This increment depends on Ax as well as x. Next, we define the differential

operator, d,
(3—9)
The result of operating onf(x) with d is called the first and is denoted
by df:
df=-1Ax = df(x,Ax) (3—10)
The first differential off(x) is a function of two independent variables, namely,

x and Ax. Iff(x) = x, then df/dx = 1 and
c/f = dx = Ax (3—11)
One can use dx and Ax interchangeably; however, we will use Ax rather than dx.
Higher differentials of f(x) are defined by iteration. For example, the second
differential is given by
d2f = d(df) (3—12)

=
Since Ax is independent of x,
(Ax) = 0
and d2f reduces to

d2f = (Ax)2 = d2f(x, Ax) (3—13)
In forming the higher differentials, we take d(Ax) = 0.
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SEC. 3—2. FUNCTION OF n INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Using differential notation, the Taylor series expansion (3—1) about x can be
written as
(3-14)
The first differential represents the first-order increment in f(x) due to the
increment, Ax. Similarly, the second differential is a measure of the second-
order increment, and so on. Then,f(x) is a stationary value when df = 0 for all
permissible values of Ax. Also, the stationary point is a relative minimum
(maximum) when d2f> 0 (<0) for all permissible values of Ax. The above
criteria reduce to (3—5) when the differentials are expressed in terms of the
derivatives.
Rules for forming the differential of the sum or product of functions are listed
below for reference. Problems 3—4 through 3—7 illustrate their application.
f= u(x) + v(x)
df=du+dv 3 15
d2f = d(df) d2u + d2v —
f= u(x)v(x)
df = u dv + v du (3—16
df
2
= ud2 v + 2dudv + vd 2u
f = fly) where y = y(x)
df
dy dy
3-2. RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION OF n INDEPENDENT

VARIABLES
Let f(x1, be a continuous function of n independent variables
(x1, x2 We define Af as the total increment in f due to increments in
the independent variables (Ax1, Ax2
Af = f(x1 + Ax1, x2 + Ax2,. . . , + — f(x1, x2,.. . , (3—18)
If Af> 0 (<0) for all points in the neighborhood of(x1, x2,. . , we say
.
that f(x1, x2 is a relative minimum (maximum). We establish criteria

for a relative extremum by expanding f in an n-dimensional Taylor series. The
procedure is identical to that followed in the one-dimensional case. Actually,
we just have to extend the differential notation from one to n dimensions.
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We define the n-dimensional differential operator as
d Ax1 + Ax2 + + = (3-19)

ox2
where the increments Ax2 are independent of (x1, x2,. . ,
The result obtained when d is applied to f is called the first
df (3—20)
=
Higher differentials are defined by iteration. For example, the second differen-
tial has the form
d2f=d(df)= (3—21)
Since are considered to be independent, (3—21) reduces to
d2f Axk (3—22)

k=i.
Now, we let
f(2)
r 1
j, k = 1, 2, . . . ,n (3—23)
LOXJOXkJ
Ax =
and the expressions for the first two differentials simplify to
df = AXTf(l)
(3—24)
d2f = AXTf(2) Ax
The Taylor series expansion forf about (x1, x2, . . . , when expressed in
terms of differentials, has the form
Af= df + + + + (3-25)
We say that f(x1, x2 is stationary when df 0 for arbitrary Ax. This

requirement is satisfied only when
= 0 (3—26)
Equation (3—26) represents n scalar equations, namely,
= 0 j= 1, 2,. . . ,n (3—27)
The scalar equations corresponding to the stationary requirement are usually

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SEC. 3—2. FUNCTION OF n INDEPENDENT VARIABLES 73
called the Euler equations for f, Note that the number of equations is equal
to the number of independent variables.
A stationary point corresponds to a relative minimum (maximum) of f
when d2f is positive (negative) definite. It is called a neutral point when d2f
is either positive or negative semidefinite and a saddle point when d2f is indif-
ferent, i.e., the eigenvalues are both positive and negative. This terminology
was originally introduced for the two dimensional case where it has geometri-
cal significance.
To summarize, the solutions of the Euler equations correspond to points at
which f is stationary. The classification of a stationary point is determined by
the character (definite, semidefinite, indifferent) of evaluated at the point.
We are interested in the extremum problem since it is closely related to the
stability problem. The extremum problem is also related to certain other prob-
lems of interest, e.g., the characteristic-value problem. In the following exam-
ples, we illustrate various special forms of f which are encountered in member
system analysis.
Example 3—3
f= y,)
= x2
df=
1 1 ek k 1 j 1 Xk
Now,
>-—&Xk
k1 OXk
It follows that
df=
j=l
Repeating leads to
d2f
=
Consider the double sum,
f >
k=t
The first differential (see Prob. 3—9) has the form
df = (duJwJkvk + dwfkvk + dv1)
Introducing matrix notation,
u= w= [w31] v= {v1}
=
and letting
du
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and so forth, we can write df as
df = d(urwv)
= duTwv + nTdWv + uTwdv
One operates on matrix products as if they were scalars, but the order must be preserved.
As an illustration, consider
f= — x7c
where a, c are constant and a is symmetrical. Noting that da = dc = 0 and dx Ax,

the first two differentials are
df AxT(ax — c)
d2f = AxTa Ax
Comparing (g) and (3—24), we see that

fO) ax — c
= a
The Euler equations are obtained by setting equal to 0:

ax c
The solution of (i) corresponds to a stationary value of (f). If a is positive definite, the
stationary point is a relative minimum. One can visualize the problem of solving the
system ax = c, where a is symmetrical from the point of view of finding the stationary
value of a polynomial having the form f = — XTC.
Suppose f u/v. Using the fact that

3j7u\ ldu
\,vJ V UX1 :X3
1(6u uôv
— vax1
we can write
df = = —f dv)
We apply (b) to
1.
= xx
where a is symmetrical, and obtain (see Prob. 3—5)
2 AXT
= —f---- (ax — 2x)
(d)
(122 = Ax A AxT Ax — 2 dA AxTx)
xx
Setting dA = 0 leads to the Euler equations for (c),
ax—Ax=0 (e)
which we recognize as the symmetrical problem.

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SEC. 3—3. LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 75
The quotient xTax/xTx, where x is arbitrary and a is symmetrical, is called Rayleigh's

quotient. We have shown that the characteristic values of a are stationary values of
Rayleigh's quotient. This property can he used to improve an initial estimate for a
characteristic value. For a more detailed discussion, see Ref. 6 and Prob. 3—11.
3-3. LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS

Up to this point, we have considered only the case where the function is
expressed in terms of independent variables. In what follows, we discuss how
one can modify the procedure to handle the case where some of the variables
are not independent. This modification is conveniently effected using Lagrange
multipliers.
Suppose f is expressed in terms of n variables, say x1, x2 some of
which are not independent. The general stationary requirement is
df= > (3—28)

j=1
for all arbitrary differentials of the independent variables. We use instead
of to emphasize that some of the variables are dependent. In order to
establish the Euler equations, we must express df in terms of the differentials
of the independent variables.
Now, we suppose there are r relations between the variables, of the form
g5(x1, x2 = 0 It = 1, 2, . . ,r (3—29)
One can consider these relations as constraint conditions on the variables.

Actually, there are only n — r independent variables. We obtain r relations
between the n differentials by operating on (3—29). Since = 0, it follows
that 0. Then,
"a k=1,2,...,r (3—30)
j=t
Using (3—30), we can express r differentials in terms of the remaining n — r
differentials. Finally, we reduce (3—28) to a sum involving the n — r indepen-
dent differentials. Equating the coefficients to zero leads to a system of n — r
equations which, together with the r constraint equations, are sufficient to
determine the stationary points.
Example 3—4
We illustrate the procedure for n = 2 and r = 1:
f=
g(x1, x2) = 0
The first variation is
ox1 Ox2
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Operating on g(x1, x2) we have
ax1
Now, we suppose ag/ax2 0. Solving (b) for dx2 (we replace dx1 by
x1 is the independent variable.)
/ag\
dx2= —t—i-----itSx1
8x2/
and substituting in (a), we obtain
df = [PL —
ax1 8x1 ox2 ox2
Finally, the equations defining the stationary points arc
ax1 \ox1fOx2/ox2
g(x1, x2) = 0
To determine whether a stationary point actually corresponds to a relative extremum,

we must investigate the behavior of the second differential. The general form of d2f for
a function of two variables (which are not necessarily independcnt) is
d2f =
2 2 2
Of
= dx1 + —i—
k1
a quadratic form in the independent differential, using (c), and noting
d2x1 = 0,
d2f + + +
ax1ax.2 ox2 \0x1 ax2j Ox2
where
Og Jag
u=
The character of the stationary point is determined from the sign of the bracketed term.
An automatic procedure for handling constraint conditions involves the use

of Lagrange multipliers. We first describe this procedure for the case of two
variables and then generalize it for n variables and r restraints. The problem
consists in determining the stationary values of f(x1, x2) subject to the con-
straint condition, g(x1, x2) = 0. We introduce the function H, defined by
H(x1, x2, A.) = f(x1, x2) + Ag(x1, x2) (3—31)
where A. is an unknown parameter, referred to as a Lagrange multiplier. We

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SEC. 3—3. LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 77
consider x1, x2 and ,% to be independent variables, and require H to be sta-

tionary. The Euler equations for H are
OH — Og
+ A —
Ox, Ox1 —
(3-32)
Ox2 Ox2 Ox2
OH
g(x1, x2) = 0
We suppose Og/0x2 0. Then, solving the second equation in (3—32) for A,

and substituting in the first equation, we obtain
A= (3-33)
0x2/ Ox2
and
— = 0 (3-34)
Ox1
g(x1, x2) = 0
Equations (3—34) and (e) of the previous example are identical. We see that
the Euler equations for II are the stationary conditions for f including the
effect of constraints.
Example 3—5
f= + + 2x1 + 7x2
g = — x2 = 0
We form H f+ 2g,
H= + + 2x1 + 7x2 + A(x1 — x2)
The stationary requirement for H treating x1, x2, and 2 as independent variables is
6x1 + 2 + 2 = 0
4x2 +7— 2 = 0
x1 — x2 = 0
Solving this system for x1, x2 and A we obtain

A 4x2 +7
= = —9/10
This procedure can be readily generalized to the case of n variables and

r constraints. The problem consists of determining the stationary values Of
j(x1, x2, . . , subject to the constraints gk(xl, x2,. . , = 0, where .
k = 1, 2, ., r. There will be r Lagrange multipliers for this case, and H has
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the form
H= f + k1 2k9k H(x1, x2 . .
, (3—35)
The Euler equations for H are
+ 0 i = 1,2,. ..,n (3—36)

k=1
9k = 0 k = 1, 2,. . ., r (3—37)
We first solve r equations in (3—36) for the r Lagrange multipliers, and then
determine the n coordinates of the stationary points from the remaining n — r
equations in (3—36) and the r constraint equations (3—37). The use of Lag-
range multipliers to introduce constraint conditions usually reduces the amount
of algebra.
REFERENCES
1. THOMAS, G. B., JR., C'alculus and Analytical Geometry, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Reading, Mass., 1953.
2. COURANT; R., Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol. 1, Blackie, London, 1937.
3. COURANT, R., Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol. 2, Interscience Publishers,
New York, 1936.
4. HANCOCK, H., Theory of Maxima and Minima, Dover Publications, New York, 1960.
5. APOSTOL, T. M,, Mathematical Analysis, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,
Mass., 1957.
6. CRANDALL, S. H., Engineering Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956.
7. HILDEBRAND, F. B., Methods of Applied Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, New York,
1952.
PROBLEMS
3—1. Determine the relative extrema for
(a) f(x) = 2x2 + 4x + 5
(b) f(x) = —2x2 + 8x + 10
(c) f(x) = ax2 + 2bx + c
(d) f(x)=x3+2x2+x+10
(e) f(x)=1x3+2x2+4x+15
(f) f(x) = (x — + (x — a)2
(g) f(x) = 4ax3 + 4bx2 + cx + d
3—2. Expand cos x in a Taylor series about x = 0, taking n= 3. Determine
the upper and lower bounds on R3.
3—3. Expand(1 + x)112inaTaylorseriesaboutx = Otakingn = 2. Deter-
mine upper and lower bounds on R2.
3—4. Find df and d2f for
(a) f=x2+2x+5
(b) f=3x3+2x2+5x+6
(c) f=x2sinx
(d) f= cosywhcrey = x3
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PROBLEMS 79
3—5. Let f = u(x)/v(x). Show that
df = (du — f dv)
d2f = — fd2v) —
3—6. Let u1, u2, u3 be functions of x and f = f(u1, u2, u3). Determine df.
3—7. Suppose f = u(x)w(y) where y = y(x). Determine expressions for df
and d2f. Apply to
(a) u=x3—x
(b) w=cosy
(c) y=x2
3—8. Find the first two differentials for the following functions:
(a) f= + +
(b) f' = + 6x1x2 + + 5x1 — 4x2
3—9. Consider f = uv, where
u= u(y1, .v2) v = v(y1, Y2)
and
Yi y1(x1, x2) = y2(x1, x2)
Show that
df = d(uv) u dv + v du d2f = ud2v + 2 du dv + vd2u
Note that the rule for forming the differential of a product is independent of
whether the terms are functions of the independent variables (x1, x2) or of
dependent variables.
3—10. Classify the stationary points for the following functions:
(a) f 3xl + — 9x1 + 12x2 — 10
(b)
f + 6x1x2
f 6x1x2 + 2x1 +
f = 6x1x2 + 34 — 3x1
3—11. Consider Rayleigh's quotient,
xTax
x is arbitrary. Since a is symmetrical, its characteristic vectors are linearly

independent and we can express x as
x=
where Q3 (j = 1, 2,. . . , n) are the normalized characteristic vectors for a.
(a) Show that
= j=j-
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(b) Suppose x differs only slightly from Qk. Then, ICjI << for j k.
Specialize (a) for this case. Hint: Factor out 2k and
(c) Use (b) to obtain an improved estimate for A.
[3
a=[i
x {1, —3}
The exact result is
2=1 x={1,—2}
3—12. Using Lagrange multipliers, determine the stationary values for the
following constrained functions:
(a)
g + x2 0
(b)
g1 = x1 + x2 + X3 — 1 = 0
g2=x1—x2+2x3+2=0
3—13. Consider the problem of finding the stationary values of f = =
xrarx subject to the constraint condition, = 1. Using (3—36) we write
H =f+ Ag = — 2(XTX —1)
(a) Show that the equations defining the stationary points off are
ax=Ax xTx=1
(b)Relate this problem to the characteristic value problem for a symmetri-
cal matrix.
3—14. Supposef = and g = I — xTax = 0 where aT a. Show that
the Euler equations for H have the form
xTax=1
We see that the Lagrange multipliers are the reciprocals of the characteristic
values of a. How are the multipliers related to the stationary values of f?
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4
Differential Geometry
of a Member Element
The geometry of a member element is defined once the curve corresponding
to the reference axis and the properties of the normal cross section (such as
area, moments of inertia, etc.) are specified. In this chapter, we first discuss the.
differential geometry of a space curve in considerable detail and then extend
the results to a member element. Our primary objective is to introduce the
concept of a local reference frame for a member.
4—1. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A SPACE CURVE

A curve is defined as the locus of points whose position vector* is a function
of a single parameter. We take an orthogonal cartesian reference frame having
directions X1, and X3 (see Fig. 4—1). Let F he the position Vector to a point
x3
i3 X3(y)
x2
X2(y)
x1
Fig. 4—1. Cartesian reference frame with position vector ?(y).
* The vector directed from the origin of a fixed reference frame to a point is called the position
vector. A knowledge of vectors is assumed. For a review, see Ref. 1.
81
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82 DIFFERENTiAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
on the curve having coordinates (j = 1, 2, 3) and let y be the parameter. We

can represent the curve by
=
3
Since F = an alternate representation is

i—i
= (j = 1,2, 3) (4—2)
Both forms are called the parametric representation of a space curve.
Example 4—i
(1) Consider a circle in the X1-X2 plane (Fig. E4—1A). We take y as the polar angle and
let a = The coordinates are
x1 = a cos y
x2 = a sin y
and F = + asiny'12
(2) Consider the curve (Fig. E4—1B) defined by
= a cos y
x2 = bsiny (4—3)
X3 = CY
where a, b, care constants. The projection on the X, -X2 plane is an ellipse having semiaxes
a and b. The position vector for this curve has the form
F = a cos + b sin Y12 + CYI3
4—2. ARC LENGTH

Figure 4—2 shows two neighboring points, P and Q, corresponding to y and
y+ The cartesian coordinates are and + (j 1, 2, 3) and the
length of the chord from P to Q is given by
As Exy —* 0, the chord length approaches the arc length, In the limit,
ds2
=
Noting that
dx1 = dy
we can express ds as
+ + +
ds dy (4-4)
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Fig. E4—1A
Fig. E4—1B
Q(+Ay)
I LISI
P(y)
Fig. 4—2. Differentia' segment of a curve.
83
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84 DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
Finally, integrating (4—4) leads to
dx 2
dx 2
dx 21/2
s(y) dy (4—5)
= + +
We have defined ds such that s increases with increasing y. It is customary to
call the sense of increasing s the positive sense of the curve.
To simplify the expressions, we let
2 1/2
dx
= (4-6)
+
Then, the previous equations reduce to
ds = dy
(4—7)
One can visualize as a scale factor which converts dy into ds. Note that
x > 0. Also, if we take y = s, then +1.
Example 4—2
Consider the curve defined by (4—3). Using (4—6), the scale factor is
[a2 sin2 y + b2 cos2 y + c2]'12

We suppose that b a. One can always orient the axes such that this condition is satisfied.
Then, we express as
= (b2 + c2)"2 [1 — k2 sin2 y]"2
where
2
k2 = b2 —
b2 + c2
The arc length is given by
s dy = (b2 + [1 — k2 sin2 yJ112 dv
The integral for s is called an elliptic integral of the second kind and denoted by E(k, y).
Then,
s (b2 + c2)'12 E(k, y)
Tables for E(k, y) as a function of k and y are contained in Ref. 3. When b = a, the curve
is called a circular helix and the relations reduce to
= (a2 + const.
S = ny
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SEC. 4—3. UNIT TANGENT VECTOR 85
4—3. UNIT TANGENT VECTOR

We consider again the neighboring points, P(y) and Q(y + shown in
Figure 4—3. The corresponding position vectors are P(y + ky), and
As L\y -+ 0, approaches the tangent to the curve at P. Then, the unit tangent
vector at P is given by*
- PQ d1
t=
.
Jim --=—-
ds
(4—8)
•
Using the chain rule, we can express I as

— — dP dy — 1 dF
(4—9)
— ds — dy ds — dy
Since > 0, 1 always points in the positive direction of the curve, that is, in the
direction of increasing s (or y). It follows that dP/dy is also a tangent vector and
—
dy
/df dP\"2
(4—10)
\dy dy
Equation (4—10) reduces to (4—6) when is expressed in cartesian
coordinates.
+s Q(y+6.y)
r(y)
Fig. 4—3. Unit tangent vector at P(y).
* See Ref. 1, p. 401.
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Example 4—3
We determine the tangent vector for the curve defined by (4—3). The position vector is
F = a cos + b sin Y12 + cyi3

Differentiating P with respect to y,
dP
= —a sin + h cos Y12 +
dy
and using (4—9) and (4—10), we obtain

a = +[a2 sin2 y + b2 cos2 y + c2]"2
=1[—asinyT1 + bcosyi2 + c13]
When a b, a [a2 + =' coast, and the angle between the t?ngent and the X3
direction is constant. A space curve having the property that the angle between the tangent
and a fixed direction (X3 direction for this example) is constant is called a helix.*
4-4. PRINCIPAL NORMAL AND BINORMAL VECTORS

Differentiating = 1 with respect to y, we have
-
= 0
dy
It follows from (a) that di/dy is orthogonal to f. The unit vector pointing in the
direction of di/dy is called the principal normal vector and is usually denoted by ii.
H=
ldt
dy
where (4..-lt)
d (1 dF
The binormal vector, h, is defined by

b='?xh (4-12)
We see that b is also a unit vector and the three vectors. ñ, b comprise a right-
handed mutually orthogonal system of unit vectors at a point on the curve.
Note that the vectors are uniquely defined once y) is specified. The frame
associated with b_and ii is called the moving trihedron and the planes deter-
mined by (1, ñ), (ii, b) and are referred to as the osculating normal, and
rectifying planes (see Fig. 4—4).
* See Ref. 4, Chap. 1.
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SEC. 4—4. PRiNCIPAL NORMAL AND BINORMAL VECTORS 87
Normal plane
Rectifying
plane
Fig. 4—4. Definition of local planes.
Example 4—4
We determine fi and b for the circular helix. We have already found that
a — [a2 +
and
= sin VT1 + a cos + c13]
Differentiating t with respect to y, we obtain

di —
a
— [cos ytj + Sm
Then,
i dt
fl — C05 — Sm
dt dy
dy
The principal normal vector is parallel to the plane and points in the inward radial
direction. It follows that the rectifying plane is orthogonal to the X1-X2 plane. We can
determine b using the expansion for the vector product.
—asiny acosy C
a
This reduces to
- C. C a
b sin — — cos + £3
a a a
The unit vectors are shown in Fig. E4—4.
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88 GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
Fig, E4—4
4—5. CURVATURE, TORSION, AND THE FRENET EQUATIONS

The derivative of the tangent vector with respect to arc length is called the
curvature vector, K.
dt d2F
K i/s2
c/s
(4—13)
ic/i
K
c/s2
Using (4—11), we can write
— — Ku
ds (4—14)
Note that K points in the same direction as Ft since we have taken K 0. The
curvature has the dimension L1 and is a measure of the variation of the tangent
vector with arc length.
We let R be the reciprocal of the curvature:
R= K1 iS)
In the case of a plane curve, R is the radius of the circle passing through three
consecutive points* on the curve, and K = JdO/dsj where 6 is the angle between
I and To show this, we express I in terms of 0 and then differentiate with
respect to s. From Fig. 4—5, we have
cos + Sifl 012
* See Ref. 4, p. 14, for a discussion of the terminokgy 'three consecutive points."
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SEC. 4—5. CURVATURE, TORSION, AND THE FRENET EQUATIONS
Then
— .
dO
K [—sin + cos 617] a—
and
dO 1
K
ds R
dO/ds
[— sin + cos 612]
In the case of a space curve, the tangents at two consecutive points, say P and Q,
are in the osculating plane at F, that is, the plane determined by and ñ at. P.
We can interpret R as the radius of the osculating circle at P. It should be noted
that the osculating plane will generally vary along the curve.
x2
\
R
+
R
t
i2
it
Fig. 4—S. Radius of curvature for a plane curve.
The binormal vector is normal to both and ñ and therefore is normal to the
osculating plane. A measure of the variation of the osculating plane is given
by db/ds. Since his a unit vector, db/ds is orthogonal to h. To determine whether
db/ds involves we differentiate the orthogonality condition I b 0, with
respect to s.
- db - dl
ds ds
But dl/ds Kñ and b ii = 0. Then, db/ds is also orthogonal to I and involves
only ñ. We express db/ds as
db
= —tn (4—16)
where r is called the torsion and has the dimension, L

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90 DiFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
It remains to develop an expression for a. Now, h is defined by

xn
Differentiating with respect to s, we have
db = di dñ
xn+t
This reduces to -
db diii
—=t
x ii = 0. Finally, using (4—16), the torsion is given by
dñ
——
l-dfl
—b — (4—17)
ds dy
Note that a can be positive or negative whereas K is always positive, according
to our definition. The torsion is zero for a plane curve since the osculating plane
coincides with the plane of the curve and b is constant.
Example 4—5
The unit vectors for a circular helix are
= [—a sin vij + a cos Yti + cT3]
—cos — sin
b= yl' — ccosyi3 + at3]
where
a = (a2 + c2)112
Then,
a a
K=-—
adv a a +c
and
1— dñ c c
2
2—const
a dy a
We have developed expressions for the rate of change of the tangent and
binormal vectors. To complete the discussion, we consider the rate of change
of the principal normal vector with respect to arc length. Since fi is a unit
vector, dñ/ds is orthogonal to ñ. From (4—17),
- dñ
b—
ds
a
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SEC. 4—6. GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS FOR A SPACE CURVE 91
To determine the component of dñ/ds in the I direction, we differentiate the

orthogonality relation, I n = 0.
(b)
ds ds
it follows from (a) and (b) that

dñ -
— = —I(t + tb (4—18)
us
The differentiation formulas for 1, ii, and b are called the Frenet equations.
4—6. SUMMARY OF THE GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS FOR

A SPACE CURVE
We summarize the geometrical relations for a space curve:
Orthogonal Unit Vectors
t =
di ldi
= — = tangent vector
thu exdy
1 di
a= —i-- i— principal normal vector
(4—19)
= I x ñ binormal vector
di
—
ds
dy dy
Di:fferenriation Formulas Equations)

dl lull
— -— = Kn
ds ady
db 1db
— = —— = —rn
ds ctdy
dñ 1 dñ -. (4—20)
—Kt +tb
ds ady
1 di
K= — curvature
a dy
=
1—dñ
—b — = torsion
a dy
We use the orthogonal unit vectors (I, ñ, b) to define the local reference frame
for a member element. This is discussed in the following sections. The Frenet
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equations are utilized to establish the governing differential equations for a

member element.
4—7. LOCAL REFERENCE FRAME FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT

The reference frame associated with ñ, and b at a point, say P, on a curve
is uniquely defined once the curve is specified, that is, it is a property of the
curve. We refer to this frame as the natural frame at P. The components
of the unit vectors b) are actually the direction cosines for the natural
frame with respect to the basic cartesian frame which is defined by the ortho-
gonal unit vectors (1k, 12, 13). We write the relations between the unit vectors as
ft £12 133 11
n = t22 12 (4—21)
£32 e33
One can express* the direction cosines in terms of derivatives of the cartesian
coordinates (x1, x2, x3) by expanding (4—19). Since (1, b) are mutually or-
thogonal unit vectors (as well as 13) the direction cosines are related by
1jm6m = j, k = 1, 2, 3 (4—22)
Equation (4—22) leads to the important result

[ljk]T = (4—23)
and we see that is an orthogonal matrix.f

The results presented above arc applicable to an arbitrary continuous curve.
Now, we consider the curve to be the reference axis for a member clement and
take the positive tangent direction and two orthogonal directions in the normal
plane as the directions for the local member frame. We denote the directions
of the local frame by (Y1, Y2, 1'3) and the corresponding unit vectors by (t1, 2,
We will always take the positive tangent direction as the Y1 direction = 1)
and we work only with right handed systems x t3). This notation
is shown in Fig. 4-6.
When the centroid of the normal cross-section coincides with the origin of
the local frame (point P in Fig. 4—6) at every point, the reference axis is called
the centroidal axis for the member. It is convenient, in this case, to take Y2,
Y3 as the principal inertia directions for the cross section.
In general, we can specify the orientation of the local frame with respect to
the natural frame in terms of the angle between the principal normal direction
and the I'2 direction. The unit vectors defining the local and natural frames
* See Prob. 4-5.

t See Prob. 4—6.
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SEC. 4—7 LOCAL REFERENCE FRAME FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT 93
are related by -
tl —
t2 = COS 4)11 + sin 4)b (4—24)
çbn + cos 4th
Combining (4—21) and (4—24) and denoting the product of the two direction
cosine matrices by the relation between the unit vectors for the local and basic
frames takes the concise form
t= (4—25)
where
[ €12 €j3
£21cos4)+€31sin4) €22cos4)+ €32sin4) €23cosçb+ €33sinqS
[21sin4)+€31cos4) —€22si+C32cos4) —€23 sin 41+ £33cos41
Note that the elements of fi are the direction cosines for the local frame with
respect to the basic frame.
fJjk = Xk) (4—26)
Since both frames are orthogonal, J1

'. We will utilize (4—25) in the next
chapter to establish the transformation law for the components of a vector.
x3
Normat
Y1
Fig. 4—6. Definition of local reference frame for the normal cross section.
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Example 4—6
We determine for the circular helix. The natural frame is related to the basic frame.by
I
a.
——slay
a
—cosy —
c
a a a
= — cos y — sin y 0 12 = {Ik}
C.
—slay
c
—--cosy
a
b —
a a a
Using (4-.25)
a
cos y
a a a
a
—sinycosçb ——cosysin4
a a
C. I. a
+cosysm4 + —sinycos4 sin y sin — — cos y cos
a
4—8. CURVILINEAR COORDINATES FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT

We take as curvilinear coordinates (yi, Yz' y3) for a point, say Q, the parameter
of the reference axis and the coordinates (Y2, of Q with respect to the
orthogonal directions (Y2, 1'3) in the normal cross section (see Fig. 4—7). Let
R(y1, Y2' Y3) be the position vector for Q(Yl, y3) and F(y1) the
position vector for the reference axis. They are related by
= r + Y2t2 + y3t3
where
COS + Sifl (
(4—27)
t3 = = + cos4b
We consider 4 to be a function of y1.
Y2
y3 — ——
Y2
Fig. 4—7. Curvilinear coordinates for the cross section.

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SEC. 4—8. CURVILft4EAR COORDiNATES FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT 95
The curve through point Q corresponding to increasing Yj with Y2 and y3

held constant is called the parametric curve (or line) for yj. In general, there
are three parametric curves through a point. We define as the unit tangent
vector for the parametric curve through Q. By definition,
13R
Ui =
(4—28)
aIR
=
The differential arc length along the curve is related to by
aIR
= (4—29)
=
This notation is illustrated in Fig. 4—8. One can consider the vectors
(or to define a local reference frame at Q.
x3
y2t2 +y3t3
x2
Fig. 4—8. Vectors defining the curvilinear directions.
Operating on (4—27), the partial derivatives of R are

0R dt2
—
dy1
+ Y2
dy1
+ Y3
dy1
aR
= t2
aR
= t3
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We see that
t2 g2 1
(4—30)
ü3=t3 g3=1
It remains to determine ü1 and g1.
Now,
= =
dy1
Also, -
d12 (dñ dçb 1db
+ dy1
—bj + .
—
dy1 \dy1 j '\dv1 dy1
dt3 (dii dq5\ 1db
=
.
\dy1
+ b—)+
dy1j \dy1
—11——
dy1
We use the Frenet equations to expand the derivatives of ñ and h. Then,

cit2
dy1 dyj
I d4)'\.
and finally,
= cc(1 — Ky'2)!1 +
/ +
d4)\
_)(Y2t3
-
y3t2)
(4—31)
Y2 COS 4) J73 sin 4)
We see from Fig. 4—9 that y'2 is the coordinate of the point with respect to the
principal normal direction.
y3
\y3
Fig. 4—9. of y.
Since 13R/ay1 (and therefore ii1) involve and the reference frame defined
by iii, u2, will not be orthogonal. However, we can reduce it to an orthogonal
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REFERENCES 97
system by taking
= (4—32)
dy
which requires
cer dy (4—33)
= 150
When (4—32) is satisfied,
aR
= — Ky'2)t1
and
= (4—34)
= cx(l —
In this case, the local frame at Q coincides with the frame at the centroid. One
should note that this simplification is practical only when ccc can be readily
integrated.
Example 4—7
The parameters a and t are constant for a circular helix:
a= (a2 + c2)112
C
Then,
C
at = —
a
and integrating (4—33), we obtain
— Yo) tS
For this curve, varies linearly with y (or arc length). The parameter g1 follows from (4—34).
ds1
hi = = a(1 — Ky2)
/
x(l —
a
'\ cc-
REFERENCES
1. THOMAS, G. B., JR.: Analytical Geometry and Calculus, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Inc., Reading, Mass., 1953.
2. HAY, U. 13.: Vector and Tensor Analysis, Dover Publications, New York, 1953.
3. JA}INKE, E., and F. EMDE: Tables of Functions, Dover Publications, New York, 1943.
4. STRUm, D. J.: Differential Geometry, Addision-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,
Mass., 1950.
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DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
PROBLEMS
4—1. Determine Il, b, ; K, x for the following curves:
(a) x1 = cos y
3 x2 = 3 sin y x3 = 5y
(b) x1 3 cos y x2 = 6 sin y x3 = 5y
(c) = + + p313
(d) x1 = cos y
x2 = sin y
x3 = cy
where a, /3, c are real constants.
4—2. If 0, the curve lies in the plane. Then,r Oandb ±i3.
The sign of b will depend on the relative orientation of ñ with respect to 1.
Suppose the equation defining the curve is expressed in the form
x2=J(x1) x3=0
Equation (a) corresponds to taking x1 as the parameter for the curve.
(a) Determine the expressions for 7, ñ, b, and K corresponding to this
representation. Note that y and + f(x1)12 + Let
_Lf' .f"etc
(b) Apply the results of (a) to
4a
= —
2
x1)
where a and b are constants. This is the equation for a parabola sym-
metrical about x1 = b/2.
(c) Let 9 be the angle between and
cos0 = I •11.
Deduce that = sec 0. Express t, h, !, and K in terms of 0.
(d) Specialize for the case where 02 is negligible with respect to unity.
This approximation leads to
sin 0 tan 0 0
cos 0 1
A curve is said to be shallow when 02 << 1.

4—3. Let K = l/R and t Show that (see (4—20))
di
dh
— = —— 12
dy.
dñ
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PROBLEMS 99
4—4. The equations for an ellipse can be written as

x1 = a cos y x2 = b sin y
or
x12 x22
Determine 1, n for both parametric representations. Take x1 as the parameter

for (b). Does y have any geometrical significance?
4—5. Show that
dx,.
1k C
72 IA A
dy dv2
C2k
[3 (d€
=
[,.=,. \ dyj J \ dy dy dyj j
€311 42 1€21
€32 €13 0
€33j °
4—6. Let
42 43]
Then,
€1
[4k]
€3
Using (4—22), show that
Ii' iT —
i—i
4—7.Determine D for Prob. 4—la.

4—8.Determine JI for Prob. 4—lb.
4-9. Specialize for the case where the reference axis is in the X1 — X2
plane. Note that b = €3313 where 431 = 1. When the reference axis is a plane
curve and = 0, we call the member a "planar" member.
4—10. We express the differentiation formulas for as
dt
— = at
ds
(a) Show that a is, in general, skewsymmetric for an orthogonal system
of unit vectors, ie., c5Jk. Determine a.
(b) Suppose the reference axis is a plane curve but çb 0. The member
is not planar in this case. Determine a.
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5
Matrix Transformations
for a Member Element
5—1. ROTATION TRANSFORMATION
Suppose we know the scalar components of a vector with respect to a ref-
erence frame and we want to determine the components of the vector corre-
sponding to a second reference frame. We can visualize the determination of
the second set of components from the point of view of applying a transforma-
tion to the column matrix of initial components. We refer to this transforma-
tion as a rotation transformation. Also, we call the matrix which defines the
transformation a rotation matrix.
Let (j = 1, 2, 3 and n = 1, 2) be the directions and corresponding unit
vectors for reference frame n. (See Fig. 5—1.) We will generally use a super-
script to indicate the reference frame for directions, unit vectors, and scalar
Fig. 5—1. Directions for reference frames "1" and "2."
100
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SEC. 5—1. ROTATION TRANSFORMATION
components in this text. We consider a vector, a. The scalar components of

a with respect to frame n are a
a is independent of the reference frame. Then,

a= = (a2)Ti2
To proceed further, we must relate the two reference frames. We write, the
relations between the unit vectors as
i2 = Ili'
where is the scalar component of with respect to The transformation
matrix, is nonsingular when the unit vectors are linearly independent. Sub-
stituting for and equating the coefficients of i' leads to
a' =
a2
Finally, we let
R'2
(53)
R21 =
With this notation, the relations between the component matrices take the
form
a2 =
a1 = R21a2
=
The order of the superscripts on R corresponds to the direction of the trans-
formation. For example, R'2 is the rotation transformation matrix corre-
sponding to a change from frame 1 to frame 2. We see that the transformation
matrix for the scalar components of a vector is the inverse transpose of the
transformation matrix governing the unit vectors for the reference frames.
Example 5—i
We consider the two-dimensional case shown in Fig. E5-1. The relations between the
unit vectors are
= cos + sin
= —sin + cos
We write (a) according to (5—2).
cos6 sinO
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102 MATRIX TRANSFORMATIONS FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 5
Then,
—sin4
R21
Lsinfl cos4
R'2 = (fV) 1 =
L—sjn 6 cos U
0 cos + o sin
and
Jafl — I
[ cos sin
— ?J L — sin 0 cos oJ
When both frames are orthogonal, q5 = 0 and ir
Fig. E5—1
12
The result obtained in the preceding example can be readily extended to the
case of two orthogonal reference frames. When both frames are
orthogonal, the change in reference frames can be visualized as a rigid body
rotation of one frame into the other, f3jk is the direction cosine for with
respect to and the rotation transformation matrix is an orthogonal matrix:
R'2 — 1
— LI'jki (55)
Pjk — COSt'X2
j, A'k
In Sec. 4—7, we defined the orientation of the local frame (1k, 13, at a
point on the reference axis of a member element with respect to the natural
frame (1, ñ, b) at the point. This frame, in turn, was defined with respect to a
fixed cartesian frame 12, 13). In order to distinguish between the three
frames, we use superscripts p and p' for the local and natural frames at p and
a superscript 1 for the basic cartesian frame:
= t2,
= {Z, ii, b} (5—6)
=
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SEC. 5—2. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FORCE TRANSFORMATIONS 103
With this notation, the relations between the unit vectors and the various
rotation matrices are:
t" = R141
=
1. From(4—21),
— (5—7)
2. From (4—24),
1 0 0
=0 cos4; sin 4;
0 —sin4; cos4;
3.
defined by (4—25).
5—2. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FORCE TRANSFORMATIONS

The equilibrium analysis of a member element involves the determination
of the internal force and moment vectors at a cross section due to external
forces and moments acting on the member. We shall refer to both forces and
moments as "forces." Also, we speak of the force and moment at a point, say
P, as the "force system" at P. The relationship between the external force
system at P and the statically equivalent internal force system at Q hasa simple
form when vector notation is used. Consider a force F and moment M acting
at P shown in Fig. 5—2. The statically equivalent force and moment at Q are
Feqrnv.
-- (5-8)
Mequiv = M + XF
One can visualize (5—8) as a force transformation in which the force system
at P is transformed into the force system at Q. This transformation will be
Fcquiv.
5—2. Equivalent force system.
linear if is constant, that is, if the geometry of the element does not change
appreciably when the external loads are applied. We will write (5—8) in matrix
form and treat force transformations as matrix transformations.
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We develop first the matrix transformation associated with the moment of

a force about a point. Let be a force vector acting at point P and MQ the
moment vector at point Q corresponding to We will always indicate the
point of application of a force or moment vector with a subscript. The relation
between MQ and is —
= QP x (5—9)
We work with an orthogonal reference frame (frame 1) shown in Fig. 5—3
and write the component expansions as
— v' ri ._ '1
PL.. 1
P
(5—10)
= (jl)TM1
The scalar components of QP are 4, — Expanding the vector cross

product leads to
= (5—11)
0 —
(1 1\ (1 (1. 1
—
—(42 XQ2) — 0
Note that is a matrix. One can interpret it as a force-

translation transformation matrix. The force at P is transformed by into
/ ,1
F1P3
'Ik —
M1
i—-i
43
I' 'i/
/ xP1
/
Xp3
Fig. 5—3. Notation for orthogonal reference frame.

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a moment at Q. Note that the order of the subscripts for the translation trans-
formation matrix, corresponds to the order of the translation (from P
to Q). Also, and must be referred to the same frame, that is, the super-
scripts must be equal.
Up to this point, we have considered only one orthogonal reference frame.
In general, there will be a local orthogonal reference frame associated with
each point on the axis of the member, and these frames will coincide only when
the member is prismatic. To handle the general case we must introduce rota-
tion transformations which transform the components of F and M from the
local frames to the basic frame (frame 1) and vice versa. We use a superscript
p to indicate the local frame at point P and the rotation matrix corresponding
to a transformation from the local frame at P to frame 1 is denoted by R'1.
With this notation,
=
(5—12)
=
and the general expression for takes the form
= (5—13)
We consider next the total force transformation. The statically equivalent

force and moment at Q associated with a force and moment at P are given by
— (a)
MQ = + QP x
When all the vectors are referred to a common frame, say frame 1, the matrix
transformation is
— I
(b)
'Q) L"PQ L3J
We let
(5—14)
=
The 6 x 1 matrix is called the force system at Q referred to frame 1. Using

this notation, (b) simplifies to
d1 —
When the force systems are referred to local frames, we mast first transform
them to a common frame and then apply (5--15). Utilizing the general
matrix,
0 1
I
_ (5—16)
=
and applying.
(a)
=
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we obtain
= (5—17)
Equation (5—17) states that when the matrix transformation is applied

to we obtain its statical equivalent at Q. Actually, we could leave off the
subscripts and superscripts on when we write (5—17). However, appears
alone, we must include them. Note that the force transformation generally
involves both translation and rotation. The order of the subscripts corresponds
to the direction of the translation, e.g., from P to Q. Similarly the order of the
superscripts defines the direction of the rotation or change in reference frames,
e.g., from frame p to frame q.
In general, the geometry of a member element is defined with respect to a basic
reference frame which we take as frame 1. To evaluate we must determine
Rn', and from the geometrical relations for the member. We have
already discussed how one determines R1 in Secs. 4—7 and 5—f.
When the member is planar* and the geometry is fairly simple (such as a
straight or circular member), we can take frame I parallel to one of the local
frames. This eliminates one rotation transformation. For example, suppose we
take frame I parallel to frame p. Then, R1 = 1 and reduces to
— [R = (S—18)
Similarly, if 1 and q are parallel,
- - (5-19)
— I
When both p and q arc parallel to 1, reduces to
= 91i'PQ (5—20)
By transforming from P to Q and back to F, we obtain

=
and it follows that
(5—21)
If the transformation from P to is carried out in the order P S1, S1

S2,..., —÷ Q, where S2, . are intermediate points, the transforma-
. , S,,
tion matrix, is equal to the product of the intermediate transformation
matrices.
— (5—22)
* If the reference axis isa plane curve and the local frame coincides with the natural frame = 0)
we say the member is planar.
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where s1, s2, .. . , SN are arbitrary reference frames. It is convenient to take a

common reference frame for the intermediate transformations.
Example 5—2
We consider the plane circular member shown in Fig. ES—2. We take frame 1 parallel to
frame p. Then,
4 — = {a sin 0, —a(1 — cos 0), O}

0 0 —a(1—cos6)
= = 0 0 —a Sin 6
a(1 — cos 0) a sin 0 0
cos6 —sinO 0
= = sin 0 cos 0 0
0 0
The transformation matrix has the form

9
— — I
— —
where
0 0 +a(1 —cos6)
=0 0 —asinO
a(1 — cos 0) asin0 0
Fig. E5—2
p
2
t7
Example 5—3
As an illustration of the case where the geometry is defined with respect to a basic
Cartesian frame, we consider the problem of finding for a circular helix. The general
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expansion for has the form

[RPS
The parametric representation for a circular is given in Sec. 4—i:

= a cos y
= a sin y
= cy
where (j = 1,2,3) are the cartesian coordinates with respect to the basic frame (frame 1).
Let yp and y corresponding to points P and Q. The coordinate matrices
for P and Q are
4 = {a cos Vp, a Sifl Cyp)
= {a cos yQ, a sin YQ, cy0}
Then,
0 — C(yp — a(sin y,, — sin YQ)
= C(yp y0) 0 —a(cos ,, — cos
—a(sin — sin yQ) a(cos Yp C05 Y0) 0
To simplify the algebra, we suppose the local frame coincides with the natural frame at
every point along the reference axis, that is, we take = 0. Using the results of Sec. 4—7,
the rotation matrices reduce to
a
a
C a
C.
a C
cc cc
where cc2 a2 + c2.

Evaluating the product, we obtain
(a\2 /c\2 a ac
I—I ——sin ij —i (1 — cos
cc I cc
c /a\2 /c'\2
cc \ccJ
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SEC. 5—3. THREE-DIMENSIONAL DISPLACEMENT TRANSFORMATIONS
where = yp y0. Also,

=
a2c ac a
—3-(2 — I
— sinq) — cosn)(a5 — c2)]
a a
(IC . I
—
a I a a
ac2 a a2 ci2c
— — c2) —
a a a a a a
Note that we can specialize the above general results for the case of a plane circular member
(Example 5-2) by taking c = 0 and = 0.
5—3. THREE-DIMENSIONAL DISPLACEMENT TRANSFORMATIONS

Let P and Q be two points on a rigid body. Suppose that the body experiences
a translation and a rotation. We define Up and Ui,, as the translation and rota-
tion* vectors for point P. The corresponding vectors for point Q are given by
UQ = Up + (Up X
(5—23)
= Wp
Equation (5—23) is valid only when is negligible with respect to unity.
Since PQ — QP and x PQ — PQ x an alternate form for is
UQ = Up + QP X (5—24)
We define
(5—25)
=
as the displacement matrix for P referred to frame 1. The displaccment at Q
resulting from the rigid body displacement at P is given by
— [13 XPQ1
L"l 3J i —
consider next the case where the local frames at P and Q do not coincide.
The general relation between the displacements has the form
=
0 13
- (5—27)
— d14
[o j
One can showt that alternate forms of (5—27) are
= T (yqp)T
The units are radians. -
t See Prob. 5--7.

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We see that the displacement transformation matrix is the inverse transpose of

the corresponding force transformation matrix. This result is quite useful.
REFERENCES
1. HALL, A. S., and R. W. WOODS-LEAD: Frame Analysis, 2d ed., Wiley, New York, 1967.
2. MORLCE, P. B.: Linear Structural Analysis, Ronald Press. New York, 1959.
3. PESTEL, E., and LECKIE, F.: Matrix Methods in Elastomechanics, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1963.
4. Livasr.Ey, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, London,
1964.
5. MARTLS.t, H. C.: Introduction to Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1966.
PROBLEMS
5—1. Consider the two-dimensional cartesian reference frames shown. If
a1 = {50, —100}, find a2.
Prob. 5—i
5—2. The orientation of two orthogonal frames is specified by the direction

cosine table listed below.
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
\/2/2 o
(a) Determine R12. Verify that (R12)T = (R12y1
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PROBLEMS
(b) If a1 = {10, 5, 10}, find a2.

(c) If a2 {5, 10, 10), find a'.
5—3. Consider two points, P and Q, having coordinates (6, 3,2) and (—5, 1,4)
with respect to frame 1. The direction cosine tables for the local reference frames
are listed below.
—1 —,
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
0
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
0 — 12/2
(a) Determine 91'),Q and
(b) Determine
(c) Suppose {l00, —50, 100, 20, —40, +60). Calculate
5--4. Consider the planar member consisting of a circular segment and a
straight segment shown in the sketch below. Point P is at the center of the circle.
Prob,. 5—4
S
t'i
Ic
(a) Determine by transforming directly from P to Q. Also find

(b) Determine by transforming from P to S and then from S to Q.
(c) Find corresponding to = {0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0}.
5—5. Consider the circular helix,
= 2 cos + 2 sin + 13. -
(a) Suppose 4(y) = 0. Determine Take = ir/2, YQ =

(b) Suppose = —y. Determine
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5—6. Refer to Problem 5—3. Determine corresponding to = {1/2,

— 1/4, 1/3, — 1/10, 1/10, 0}. Verify that
Q Q_ P P
Verify that (5—27) and (5—28) are equivalent forms. Note that
ii
5—7.
rI r niT
•1
L"
IA
3 1
— I _T___
3J
I I
I
—c ort
5—8. Consider the plane member shown. The reference axis is defined by
x2 = f(xj).
Prob. 5—8
x1
(a) Determine Note that the local frame at P coincides with the
basic frame whereas the local frame at Q coincides with the natural
frame at Q.
(b) Specialize part (a) for the case where
4a 2
— (x1b — Xj)
and the x1 coordinate of point Q is equal to h/4. Use the results of

Prob. 4—2.
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XCI)
z
C
Cl)
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6
Governing Equations
for an Ideal Truss
6—i. GENERAL
A system of bars* connected at their ends by frictionless hinges to joints and
subjected only to forces applied at the joint centers is called an ideal truss.t
The bars arc assumed to be weightless and so assembled that the line con-
necting the joint centers at the ends of each bar coincides with the centroidal
axis. Since the bars are weightless and the hinges are frictionless, it follows that
each bar is in a state of direct stress. There is only one force unknown asso-
ciated with each bar, namely, the magnitude of the axial force; the direction
of the force coincides with the line connecting the joint If the bars lie
in one plane, the system is called a plane or two-dimensional truss. There
are two displacement components associated with each joint of a plane truss.
Similarly, a general system is called a space or three-dimensional truss, and
there are three displacement components associated with each joint.
We suppose there are in bars (members) and j joints. We define i as
= 2 for a plane truss
= 3 for a space truss
Using this notation, there are if displacement quantities associated with the]
joints. In general, some of the joint-displacement components are prescribed.
Let r be the number of prescribed displacement components (displacement
restraints) and nd the total number of unknown joint displacements. It follows
that
= if — r (6—2)
Corresponding to each joint displacement restraint is an unknown joint force
A prismatic member is conventionally referred to as a bar in truss analysis.

± See Ref. 1.
115
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116 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN iDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
(reaction). We let flf be the total number of force unknowns. Then,

n1—m+r (6—3)
Finally, the total number of unknowns, n, for an ideal truss is

fl—flj+flj—(j+tfl (6—4)
The equilibrium equations for the bars have been used to establish the fact
that the force in each bar has the direction of the line connecting the joint
centers at the ends of the bar. There remains the equilibrium equations for the
joints. Since each joint is subjected to a concurrent force system, there are iJ
scalar force-equilibrium equations relating the bar forces, external joint loads,
and direction cosines for the lines connecting the joint centers in the deformed
state. In order to solve the problem, that is, to determine the bar forces, reac-
tions, and joint displacements, m additional independent equations are required.
These additional equations are referred to as the bar force—joint displacement
relations and are obtained by combining the bar force—bar elongation relation
and bar elongation—joint displacement relation for each of the in bars.
In this chapter, we first derive the elongation—joint displacement relation for
a single bar and then express the complete set of in relations as a single matrix
equation. Thisprocedure is repeated for the bar force-elongation relations and
the joint force-equilibrium equations. We then describe a procedure for in-
troducing the joint-displacement restraints and summarize the governing equa-
tions. Finally, we briefly discuss the solvability of the governing equations for
the linear case. In this case, the question of initial instability is directly related
to the solvability.
In Chapter 7, we develop variational principles for an ideal truss. The
two general procedures for solving the governing equations are described in
Chapters 8 and 9. We refer to these procedures as the displacement and force
methods. They are also called the stWhess and flexibility methods in some
texts.
The basic concepts employed in formulating and solving the governing
equations for an ideal truss are applicable, with slight extension, to a member
system having moment resisting connections. Some authors start with the
general system and then specialize the equations for the case of an ideal truss.
We prefer to proceed from the truss to the general system since the basic
formulation techniques for the ideal truss can be more readily described. To
adequately describe the formulation for a general system requires introducing
a considerable amount of notation which tends to overpower the reader.
6—2. ELONGATION—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION FOR A BAR

We number the joints consecutively from 1 through j. It is convenient to
refer the coordinates of a joint, the joint-displacement components, and the
external joint load components to a common right-handed cartesian reference
frame. Let (j = 1, 2, 3) be the axes and corresponding orthogonal unit
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SEC. 6—2. ELONGATION—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION
vectors for the basic frame. The initial coordinates, displacement components,
and components of the resultant external force for joint k are denoted by
(j = 1, 2, 3) and the corresponding vectors are written as
rk =
j= 1
Uk = Ukl (6—5)
Pk
The coordinates and position vector for joint k in the deformed state are
1k + 11k
(6—6)
= + Uk
Figure 6—1 illustrates the notation associated with the joints.
14313
Deformed position
of joint k
x2
//
// flkl
11k2
x1
Fig. 6—1. Notation for joints.
We number the bars from 1 through m and consider bar n to be connected

to joints k and s. The centroidal axis of bar n coincides with the line con-
necting joints k and s. From Fig. 6—2 the initial length of bar n, denoted by
is equal to the magnitude of the vector = —
= (6—7)
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116 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
Since the basic frame is orthogonal, (6—7) reduces to
= — xk)T(xs — xk) — xkf) (6—8)

=
Before the orientation of the bar can be specified, a positive sense or direc-
tion must be selected. We take the positive sense for bar n to be from joint k
13
x.,3
12
I /
/ XkI //
Xk2
/
Xg3
Fig. 6—2. Undeformed position of Bar n.
to joint s and define as the direction cosine for the positive sense of bar n
in the undeformed state with respect to the direction:
1 1
= (Ar = — XkJ) (6—9)
It is convenient to list the direction cosines in a row matrix,
— Xk) (6—10)
=L
Note that 1, due to the orthogonality of the reference frame. Finally,
we let be the unit vector associated with the positive direction of bar n in
the undeformed state. By definition,
- 1
= Ar =
12
The deformed position of bar n is shown in Fig. 6—3. The length and direc-
tion cosines for bar n are equal to the magnitude and direction cosines for the
vector, = — Pk. Let L12 + e12 be the deformed length, the unit vector
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SEC. 6—2. ELONGATION—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION
x3
Ap Joints
x2
t?&2
x1
Fig. 6—3. Deformed position of Bar n.
associated with the positive direction in the deformed state, and the corre-
sponding direction cosine matrix. These quantities are defined by
+ eh) (6—12)
— 1 —.
— (6—13)
—
(6—14)
We consider first (6—12). Substituting for

= A1 + — Uk)
and noting (6—7), (6—11), we obtain, after dividing both sides by
e 2
2. 1
(1 + = 1 + — Uk) + — uk)T(US ilk) (6—15)
The expression for the direction cosine, expands to

1 [
[cx,,j +
1
UkJ) (6—16)
= E
I +-;:-
We list the fl's in a row matrix,
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[cm + uk)T] (6—17)
By definition, is the change in length of bar n. Then, e,,/L7, is the extensional

strain which is considerably less than unity for most engineering materials. For
example, the strain is only for steel at a stress level of 3 x ksi. The
relations simplify if we introduce the assumption of small strain,
<< I
Expanding the left-hand side of (6—15), and noting (6—18), we obtain
e,, — Uk) + (ii,, — uk)T(u$ — Uk) (6—19)
The direction cosines for the deformed orientation reduce to
+ — Uk) (6—20)
To simplify the expression for further, we need to interpret the quadratic

terms. Using (6—20), we can write (6—19) as
=
/ +
1
— (u, Uk)
This form shows that the second-order terms arc related to the change in
orientation of the bar. If the initial geometry is such that the bar cannot ex-
perience a significant change in orientation, then we can neglect the nonlinear
terms. We use the term linear geometry for this case. The linearized relations
are
— Uk)
(6—21)
We discuss this reduction in greater detail in Chapter 8. Since we are concerned

in this chapter with the formulation of the governing equations, we will retain
the nonlinear rotation terms. However, we will assume small strain, i.e., we
work with (6—19), (6—20).
6—3. GENERAL ELONGATION—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION

We have derived expressions for the.direction cosines and elongation of a bar
in terms of the initial coordinates and displacement components of the joints
at the ends of the bar. By considering the truss as a system or network, the
geometric relations for all the bars can be expressed as a single matrix equation.
The relations for bar n, which is connected to joints s and k (positive direction
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SEC. 6—3. GENERAL ELONGATION—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION 121
from k to s) are summarized below for convenience:
= (x. —
— Xk)
= (x., — xk)
T
= — Uk)
= + (ii, — uk)T
= + Uk)
Up to this point, we have considered joints s and k as coinciding with the.

positive and negative ends of member n. Now we introduce new notation which
is more convenient for generalization of the geometric relations. Let n÷, n_
denote the joint numbers for the joints at the positive and negative ends of
member n. The geometric relations take the form (we replace s by and k
bynJn(a)):
= — x,,.)
—
=
= — (6—22)
= ci,, + (u,,, 11)T
= ci,, + — u,,)
To proceed further, we must relate the bars and joints of the system, that is,
we must specify the connectivity of the truss. The connectivity can be defined
by a table having m rows and three columns. In the first column, we list the bar
numbers in ascending order, and in the other two columns the corresponding
numbers, and n, of the joints at the positive and negative ends of the mem-
bers. This table is referred to as the branch-node incidence table in network
theory.* For structural systems, a branch corresponds to a member and a node
to a joint, and we shall refer to this table as the member-joint incidence table
or simply as the connectivity table. It should be noted that the connectivity
depends only on the numbering of the bars and joints, that is, it is independent
of the initial geometry and distortion of the system.
Example 6—1
As an illustration, consider the two-dimensional truss shown. The positive directions of

the bars are indicated by arrowheads and the bar numbers are encircled. The conneêtivity
See Ref. 8.
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122 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
table (we list it horizontally to save space) for this numbering scheme takes the following
form:
Bar,n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
+Joint(n÷) 1 2 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 4 5
—Joint(n..) 2 3 5 6 4 5 6 5 6 2 3
Fig. E6—1
3 0 2 0
0
6 4
With the connectivity table, the evaluation of the initial length and direction cosines can
be easily automated. The initial data consists of the j coordinate matrices, x1, x2
To compute and a,,, we first determine n÷ and n_ from the connectivity table and then
use the first two equations of(6—22). For example, for bar 8, 8÷ 1, 8.. 5, and
xs• — x1 — x5
(x1 — x)T(x * x5)
= — x5)T
We define e and qj as the system elongation and joint-displacement matrices,

e= {e1, C2,...,
6—23
= {u1,u2
and express the m elongation-displacement relations as a single matrix equation
e =
u (6—24)
where d is of order m x ij. The elements in the uth row of d involve only
the elements of Then, partitioning d into submatrices, of order 1 x 1,
where k = 1, 2 in and £ = 1, 2 j, it follows that the only nonvan-
ishing submatrices for row n are the two subinatrices whose column number
corresponds to the joint number at the positive or negative end of member it,
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SEC. 6—3. GENERAL ELONGATION—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION
namely, n÷ and n.:

= +777
= (6—25)
= 0 when t' n÷ orn
Example 6—2
The .& matrix can be readily established by using the connectivity table. For row n,
one puts +y,, at column at column n_, and null matrices at the other locations.
The general form of the d matrix for the truss treated in Example 6—1 is listed below.
We have also listed the elongations and joint displacement matrices to emphasize the
significance of the rows and partitioned columns of .&.
Uj U2 U3 U4 U5 U6
e1 Ii 0 0 0 0
e2 0 12 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 13 13 0
e4 0 0 0 0 14 14
e5 15 0 0 0 0
e6 0 is 0 0 —Ys 0
0 0 0 0
e5 is 0 0 0 0
e9 0 19 0 0 0 —19
e10 0 1io 0 ho 0 0
e11
0 0 0 0
The d matrix depends on both the geometry and the topology. It is of

interest to express d in a form where these two effects are segregated. The form
of (6—25) suggests that we list the y's in a quasi-diagonal matrix,
71
= 72
(6—26)
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and define C as
k 1,2 in
C = [Ck(i
e= 1,2,...,j (6—27)
*= + Cr,, - = — Ij
=0 n÷ or n...
Then,
d = yC (6—28)
The network terminology* for C is augmented branch-node incidence matrix.

We shall refer to it simply as the connectivity matrix.
Example 6—3
The connectivity matrix for Example 6—1 is listed below. The unit matrices are of order
2 since the system is two-dimensional.
Joint Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 12
2 +12
12
+12
12
Bar
Numbers +12
+12 12
+12 12
+12
12 +12
12 +12
One can consider row n of C to define the two joints associated with bar n. It follows
that column k of C defines the bars associated with joint k. This association is usually
See Prob. 6—6. See also Ref. 8.
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SEC. 6—4. FORCE-ELONGATION RELATION FOR A BAR 125
referred to as incidence. We say.that a joint is positive incident on a bar when it is at

the positive end of the bar. Similarly, a bar is positive incident on a joint when its positive
end is at the joint. For example, we see that joints 1 and 4 are incident on bar 5 and
bars 3, 4, 6, 8, and 11 are incident on joint 5. We will use this property of the connectivity
matrix later to generalize the joint force-equilibrium equations.
6-4. FORCE-ELONGATION RELATION FOR A BAR

By definition, each bar of an ideal truss is prismatic and subjected only to
axial load applied at the centroid of the end cross sections. It follows that the
only nonvanishing stress component is the axial stress, a, and also, a is con-
stant throughout the bar. We will consider each bar to be homogeneous but
we will not require that all the bars be of the same material. The strain, s, will
be constant when the bar is homogeneous and the force-elongation relation
will be similar in form to the uniaxial stress-strain curve for the material.
A typical a-c curve is shown in Fig. 6—4. The initial portion of the curve is
essentially straight for engineering materials such as steel and aluminum. A
material is said to be elastic when the stress-strain curve is unique, that is,
when the curves corresponding to increasing and decreasing a coincide (OAB
and BAO in Fig. 6—4). If the behavior for decreasing a is different, the material
is said to be inelastic. For ductile materials, the unloading curve (BC) is essen-
tially parallel to the initial curve.*
Elastic
behavior
0 C
Fig. 6—4. Stress-strain curves for elastic and inelastic behavior.
We introduce the following notation:

A = cross sectional area
F axial force, positive when tension
= initial elongation, i.e., elongation not associated
with stress
*
A detailed discussion of the behavior of engineering materials is given in Chap. 5 of Ref. 2.
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Since the stress and strain are constant throughout the bar,
F=
e = Lg (6—29)
e0 = Le0
We convert the a-c relation for the material to the force-elongation relation
for the bar by applying (6—29).
C0
Fig. 6—5. Linear elastic behavior.
We consider first the case where the stress-strain relation is linear, as shown
in Fig. 6—5. A material having this property is called Hookean. The initial and
transformed relations are
a= E(r —
AE
F (e — e0) k(e — a0) (6—30)
=
L
a F + e0 = fF + e0
We call k, f the stiffness and flexibility factors for the bar. Physically, k is the
force required per unit elongation and f, which is the inverse of k, is the elon-
gation due to a unit force.
We consider next the case where the stress-strain relation is approximated
by a series of straight line segments. The material is said to be piecewise linear.
Figure 6—6 shows this idealization for two segments. A superscript (j) is
used to identify the modulus and limiting stress for segment j. The force-
elongation relation will still be linear, but now we have to determine what
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SEC. 6-4. FORCE-ELONGATION RELATION FOR A BAR 127
Fig. 6—6. Piecewise

linear approximation.
segment the deformation corresponds to and also whether the strain is in-
creasing (loading) or decreasing (unloading). For unloading, the curve is as-
sumed to be parallel to the initial segment.* The relations for the various
possibilities are listed below.
1. Loading or Unloading—initial Segment
F = F>1>
(6—3 1)
F= k">(e —
2. Loading—Second Segment
F>l) < F ,4a12> F>2>

F k'2>(e (6—32)
= + (f°> —
3. Unloading—Second Segment
F k>1>(e — (6—33)
One can readily generalize these relations for the nth segment.f
* We are neglecting the Bauschinger etlect. See Ref. 2, Sec. 5.9. or Ref. 3, Art. 74.
t See Prob. 6—8.
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Example 6—4
We consider a bilinear approximation, shown in Fig. E6—4.
Fig. E6—4
40
41.7
30
(in./in.)
Taking
L=lQft=l2Oin ,4=lin.2
we obtain
= = 83.3 kips/in. f"> = 1/k"> = 12 x in./kip

L
AE>2>
k>2> = —.— = 41.7 kips/in. f"> = 24 x in./kip
L
F"> = = 3okips
42> = + ([1) — 120 — 0.36 in.
Segment 1 F (83.3)(e — 120

Segment 2 F (41.7)(e —
Suppose a force of 35 kips is applied and the bar is unloaded. The equivalent initial
strain is (see Equation 6—33 and Fig. 6—6):
= —
= + (f>2) — = + 0.06 in.
The procedure described above utilizes the segment stiffness, which can be
interpreted as an average tangent stiffness for the segment. We have to modify
the stiffness and equivalent initial elongation only when the limit of the seg-
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SEC. 6-4. FORCE-ELONGATION RELATION FOR A BAR 129
ment is reached. An alternate procedure is based on using the initial linear

stiffness for all the segments. In what follows, we outline the initial st(ffness
approach.
.4
I''I
/1
-eo,eq.
Fig. 6—7. Notation for the initial stiffness approach.
Consider Fig. 6—7. We write the force-elongation relation segment 2 as

F— — — A
(6—34)
= kU)(e — eo,eq)
where e0, eq is interpreted as the equivalent linear initial strain and is given by
eo,eq =
(6—35)
A = — —
The equivalent initial strain, eoeq, depends on e, the actual strain. Since e in
turn depends on F, one has to iterate on eoeq regardless of whether the seg-
ment limit has been exceeded. This disadvantage is offset somewhat by the use
of for all the segments.
The notation introduced for the piecewise linear case is required in order to
distinguish between the various segments and the two methods. Rather than
continue with this detailed notation, which is too cumbersome, we will drop
all the additional superscripts and write the force-deformation relations for bar
n in the simple linear form
=
(6—36)
= +
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where k, f, and e0 are defined by (6—31) through (6—35) for the physically
nonlinear case.
6—5. GENERAL BAR FORCE—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION

The force-deformation and deformation-displacement relations for bar n are
given by (6—22) and (6—36). Combining these two relations leads to an expres-
sion for the bar force in terms of the displacement matrices for the joints at
the ends of the bar. The two forms are:
F,, = — e0, = F0,,, + — k,,y,,u,, (6—37)
F0,,, = —k,,e0,,,
and
— u,_) = e,, e0,, + f,,F,, (6—38)
We can express the force-displacement relations for the "m" bars as a single
matrix equation by defining
(6 39)
k1
k2
k=
km
and noting (6—24). The generalized forms of (6—37) and (6—38) are:
F= k(e — e0) = F0 + (6—40)

and
d°1I = e0 + fF (6—41)
6—6. JOINT FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

Let F,, be the axial force vector for bar n (see Fig. 6—8). The force vector
has the direction of the unit vector, i,,, which defines the orientation of the bar
in the deformed state. Now, = fi,,i. Then,
F,, = (6—42)
When F,, is positive, the sense of F,, is the same as the positive sense for the
bar. Continuing, we define F,,,, as the forces exerted by bar n on
the joints at the positive and negative ends of the bar. From Fig. 6—8,
= — F,, = — F,,fi,,i
(6—43
F,,,, +F,, =
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SEC. 6—6. JOINT FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
Joint n_
Fig. 6—8. Notation for barforce.
We consider next joint k. The external joint load vector is Pk, where
Pk = For equilibrium, the resultant force vector must equal zero. Then,
Pk - j+=k —
The first summation involves the bars which are positive incident on joint k
(positive end at joint k) and the second the bars which are negative incident.
Using (6--43), the matrix equilibrium equation for joint k takes the form:
Pk = — (6—44)
j+k
Let be the general external joint load matrix:
= P2, ,
(if x 1) (6—45)
We write the complete set of joint force-equilibrium equations as:

= (6—46)
Note that the rows of pertain to the joints and the columns to the bars.
We partition into submatrices of order i x 1.
= (if x m)
(6—47)
= 1, 2,.. ,j .
and k= 1, 2. . . ,m
Since a bar is incident only on two joints, there will be only two elements in
any column of From (6—44), we see that, for column n,
=
= (6—48)
= 0 when e orn_
The matrix can be readily developed using the connectivity table. It will
have the same form as dT with y, replaced by n,,. When the geometry is linear,
= = and
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Example 6—5
The matrix for the truss of Example 6—1 has the following general form:
Bar Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 +llç
RT T nT nT ftT
+ 2 —plo
Iz -'
A
DT
P2
oT nT
OF
+p7 OT
a ±1J3
C
oT oT øT oT
C
-I J3 +p4 P6 +pU
•r
I,
We could have also utilized the connectivity* matrix C to develop ft was

pointed out in Example 6—3 that the elements of the kth column of C define
the incidence of the bars on joint k. Using this property, we can write the
generalized form of (6—44) as
where
0 -. 0
(rn x Lm) (6—49)
o o
Finally, we have
= (6—50)
6—7. INTRODUCTION OF DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS;

GOVERNING EQUATIONS
We have developed the following equations relating F, e, and qj,
e = d°l1 = e0 + IF
=
where the elements of and are the external joint-displacement and external
joint-load matrices arranged in ascending order. Also, in our derivation, we
have considered the components to be referred to a basic reference frame. Now,
* See Sec. 6—3, Eq. 6—27.
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SEC. 6—7. INTRODUCTtON OF DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS 133
when joint displacement restraints are imposed, there will be a reduction in

the number of joint displacement unknowns and a corresponding increase in
the number of force unknowns. This will require a rearrangement of d,
and
Let r be the number of displacement restraints and 11d the number of displace-
ment unknowns. There will be n4 prescribed joint loads and r unknown joint
loads (usually called reactions) corresponding to the na unknown joint displace-
nients and the r known joint displacements. We let U1, U2 be the column
matrices of unknown and prescribed joint displacement components and P1,
P2 the corresponding prescribed and unknown joint load matrices. The re-
arranged system joint displacement and joint load matrices are written as U, P:
(fld x 1)
(r x 1)
6—51
—
>< 1)
- x 1)
+ V = 13
We point out that the components contained in U (and P) may be referred to

local reference frames at the various joints rather than to the basic frames.
This is necessary when the restraint direction at a joint does not coincide with
one of the directions of the basic frame. Finally, we let A and B be the trans-
formation matrices associated with U and P. Then, (a) takes the form:
e= = AU e0 + fF
P BF
We partition A, B consistent with the partitioning of U, P:
A2]
(fflxnd) (mxr)
(6—52)
B [Bil (nd x in)
LB2i(r x m)
and write (b) in expanded form:
e A1U1 + A2tJ2 = e0 + fF (6—53)
= B1F (6—54)
P2 B2F (6—55)
Equation (6—53) represents equations relating the in unknown bar forces,

the nd unknown displacements, and the r prescribed displacements. Equation
(6—54) represents equations involving the in unknown bar forces and the
prescribed joint loads. Lastly, Equation (6—55) represents r equations. for
the r reactions in terms of the m bar forces. When the geometry is nonlinear,
A and B involve the joint displacements. If the geometry is linear, A J3T, and
= AT j = 1, 2 (6—56)
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We have introduced the displacement restraints into the formulation by

replacing d, with A, B. It remains to discuss how one determines A, B
from d, In the following section, we treat the case of an arbitrary restraint
direction. We also describe how one can represent the introduction of displace-
ment restraints as a matrix transformation.
6—8. ARBITRARY RESTRAINT DIRECTION

When all the restraint directions are parallel to the direction of the global
reference frame, we obtain U from by simply rearranging the rows of
such that the elements in the first rows are the unknown displacements and
the last r rows contain the prescribed displacements. To obtain A, we perform
the same operations on the columns of d, Finally, since P corresponds to U,
we obtain B by operating on the rows of or alternately, by operating on the
columns and then transposing the resulting matrix.
When the restraint at a joint does not coincide with one of the directions of
the basic frame, it is necessary first to transform the joint displacement and
external load components from the basic frame to a local frame associated with
the restraint at the joint. Suppose there is a displacement restraint at joint k.
Let (j = 1, 2, 3) be the orthogonal directions for the local reference frame
associated with the displacement restraint at joint k. Also, let and be
the corresponding displacement and external joint load components. Finally,
let R0k be the rotation transformation matrix for the local frame at joint k with
respect to the basic frame (frame o). The components are related by:
k_
Uk—
ok
Uk
k..
Pk—
ak
Pk
—
where
ROk = [cos (6—58)
We have omitted the frame superscript (o) for quantities referred to the basic
frame (ut, to simplify the notation.
We define CU', as the system joint-displacement and -force matrices
referred to the local joint reference frames,
= ...
(6-59)
= . . .
and as the system joint-rotation matrix,
R°1
R02
= . (6—60)
R0j
Then,
=
= (a)
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SEC. 6—8. ARBITRARY RESTRAINT DIRECTION 135
Operating on the initial equations with (a),
b
(IP =
leads to
= (6—61)
The transformation to is the same as for the case where the restraint
directions are parallel to the directions of the basic frame, that is, it will involve
only a rearrangement of the rows of Similarly, we obtain A by rearranging
the columns of .cifi. The steps are
A2]
-+ -* B
LB2
Example 6—6
To obtain the submatrices in column k of we postmultiply the submatrices in column
T
k of ri by R°" We can perform the same operation on and then transpose the
resulting matrix or, alternately, we can premultiply the submatrices in row k of by R°".
As an illustration, see the matrix for Example 6—5 on page 136. The matrix can be
determined by transposing and replacing il,, by y,.
One can visualize the introduction of displacement restraints as a matrix

transformation. We represent the operations
U and P (6—62)
as
U=D°lI
and call D the displacement-restraint transformation matrix.
When the restraint directions are parallel to the directions of the basic frame,
D is a permutation matrix which rearranges the rows of We obtain D by
applying the same row rearrangement to a unit matrix of order ij. Postmulti-
plication by Dr effects the same rearrangements on the columns. Also,*
Dr D1.
For the general case of arbitrary restraint directions, we first determine
and then U. Now,
= (a)
The step, —* U, involves only a permutation of the rows of
U = (6—63).
where H is the permutation matrix corresponding to the displacement restraints.
*
See Prob. I —36 for a discussion of permutation matrices.
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C)
for Example 6—6

0
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 m
F11
z
Pt
z
R°'pb
m
0
C
pt
—1
—
0
—
z
C,)
m
0
— R04P1 :13
>
2
ROSDTI C
m
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-1
C
(I)
Cl)
SEC. 6—9. INITIAL INSTABILITY 137
Combining (a) and (6—63), we have
U=
and it follows that
I) = HPII°' (6—64)
Since both H and are orthogonal matrices, D is also an orthogonal matrix.

Using (6—62),
A dDT
and then substituting for d, P.s, and D in terms of the geometrical, connectivity,
local rotation matrices lead to
B
A= ( 6— 65 )
Equation (6—65) is of interest since the various terms are isolated. However,
one would not generate A, B with it.
6—9. INITIAL INSTABILITY

The force equilibrium equations relating the prescribed external joint forces
and the (internal) bar forces has been expressed as (see Equation 6—54):
P1=B1F
where P1 is I) and F is (m x 1). When the geometry is nonlinear, B1
<
depends on the joint displacements as well as on the initial geometry and

restraint directions. In this section, we are concerned with the behavior under
an infinitesimal loading. Since the nonlinear terms depend on the load intensity,
they will be negligible in comparison to the linear terms for this case, we
take B1 as constant. Then, (a) represents linear equations in in unknowns.
If these equations are inconsistent for an arbitrary infinitesimal loading, we say
the system is initially unstable.
When the geometry is linear, B1 is independent of the loading and the initial
stability criterion is also applicable for a finite loading. This is not true for a
nonlinear system. We treat stability under a finite loading in Chapter 7.
Consider a set of j linear algebraic equations in k unknowns.
ax=c (b)
In general, (b) can be solved only if a and [a c] have the same rank,* It follows
that the equations are consistent for an arbitrary right-hand side only when
the rank of a is equal to], the total number of equations. Applying this condition
*
See Sec. 1—13; see also Prob. 1—45.
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to (a), we see that the truss is initially unstable when the rank of B1 is less
than na.
For the truss to be initially stable under an arbitrary loading, B1 must be
of rank This requires m That is, the number of bars must be at least
equal to the number of unknown displacement components. Since the rank
may still be less than this condition is necessary but not sufficient for initial
stability. In order to determine whether a truss is initially stable, one must
actually find the rank of B1. The following examples illustrate various cases
of initial instability.
Example 6—7
The force-equilibrium equations for the accompanying sketch are:
Fig. E6—7
x2
in = 4
na = 5
x1
F
F1 F2 F3 F4
Pu —1
P12 +1
)
— B1
P21 +1
P22 +1
P31 +1
Row 3 is (— 1) times row 1. The equations are consistent only if P21 = — Pu

Since m < we know the system is unstable for an arbitrary loading without
actually finding r(B1).
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SEC. 6—9. INITIAL INSTAB1LITY 139
Example 6—8
We first develop the matrix for the truss shown in Fig. E6—8A and then specialize
it for various restraint conditions.
Fig. E6—8A
'1
J
M
0
4 3
I
F
F F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
® Pit —1 —cosU
© Piz +1 sinO
® Psi +1 cosO
—a--—-— .
P22 ±1 sinO
® Psi +1 cosO
® P32 —1 —sinO
© P41 —1 —cosO
—1 —sinO
There are three relations between the rows
(1) row®+row®+row®= —row®

(2) row® + row® + row = —row®
(3) (sin 8)(row ® + row ©) — cos U (row ®) = cos U (row ®)
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The first two relations correspond to the scalar force equilibrium conditions for the external
joint loads:
Pkl = P11 + P21 + P31 + P41 = 0
Pk2 = P12 + P22 + P32 + P42 = 0
The third relation corresponds to the scalar moment equilibrium condition:
k1
Mk is the moment of the external force vector acting at joint k with respect to point
0, the origin of the basic frame. We obtain relation (3) by taking Oat joint 4. Equation (b)
reduces to
—d(p11 + P21) + b(p22 + P32) = 0
Using
ci =L sin 8
b = L cos 0
we can write (c) as
cos 0p32 sin O(pii + P21) — cos
which is relation 3.
We see that rows 2 and 5 arc independent. Thc remaining set (rows 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8)
contains only three independent rows. Now, we obtain B1 from by first taking a linear
combination of the rows (when the restraints are not parallel to the basic frame) and then
deleting the rows corresponding to the joint forces associated with the prescribed joint
displacements. Since has three linear dependent rows, it follows that we must introduce
at least three restraints. Initial instability will occur if—
1. An insufficient number of restraints are introduced (n4 > 5).
2. A sufficient number of restraints are introduced (/24 = 5) but the rows of B1 are
not linearly independent. We say the restraints are not independent in this case.
These cases are illustrated below.
Case 1
Fig. E6—8B
1 2
x2
m6
x1
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SEC. 6—9. INITIAL INSTABILITY
We obtain B1 by deleting rows 6 and 8 (corresponding to P32 and P42). The system is
stable only when the applied joint loads satisfy the condition
Pu + P21 + P31 = P41
Case 2
Fig. E6—8C
x2
rn = 6
—5
xl
We delete rows 4, 6, and 8. The number of restraints is sufficient (fld = 5) but the restraints
are not independent since r(B1) < 5. Actually, r(81) = 4. To make the system stable, at
least onc horizontal restraint must be introduced.
In Example 6—8, we showed that there are three relations between the rows
for a two-dimensional truss. These relations correspond to the force- and
moment-equilibrium conditions for the complete truss.
To establish the relations for the three-dimensional case, we start with the
equilibrium equations,
3 (jxl)
o
(2i—3)x 1
0
where is the moment of with respect to an arbitrary moment center, 0.

For convenience, we take 0 at the origin of the basic reference frame. Par-
titioning
(6—66)
where is of order (i x m) and using the matrix notation introduced in
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Sec. 5—2 for the moment,* the equilibrium equations take the form
PA,. = 0 (6—67)
=0 (6—68)
Equation (6—67) represents i relations between the rows of PA,

row q + row (q + I) + ... + row [i(j — 2) + q] = row [i(j 1) + q]
q=l,2,...i
(6—69)
and (6—68) corresponds to (2i — 3) relations.

We have shown that there are at least 3(i — 1) relations between the tows
of PA. Now, we obtain B by combining and rearranging the rows of PA. It
follows that B will also have at least 3(i — 1) relations between its rows. Finally,
we obtain by deleting the rows corresponding to the restraints. For the
system to be initially stable, we must introduce at least 3(i — 1) restraints:
r no. of restraints 3(i — 1) (6—70)
Note that this requirement is independent of the number of bars. Also, it is a

necessary but not sufficient condition for initial stability.
The number of restraints must also satisfy the necessary condition in.
This requires
r = ((j — — m) (6—71)
Both (6—70) and (6—71) must be satisfied. Either condition may control r,
depending on the arrangement of the bars.
REFERENCES
1. NORRIS,C. H., and J. B. WILBUR: Elementary Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
2. CRANDALL, S. H,, and N. C. DAHL: An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
3, TIMOSNENKO, S.: Strength of Materials, Part 2, Van Nostrand, New York. 1941.
4. TIMoSISENKO, S., and D. H. YOUNG: Theory of Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1945.
5. MCMINN, S. I.: Matrices jbr Structural Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1962.
6. MARTIN, H. C.: Introduction to Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1966.
7. LIVIISLEY, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, London,
1964.
8. FENVES, S. J., and F. H. BRANIN: "Network-Topological Formulation of Structural
Analysis," J. Struct. Div., ASCE, Vol. 89, No. ST4, pp. 483—514, 1963.
* See Eq. 5—11.
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PROBLEMS 143
PROBLEMS
6—1. Determine in,J, r, and for the following plane trusses:
Prob. 6—1
(a)
(b)
6—2. Suppose bar n is connected to joints s and k where
Xk = {l, 1,0] (ft) = {5, —5. —2] (ft)
(a) Take the positive direction of bar n from k to s. Determine

and
(b) Suppose
Uk {1/10, 1/20, 1/l0} (inches)
= — 1/10, — 1/30} (inches)
Find 1k and Note that the units of x and u must be consistent.

Determine and ji,,, using the exact expressions (Equations 6—15,
6—17), the expressions specialized for the case of small strain (Equa-
tions 6—19, and 6—20), and the expressions for the linear geometric
case (Equation 6—21). Compare the results for the three cases.
6—3. Discuss when the linear geometric relations are valid and develop the
appropriate nonlinear elongation-displacement relations for the trusses shown.
Assume no support movements.
6—4. Consider the truss shown:
(a) Establish the connectivity table.
(b) List the initial direction cosines. Do we have to include nonlinear
geometric terms for this truss?
(c) Locate the nonzero submatrices in .sd, using the connectivity table.
Determine the complete form of d.
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Prob. 6—3
2 .3
(a)
x2
X1 3
2
Ib)
x2 Prob. 6—4
I'
(d) Determine C.
(e) Verify that d = cxC.
6—5. Determine d for the three-dimensional truss shown.
6—6. Consider the d-c network shown. The Junctions are generally called
nodes, and the line connecting two nodes is called a branch. The encircled
numbers refer to the branches and the arrowheads indicate the positive sense
(of the current) for each branch.
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PROBLEMS 145
Let (j = 1, 2,. . , 5) denote the potential at node j. Also, let

. and n.
denote the nodes at the positive and negative ends of branch n. The potential
Prob. 6—5
x3
4
(0, 1,0)
xI
(1,0,0) (1,1,0)
Prob. 6—6
0'
drop for branch n, indicated by is given by
= v,,,
We define v and e as
v= {v1, v2,.. . , v5} = general node potential matrix
e= {e1, e2, . . . , = general branch potential difference matrix
and write the system of branch potential difference—node potential relations as
e= .cjv
Determine d, using the branch-node connectivity table. Discuss how the truss
problem differs from the electrical network problem with respect to the, form
of ad. How many independent columns does ad have? In network theory, ad
is called the augmented branch node incidence matrix.
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6—7. Take L 20 ft, A = 2 in2, and the a-s curve shown.

(a) Develop the piecewise linear force-elongation relations.
(b) Suppose a force of + 60 kips is applied and then removed. I)etermine
the force-elongation relation for the inelastic case.
(c) Suppose the bar experiences a temperature increase of 1000 F. Deter-
mine the initial elongation. Consider the material to be aluminum.
Prob. 6—7
6X ksi
20 ksi
6—8. Generalize Equation 6—32 for segmentj. Start with

e +
and express eb0 in terms of quantities associated with segment (J — 1).
6—9. Generalize Equation 6—35 for segmcntj.
6—10. Suppose the stress-strain relation for initial loading is approximated,
as in the sketch, by
a= E(s — be3)
Prob. 6—10
GA
Ee
da Et
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PROBLEMS 147
(a) Determine expressions for ES and E', the secant and tangent moduli.
(b) Determine expressions for k5 and kt.
(c) Suppose the material behaves inelastically for decreasing 4 Consider
the unloading curve to be parallel to the initial tangent. Determine the
force-elongation relation for AB.
6—li. Repeat Prob. 6—10, using the stress-strain relation
= (u +
where E, c, and n are constants.

6—12. For the accompanying sketch:
Prob. 6—12
(a) Locate the nonzero submatrices in

(b) Assemble for the linear geometric case.
6—13. Repeat Prob. 6—12 for the three-dimensional truss shown.
Prob. 6—13
LX2
I 'I.
6—14. Consider the electrical network of Prob. 6—6.

(a) Let be the current in branch n. The positive sense of is from, node
n_ to node n÷. Now, the total current flowing into a node must equal
the total current flowing out of the node. This requirement leads to
one equation for each node involving the branch currents incident on
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the node. Let

= {i1, j2, . . . , = general branch-current matrix
Show that the complete system of node equations can be written as
(Sxl)
0
where d is given in Prob. 6—6.

(b) How many independent equations does (a) represent?
(Hint: d has only four independent columns).
When the resistance is linear, the current and potential drop for a
branch are related by
=
e0 is the branch emf and R,, is the branch resistance. An
alternate form is
i,, = — e0 ,,)
Note the similarity between (b) and the linear elastic member force-
elongation relation. Show that the complete system of branch cur-
potential relations can be written as
e= = e0 + Ri
= R1(e — e0) = R1dv — R1e0
Equations (a) and (c) are the governing unpartitioned equations for a
linear-resistance d-c network. The partitioned equations are developed
in Prob. 6—23. It should be noted that the network problem is one-
dimensional, that is, it does not involve geometry. The d matrix
depends only on the topology (connectivity) of the system. Actually,
d corresponds to the C matrix used in Sec. 6—3 with i = 1.
6—15. Refer to Prob. 6—12, Suppose u11, u42, is52 are prescribed. Identify
B1 and B2.
6—16. Refer to Prob. 6—12.
(a) Develop the general form of
(b) Suppose is21, u42, are prescribed. The orientation of the local
frame at joint 5 is shown in the sketch. Determine B1 and B2.
Prob. 6—16
x2
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PROBLEMS
6—17. Refer to Prob. 6—13

(a) Develop the general form of
(b) Determine B1 and B2 corresponding to the following prescribed dis-
placements:
U11, U12, U3j, U-33, U23, U13
The local frame at joint 2 is defined by the following direction cosine

table.
x1 x2 x3
0
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
6—48. Consider the two-dimensional truss shown. The bars are of equal
length and 0 is the center of the circumscribed circle. The restraint direction
is degrees counterclockwise from the tangent at each joint. Investigate the
initial stability of this system. Repeat for the case of four bars.
Prob. 6—18
r (restraint direction)
t (tangent)
11 = 13
I.
6—19. Suppose na = in. Then, B1 is of order tn x m. The equilibrium

equations for P1 0 are
(,nxrn)
B1 F=0
(mxl) rnXl
If (a) has a nontrivial solution, the rank of B1 is less than m and the system is
initially unstable (see Prob. 1—45). Rather than operate on B1, to determine
r(B1), we can proceed as follows:
(1) We take the force in some bar, say bar k, equal to C:
Fk = C
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150 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
(2) Using the joint force-equilibrium equations, we express the remaining

bar forces in terms of C.
(3) The last equilibrium equation leads to an expression for Fk in terms
of C. If this reduces to an identity, r(B1) < since a nontrivial solution for
F exists. This procedure is called the zero load test.
(a) Apply this procedure to Prob. 6—18. Take F1 = C and determine
F2, F3, and then F1 using the equilibrium condition (summation of
forces normal to r must equal zero) for joints 1, 2, 3.
(b) When n4 = m and the geometry is linear, the truss is said to be statically
determinate. In this case, we can determine F, using only the equations
of static equilibrium, since the system, P1 = B1F, is square. Do initial
elongations and support settlements introduce forces in the bars of
a statically determinate truss?
6—20. Modify the zero load test for the case where na < in. Note that the
general solution of B1F 0 involves m — r(B1) arbitrary constants.
6—21. Investigate the initial stability of the two-dimensional truss shown.
Use the zero load test.
Prob. 6—21
6—22. Investigate the initial stability of the system shown. The restraint
directions are indicated by the slashed lines.
Prob. 6—22
-j
4
-t
3
I
c
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PROBLEMS
6—23. We generalize the results of Probs. 6—6. and 6—14 for a network
having b branches and n nodes. Let
e branch potential duff, matrix = {e1, e2, -. . ,
= branch current matrix = {i1, j2

v = node potential matrix = {v1, v2,. . . ,
The general relations are (1) node equations (n equations)
(nxb) (bxl) (nxl)
&T =
and (2) branch equations (b equations)
e = dv = e0 + Ri
Now, dT has only n — 1 independent rows. One can easily show that the
rows of are related by
row ii row k
=
It follows that (a) represents only n — independent equations, and one
1
equation must be disregarded. Suppose we delete the last equation. This

corresponds to deleting the last column of d (last row of dT). We partition d,
(bxn) bx(n—1) bxl
d2]
and let d1 = A. The reduced system of node equations has the form
ATj =0
Note that AT corresponds to B1 for the truss problem.
Equation (e) represents (n — 1) equations. Since v is of order n, one of the
node potentials must be specified. That is, we can only determine the potential
difference for the nodes with respect to an arbitrary node. We have deleted
the last column of d which corresponds to node n. Therefore, we take as
the reference potential.
(a) Let
= {v1 — v2 — . . . , —
Show that
dv = AV
Summarize the governing equations for the network.
(b) The operation
corresponds to introducing displacement restraints in the truss pro-

blem. Compare the necessary number of restraints required for the
network and truss problems;
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7
Variational Principles
for an Ideal Truss
7-1. GENERAL
The formulation of the governing equations for an ideal truss described
in Chapter 6 involved three steps:
1. The elbngation of a bar was related to the translations of the joints at
the end of the bar.
2. Next, the bar force was expressed in terms of the elongation and then in
terms of the joint translations.
3. Finally, the equilibrium conditions for the joints were enforced, re-
sulting in equations relating the external joint loads and internal bar
forces.
The system equations were obtained by generalizing the member force-
displacement and joint force equilibrium equations and required defining only
two additional transformation matrices Later, in Chapter 10, we shall
follow essentially the same approach to establish the governing equations for
an elastic solid.
In this chapter, we develop two variational principles and illustrate their
application to an ideal truss. The principle of virtual displacements is treated
first. This principle is just an alternate statement of force equilibrium. Next,
we discuss the principle of virtual forces and show that it is basically a geo-
metrical compatibility relation. Both principles are then identified as the sta-
tionary requirements for certain functions. For this step, we utilize the material
presented in Chapter 3, which treats relative extremas of a function. Finally,
we discuss the question of stability of an elastic system and develop the stability
criterion for an ideal truss.
Why bother with variational principles when the derivation of the governing
equations for an ideal truss is straightforward? Our objective in discussing
them at this time is primarily to expose the ieader to this point of view. Also,
we can illustrate these principles quite easily with the truss. Later, we shall
152
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SEC. 7—2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS 153
use these principles, particularly the principle of virtual forces, to construct

approximate formulations for a member.
7-2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DiSPLACEMENTS

The principle of virtual displacements is basically an alternate statement of
force equilibrium. We will establish its form by treating first a single particle
and then extending the result to a system of particles interconnected with
internal restraints. The principle utilizes the concept of incremental work and,
for completeness, we review briefly the definition of work before starting with
the derivation.
Let v be the displacement of the point of application of a force F in the
direction of F. The work done by F (see Fig. 7—1) is defined as
w w0 + JFdv = W(v)
where v0 is an arbitrary reference displacement. Since W is a function of v,
the increment in W due to an increment Ar can be expressed in terms of the
differentials of W when F is a continuous function of yr f
= dW + 4d2W +
dW
dW —Ar
dv
= F Au
(7—2)
d2W = d(dW)
We refer to dW as the first-order work. Similarly, we call d2W the second-

order work. If dF/dv is discontinuous, as in inelastic behavior, we must use
the value of dF/dv corresponding to the sense of Av. This is illustrated in
w—rv0
Fig. 7—1. Work integral for the one-dimensional force-displacement relation.
t Differential notation is introduced in Sec. 3—I.

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VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP 7
154
—k2 for
> 0, and dF/du = < 0.
Fig. 7—2. We use dF/dv = +k1 for
Note that W is not a single-valued function of v when there is a reversal in the
F-v curve.
vs V
Fig. 7—2. Work integral for direction-dependent force.
We consider first a single mass particle subjected to a system of forces (see

Fig. 7—3), Let R be the resultant force vector. By definition, the particle is in
equilibrium when R = 0. We visualize the particle experiencing a displacement
increment Au from the initial position. The first-order work is
dW=R'Afi (7—3)
If the initial position is an equilibrium position, dW 0 for arbitrary Au since
R= 0. Therefore, an alternate statement of the equilibrium requirement is:
The first-order work is zero for an arbitrary displacement

of a particle from an equilibrium position.
74—
The incremental displacement is called a virtual displacement; this state-

ment is the definition of the principle of virtual displacements.
R+
Fig. 7—3. Virtual displacement of a single mass particle.
One can readily generalize (7—4) for the case of S particles. Let be the
first-order work associated with the forces acting on particle q and the
We consider the forces to be continuous functions of Au.
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corresponding virtual-displacement vector. If particle q is in equilibrium,

= 0for arbitrary It follows that the scalar force-equilibrium equations
for the system are equivalent to the general requirement,
dW = 0 for arbitrary
=
Equation (7—5) is the definition of the principle of virtual work for a system
of particles.
In general, some of the forces acting on the particles will be due to internal
restraints. We define dW5 as the first-order work done by the external forces
and dW1 as the work done by the internal restraint forces acting on the particles.
Substituting for dW, (7—5) becomes
dW5 + dW1 = 0 for arbitrary
q=l,2 S
Now. let be the work done by the internal restraint forces acting on
the restraints. We use the subscript D for this term since it involves the
F1 /(Deformedl F1
I .
El
(Initial)
(Deformed)
F1 F1
II
Fig. 7—4. Work done on the mass particles and internal restraints.
deformation of the restraints. The restraint force acting on a particle is equal in

magnitude, but opposite in sense, to the reaction of the particle on the restraint.
Since the points of application coincide, it follows that
As an illustration, consider the simple system shown in Fig. 7—4. For this
case, we have
dW,, = —F1 Au1 + F1 Au2
dW1 = F1 Au1 — F1 Au2
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156 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
Using (b), we can write (a) as:

dWE = dWD for arbitrary
(7—6)
q=1,2,...,S
Also, the general principle of virtual displacements can be expressed as follows:
The first-order work done by the external forces is equal to the
first-order work done by the internal forces acting on the restraints
for any arbitrary virtual displacement of a system of particles from an
equilibrium position.
We emphasize again that (7—6) is just an alternate statement of the force
equilibrium conditions for the system. Some authors refer to (7—6) as the
work equation.
To apply the principle of virtual displacements to an ideal truss, we con-
sider the joints to be mass points and the bars to be internal restraints. We
have defined and as the column matrices of external joint loads and
corresponding joint displacements, Then,
=
where &W contains the virtual joint displacements. The first-order work done
by the restraint forces acting on bar n due to the virtual displacements is
= F,, deH
Generalizing (b), we have
dW0 = FraC
Finally, the work equation for an ideal truss has the form
Ml = FT de for arbitrary MIt (7—7)
The scalar force-equilibrium equations are obtained by substituting for de in

terms of Mt.
It is convenient to first establish the expression for the differential elongation
of an individual bar and then assemble de. Operating on
— — —
— ( u,
U
and noting the definition of (see (6—22)), we obtain
de, = + — u,)T] (Au — Au,)

= — Au,,) (7—8)
1- = J,,, F, de, = Wd(e,). We must use the rules for forming the differentials of a compound
function since e, depends on the joint displacements. Using (3—17), we can write
dWd
dW4 = de, = F, de,
de
d2 = d(F, de,,) = (de,)2 + F, d2e,

de,
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The assembled form follows from (6—25). We just have to replace y,, with il,,:
de MI (7—9)
Substituting for de in (7—7),
?,TMI =
and requiring (a) to be satisfied for arbitrary results in the joint force
force equilibrium equations.
For the geometrically linear case, e where d is constant and de =
dM1 follows directly from e. We have treated the geometrically nonlinear
case here to show that the principle of virtual displacements leads to force-
equilibrium equations which are consistent with the geometrical assumptions
associated with the deformation-displacement relations.
Example 7—1
We consider a rigid member subjected to a prescribed force, P. and reactions R,, R2,
as in the diagram. There is no internal work since the body is rigid. Introducing the virtual
Fig. E7—1
displacements shown above, and evaluating the first-order work,

dW = = R, Au1 + R2 Au2 — P
Now, is not independent:

( d\ 7d
= Au, + Au2
—
Then,
dW = — + Au2 {R2 — =0
—
Requiring (c) to be satisfied for arbitrary Au,, Au2 leads to
R2 = P
which are the force and moment equilibrium equations, in that order.
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Example 7—2
We consider the outside bars to be rigid (see sketch). To obtain the force equilibrium
equation relating P and the internal bar forccs F1, F2, we introduce a virtual displacement,
Au1, of the point of application of F:
dWE = PAu1
dW0 F1 de1 + F2 de2
The first-order increments in the elongations are
de1 = Au1 cos El de2 = —Au2 cos El —Au1 cos U
where U defines the initial position. Then, equating dW5 and dW0,
dWE = (1WD for arbitrary Au1
P= (F1 — Fjcos 0
The force in bar 3 does not appear explicitly in the equilibrium equation, (c). It is possible
Fig. E7—2
Bars 3,4, 5, 6 are rigid
to include F3 even though bar 3 is rigid by treating it as a Lagrange multiplier.f We

consider Au3 as independent in the work equation:
P Au1 — (F1 cos 0)Au1 + (F, cos 0)Au2 = 0 (d)

Now,
Au1 — Au2 = 0 (e)
Multiplying the constraint relation by —2, adding the result to (d), and collecting terms, we
obtain
Au1(P — F1 cos 0 — 2) + Au2(F2 cos 0 + 2) = 0 (f)
Finally, we require (f) to be satisfied for arbitrary Au1 and Au2. The equilibrium equations
See See, 3—3.
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SEC. 7—3. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES 159
are
P=F1cosO+A
F2cos6+2=O
and we recognize 2 as the force in bar 3.
7—3. PRINCJPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES

The principle of virtual forces is basically an alternate statement of geo-
metrical compatibility. We develop it here by operating on the elongation—
joint displacement relations. Later, in Chapter 10, we generalize the principle.
for a three-dimensional solid and describe an alternate derivation.
We restrict this discussion to geometric linearity. The governing equations
e = =
Now, we visualize a set of bar forces AF, and joint loads, which satisfy
the force-equilibrium equations:
=
A force system which satisfies the equations of static equilibrium is said to be
statically permissible. Equation (b) relates the actual elongations and joint dis-
placements. If we multiply the equation for Ck by sum over the bars, and
note (c), we obtain the result
AFTe =
=
which is the definition of the principle of virtual forces:
The actual elongations and joint displacements satisfy the condition
AFTC — =0 (7-10)
for any statically permissible system of bar forces and joint loads.
The principle of virtual forces is independent of material behavior but is
restricted to the geometrically linear case. The statically permissible system
(AF, is called a virtual-force system.
To illustrate the application of this principle, we express cW and in
partitioned form,
where U2 contains the prescribed support movements. Using (a), (7—10) takes
the form:
AFTe — U2 = APr U1
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If the elongations are known, we can determine the unknown displacements

by specializing AP1. To determine a particular displacement component, say
we generate a force system consisting of a unit value of PkJ and a set of bar
forces and reactions which equilibrate Pkj = 1.
= (7—11)
=
The internal bar forces and reactions are obtain from an equilibrium analysis
of a statically determinate structure. Since only one element of is finite,
APf U1 (l)ukj
and (b) reduces to
Ukf = eTFJ;,k1_ U2TP2IPkJ1 (7—12)
The principle of virtual forces is also used to establish geometric compati-

bility relations required in the force method which is discussed in Chapters
9 and 17. We outline the approach here for completeness. One works with
self-equilibrating virtual-force systems, i.e., statically permissible force systems
which involve only bar forces and reactions.
By definition, a self-equilibrating force system F*, f)* satisfies
B1F* = P7 = 0
(7—13)
P7 = B2F*
For this case, (b) reduces to
—. = 0 (7—14)
Equation (7—14) represents a restriction on the elongations and is called a

geometric compatibility equation.
Example 7—3
The truss shown (Fig. E7—3A) has support movements and is subjccted to a
loading which results in elongations (e1, e7) in the diagonal bars. We are coniidering the
outside bars to be rigid.
Fig. E7—3A
u,P
Bars 3,4, 5, 6 are rigid

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SEC. 7—3. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES
To determine the translation, u, we select a statically determinate force system consisting

of a unit force in the direction of u and a set of bar forces and reactions required to equilibrate
the force. One possible choice is shown in Fig. E7.-3B. Evaluating (7—12) leads to
u = + — tan —
cos 6
This truss is statically indeterminate to the first degree. A convenient choice of force
redundant is one of the diagonal bar forces, say F2. The equation which determines F2 is
0
Fig. E7—3B
derived from the gcometric compatibility relation, which, in turn, is obtained by taking
a self-equilibrating force system consisting ofF2 = + I and a set of bar forces and reactions
required for equilibrium. The forces are shown in Fig. E7--3C.
Fig. E7—3C
— ens 6
0
Evaluating (7—14), we obtain
e1 + e2 = 0
To show that (a) represents a geometrical compatibility requirement, we note that the
elongation-displacement relations for the diagonal bars are
ucos6 e2 = —ucosO
Specifying e1 determines u and also e2. We could have arrived at Equation (a) starting
from Equation (b) rather than (7—14). Flowever, (7—14) is more convenient since it does
not involve any algebraic manipulation. We discuss this topic in depth later in Chapter 9.
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7—4. STRAIN ENERGY; PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY POTENTIAL

ENERGY
In this section, we specialize the principle of virtual displacements for elastic

behavior and establish from it a variational principle for the joint displacements.
We start with the general form developed in Sec. 7—2,
FT de = gpT for arbitrary
If we consider all the elements of to be arbitrary, i.e., unrestrained,
de = A'W
and (a) leads to the complete set of force-equilibrium equations in unpartitioned

form,
=
We can obtain the equation for P1 by rearranging (c) or by starting with the
partitioned form of
and noting that U2 is prescribed. The reduced form is

FT de — iW1 = 0 for arbitrary AU1 (7—15)
where now
In what follows, we will work with (7—15).

Our objective is to interpret (7—15) as the stationary requirement for a
function of U1. We consider F to be a function of e, where e = e(U1). The form
of F = F(e) depends on the material behavior. We could express F in terms
of U1 but it is more convenient to consider F as a compound function of e. The
essential step involves defining a function, V1- = VT(e), according to
FT dc = (7—16)
With this definition, and letting

= VT — = (7—17)
we can write (7—15) as
= 0 for arbitrary (7—18)
We call the total strain energy function and the total potential energy.
One should note that VT exists only when F is a continuous single-valued function
of e. This requirement is satisfied when the material is elastic.
Equation (7—18) states that the joint force-equilibrium equations (P1 = B1F)
expressed in terms of the unknown displacements are the Euler equations for the
t See Secs. 6-4, 6—5.

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SEC. 7—4. STRAIN ENERGY 163
total potential energy. It follows that the actual displacements, i.e., the dis-
placements which satisfy the equilibrium equations, correspond to a stationary
value of 11,'
It remains to discuss how one generates the strain-energy function. By
definition,
dVT
and
=
where is the strain energy for bar). Since we are considering to be a com-
pound function of e1, Equation (b) is equivalent to
(7—19)
=
That is, the strain energy function for a bar has the property that its derivative
with respect to the elongation is the bar force expressed in terms of the elonga-
tion. Finally, we can express as
(7—20)
=
where e0 is the initial elongation, i.e., the elongation not associated with the
force. Actually, the lower limit can be taken arbitrarily. This choice corresponds
to taking as the area between the F-c curve and thee axis, as shown in Fig.7—5.
Fig. 7—5. Graphical representation of strain energy and complementary energy.
We consider the linearly elastic case. Using (6—30),

F1 — e0,
Then
= — e0,
)2 (7—21)
The total strain energy is obtained by summing over the bars. We can express
VTas
VT = 4(e — e0)Tk(e — eo) (7—22)
j=1
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164 VARIATIONAL PRNCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
Finally, we substitute for e in terms of U1, U2, using

e= A1U1 + A2U2 (7—23)
When the geometry is linear, A1, A2 are constant and is a quadratic function.
If the geometry is nonlinear, is a fourth degree function of the displacements.
Up to this point, we have shown that the displacements defining an equilib-
rium position correspond to a stationary value of the potential energy function.
To determine the character (relative maximum, relative minimum, indifferent,
neutral) of the stationary point, we must examine the behavior of the second
differential, in the neighborhood of the stationary point.
Operating on and noting that AP1 = 0 leads to
d2
(7—24)
= +
The next step involves expressing d2VT as a quadratic form in AU1. We restrict
this discussion to linear behavior (both physical and geometrical). The general
nonlinear case is discussed in Sec. 17.6 When the geometry is linear, we can
operate directly on (7—23) to generate the differentials of e,
de A1AU1
d2e = 0
since A1 is constant. When the material is linear,

dF=kde
where k is a diagonal matrix containing the stiffness factors (AE/L) for the bars.
Then, d2VT reduces to
d2VT = dFT dc = deTk de
7 25
AUT(ATkA1)AU1 -
If de 0 for all nontrivial AU1, d2VT is positive definite and the stationary
point is a relative minimum. This criterion is satisfied when the system is
initially stable, since de = 0 for AU1 0 would require that
A1 AU1 = 0 (m equations in unknowns)
have a nontrivial solution. But a nontrivial solution of (a) is possible only when
r(A1) < ne,. However, A1 = for the geometrically linear case and r(B1) =
when the system is initially stable. Therefore, it follows that the displacements
defining the equilibrium position for a stable linear system correspond to an
absolute minimum value of the potential energy.
Example 7—4
We establish the total potential energy function for the truss considered in Example 7—2.
For convenience, we assume no initial elongation or support movement. The strain
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SEC. 7—5. COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY 165
energy is
VT = +
Substituting for the elongations in terms of the displacement,
e1 =u1cosO e2= —u2cosO= —u1cosO
results in
= + cos2 0
and finally
= + cos2 0 — P1u1
The first differential of is
= {{(k1 + k2)cos2 Ojuj — P1}Au1
Requiring to be stationary leads to the Euler equation,

P1 = [(k1 + k2)cos2 0]u1
which is just the force-equilibrium equation

P1 = (F1 — F2)cos 0
with the bar forces expressed in terms of the displacement using

F1 = k1e1 = ku1 cos 0 F2 = k2e2 = —k2u1 cos 0
The second differential of is
= [(k1 + k,)cos2 0](Au1)2
and we see that the solution,

P1
Ul
= k1 +
corresponds to an absolute minimum value of H,, when 0 0. Thc truss is initially unstable
when 0 0.
7—5. COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY; PRINCIPLE OF

STATIONARY COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY
The principle of virtual forces can be transformed to a variational principle
for the force redundants. We describe in this section how one effects the trans-
formation and utilize the principle later in Chapter 9. This discussion is
restricted to linear geometry.
We start with Equations (7—13) and (7—14), which we list below for con-
venience:
eTAF — = 0
where AF, represent a self-equilibrating force- system, i.e., they satisfy the
the following constraint relations:
B1 iW = 0
B2 AF
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Our objective is to establish a function of F, whose Euler equations are (a) and
(b). We cannot work only with (a) since F is not arbitrary but is constrained
by the force-equilibrium equations,
P1 = B1F (fld equations in m variables)
We interpret as the first differential of a function
= eT = dV7 (7—26)
and call the complementary energy function for bar j. By definition,
= (7—27)
That is, the complementary energy function for a bar has the property that its
derivative with respect to the bar force is the elongation expressed in terms of
the force. We express as
dF1 (7—28)
This definition corresponds to taking Vj' as the area bounded by the F-e curve
and the F axis as shown in Fig. 7—5. Also, the strain and complementary
energy functions are related by
+ = (7—29)
When the material is linear elastic,

= e0, +
11
j—
rj T 2Jj'
1.1r2
3 —
= + 4FTfF
Next, we define II. as:
1-Ic =
7—31)
= —
We call the total complementary energy function. With these definitions,

Equations (a), (b), and (c) can be interpreted as
0
subject to the constraint condition
d(P1 — 81F) = 0
We can combine (e) and (f) into a single equation by introducing Lagrange
multipliers. Following the procedure described in Sec. 3—3, we add to (7—31)
the joint force equilibrium equations and write the result as:
+ (P1 — (7—32)
where . ,
contains the Lagrange multipliers. The Euler equa-
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SEC. 7—5. COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY 167
tions for treating F and as independent variables are

dfl, = 0 for AF, arbitrary
e(F) + B102 (7—33)

B1F = P1
We recognize the first equation in (7—33) as the member force-displacement
relation, and it follows that = U1.
An alternate approach involves first solving the force-equilibrium equation,
(d). There arena equations in m variables. Since B1 is of rank n4 when the system
is initially stable, we can solve for na bar forces in terms of P1 and the remaining
(rn — bar forces. One can also work with a combination of bar forces and
reactions as force unknowns. We let
q= m — number of redundant forces
(734)
X = {X1, X2 Xq} = matrix of force redundants
and write the solution of the force-equilibrium equations as
F= F0 + (735)
P2 P2,0 +
The force system corresponding to is self-equilibrating, i.e.,
= 0 for arbitrary X (7—36)
We substitute for F in (7—3 1) and transform to Then,

eT AF — UI AP2
= (eTFx — UIP2,
and the Euler equations are
eTFx — UIP2 x 0 (737)
Note that (7—37) is just a reduced form of (7—33). Also, we could have obtained
this result by substituting directly in (a).
Up to this point, we have shown that the force redundants which satisfy
the geometric compatibility equations correspond to a stationary value of the
total complementary energy. To investigate the character of the stationary
point, we evaluate the second differential. Operating on (g),
= deTFx AX
d2 is positive definite with regard to AX, the stationary point is a relative

minimum. This requirement is satisfied for the linear elastic case. To show
this, we note that
de = fAF = WXAX
=
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Since f contains only positive elements, is positive definite with regard to

AX provided that there does not exist a nontrivial solution of
AX = =0
For (j) to have a nontrivial solution, there must be at least one relation between
the columns of But this would correspond to taking force redundants which
are not independent, and the solution scheme would degenerate. Therefore,
we can state that the actual force redundants correspond to an absolute mini-
mum value of for the linear elastic case.
Example 7—5
We consider the truss treated in Example 7—3. It is statically indeterminate to the first
degree with respect to the bars (statically detcrminate with respect to the reactions) and we
take
X = F2
The force influence matrices defined by (7—35) follow from the force results listed on the
sketches:
F0 = 0; 0; 0; 0; —tan 0; 0}
= {+1; +1; —cosU; —sin 0; —sin 0; —cos0}
P20 = P{—l; —tanG; +(an0}
=0
Assuming a bar is rigid is equivalent to setting f = 0 for the bar. Then, the comple-
mentary energy is due only to the diagonal bars:
= yr +
= ± e02F2 + + f2Fi')
We convert to a function of X by substituting
F1 = ± X
cos 0
F2 = +X
Finally, has the form
= e0,1 + + tan 0 — tan 0)P +
+ (eoi + e0,2 + f1 + 4(f1 + f2)X2
Differentiating (e) leads to
dIlC = {[eoi + + (fl
d211, = (f1 + (g)
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SEC. 7—6. STABILITY CRITERIA
The Euler equation follows from (f):
e01 + C02 +f1 (f1 + f2)X = 0
Comparing (h) with (a) of Example 7—3, we see that the Euler equation for is the
geometric compatibility equation expressed in terms of the force redundant.
7—6. STABILITY CRITERIA

Section 6—9 dealt with initial stability, i.e., stability of a system under in-
finitesimal load. We showed there that initial stability is related to rigid body
motion. A system is said to be initially unstable when the displacement restraints
are insufficient to prevent rigid body motion. In this section, we develop criteria
for stability of a system under finite loading. If a linear system is initially
stable, it is also stable under a finite loading. However, a nonlinear (either
physical or geometrical) system can become unstable under a finite load.
We consider first a single mass particle subjected to a system of forces which
are in equilibrium. Let Il be the displacement vector defining the equilibrium
position. We introduce a differential displacement All, and let AW he the
work done by the forces during the displacement All. if A W > 0, the particle
energy is increased and motion would ensue. It follows that the equilibrium
position (ll) is stable only when AW < 0 for arbitrary All.
We consider next a system of particles interconnected by internal restraints.
Let AWE be the incremental work done by the external forces and AW1 the
incremental work done by the internal restraint forces acting on the particles.
The total work, AW, is given by
= AWE + AW1
The system is stable when A W < (I for all arbitrary permissible displacement
increments, that is, for arbitrary increments of the variable displacements. Now,
we let AW11 be the work done by the internal restraint forces acting on the
restraints. Since —AW1, we can express the stability requirement as
(7-38)
One can interpret AW0 as the work required to deform the system to the alternate
position and as the actual work done on the system.
When the behavior is continuous, we can express and AWE as Taylor
series expansions in terms of the displacement increments (see (7—2)):
+ +
= dW0 + +
We have shown that the first-order work is zero at an equilibrium position:
dWD — dWE 0
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If we retain only the first two terms in (b), the general stability condition re-
duces to
d2 WD — d2 W5 >0 for all arbitrary permissible displacement increments
(7—39)
Equation (7—39) is called the "classical stability criterion." Retaining only

the first two differentials corresponds to considering only infinitesimal displace-
ment increments. If (7—39) is satisfied, the equilibrium position is stable with
respect to an infinitesimal disturbance. In order to determine whether it is
stable with respect to a finite disturbance, one must use (7—38).
If
d2WD = d2WE (7—40)
for a particular set of displacement increments, the equilibrium position is said

to be neutral, and there exists an alternate position infinitesimally
displaced from the first position. One can interpret (7—40) as the necessary
condition for a bifurcation of equilibrium positions.
To show this, suppose U and U represent the displacement components
for the two possible equilibrium positions of a system where
Also, let R and represent the resultant forces corresponding to U and 0.

We can express as
= R + dR + +
Now, the second-order work for the initial equilibrium position is given by
d2W d2W5 — d2WD = txUT dR
If d2 W = 0 for some finite it follows that

dR = R0AU = 0
The condition
= 0
is equivalent to (7—40). Finally, if we consider to he infinitesimal,

R=R+dR
and (7—40) implies R = 0.
To apply the classical stability criterion to an ideal truss, we note that the
first-order work terms have the form
dW5 = P1 AU1
dWD =
where U2, P1 are prescribed. Operating on (a) yields

d2W5 0
(7-41)
d2WD >jFjd2ej +
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SEC. 7—6. STABILITY CRITERIA
and the stability criterion reduces to

stable d2WD > 0 for arbitrary nontrivial AU1
neutral d2 WD = 0 for a particular nontrivial AU1 (7—42)
unstable d2 WD < 0 for a particular nontrivial AU1
where d2WD is a quadratic form in AU1. We postpone discussing how one
transforms (7—41) to a quadratic form in AU1 until the next chapter.
When the material is elastic, we can identify (7—39) as the requirement that
Fir, be a relative minimum. By definition,
drIp = dVT — dWE
For elastic behavior,
dVT = dWD
and it follows that
d2WD — d2WE = (7—43)
Finally, we can state:
An equilibrium position for an elastic system is stable (neutral, un-
stable) if it corresponds to a relative minimum (neutral, indifferent)
stationary point of the total potential energy.
Example 7—6
The system shown in Fig. E7—6A consists of a rigid bar restrained by a linear elastic
spring which can translate freely in the .x2 direction. Points A and A' denote the initial and
deformed positions. We will first employ the principle of virtual displacements to establish
the equilibrium relations and then investigate the stability of the system.
Fig. E7—6A
x1
j2
The first-order work terms are

dWD = F de
(a)
= P2 du2
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172 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN iDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
where F, e are the spring force and extension. Since the bar is rigid, the system has only one
degree of freedom, i.e., only one displacement measure is required to define the configura-
tion. It is convenient to take 0 as the displacement measure. The deformation-displacement
relations follow from the sketch:
e= u1 = L(sin 0 — sin
0)
0 — sin
and
de = (cos 0)L
du, = (sin 0)L
Using (a) and (d), the principle of virtual displacements takes the form
dW0 — dWa = {F cos 0 — P2 sin 0) (L AO) = 0 for arbitrary AG
Finally, (e) leads to the equilibrium relation,

F cos 0 = P2 sin 0
which is just the moment equilibrium condition with respect to point 0. We transform
(1) to an equation for ()by substituting for F using (c). The result is
sin 0 tan 0= sin 00

—
Since the system is elastic,

— dW5
and (e) is equivalent to
= 0 for arbitrary AU
The potential energy function for this system has the form
= — P2u2
= 4kL2(sin 0 — sin 0)
and (g) can be interpreted as

=
0 of 00 are plotted in Fig. E7—6B. The result

for 0 consists of two curves, defined by
0= 0 for arbitrary P2/kL
cos 0 = P2/kl for (P2/kL) 1
To investigate the stability of an equilibrium position, we have to evaluate the second-

order work at the position. After some algebraic manipulation, we obtain
[cossU —P2/kL]
= d2W0 — = k(L AU)2
cos 0
Let 0* represent a solution of(g). Applying (m) to 0* results in the following classification:
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REFERENCES
P2
stable COS 0* >
neutral cos3
P2
unstable cos3 0'
One can show that (n) is equivalent to

dP2
stable 0
dP2
neutral o
dO
dP2
unstable
A transition from stable to unstable equilibrium occurs at point A, the peak of the
deflection curve. The solution for 0 is different in that its stable segment is the linear
solution and the neutral equilibrium point (P2 kL) corresponds to a branch point,
Both the linear and nonlinear branches are unstable.
Fig. E7—6B
REFERENCES
1 WANG, C. T.: Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
2. LANGHAAR, H. L,: Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1962.
3. REISSNeR, E.: "On a Variational Theorem in Elasticity," J. Math. Phys., Vol. 29,
pages 90-95, 1950.
4. ARGYRIS, i. H., and S. KIsLseY: Energy Theorems and Structural Analysis, Butter-
worths, London, 1960.
5. CI.IARLTON, T. M.: Energy Principles in Applied Statics, Blackie, London, 1959.
6. HOFF, N. J.: The Anal vsis of Structures, Wiley, & New York, 1956.
7. K.: Variational Methods in Elasticity and Plasticity, Pergamon Press, 1968.
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PROBLEMS
7—1. Consider the two-dimensional symmetrical truss shown. Assume
= 03 = 0.
(a) Determine the first two differentials of e1 and ez by operating on the
expanded expression (equation 6—19) for e.
(b) When a b, we can neglect the nonlinear term involving u12 in the
expressions for e and Specialize (a) for this case.
(c) When a b, we can neglect the nonlinear term involving u11 in the
expressions for e and Specialize (a) for this case.
Prob. 7—1
x2
T
3
21
7—2. Refer to the figure of Prob. 7—1. Assume = u3 = 0 and a> b.

Using the principle of virtual displacements, determine the scalar force-equili-
brium equations for joint 1.
7—3. Suppose a force F is expressed in terms of e,
F= C1e + 4C2e3
where a is related to the independent variable u by
a u + 1u2
(a) Determine the first two differentials of the work function, W = W(u),
defined by
W F de
=
(b) Suppose (a) applies for increasing e and
F= C1(e —
e decreasing from e*. Determine d2 W at a = e*.

7—4. Refer to Prob. 6—23. The n — 1 independent node equations relating
the branch currents are represented by
ATI U
Now, the branch potential differences, e, are related to the n — 1 independent

node potentials, V, by
e= AV
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PROBLEMS 175
Deduce that the requirement,

1T de = 0 for arbitrary
is equivalent to (a). Compare this principle with the principle of virtual dis-
placements for an ideal truss.
7—5. Consider the two-dimensional truss shown. Assume u2 = = 0.
(a) Using (7—14), obtain a relation between the elongations and ü32. Take
the virtual-force system as LxF2 and the necessary bar forces and re-
actions required to equilibrate AF2.
(b) Using (7—12), express u11, u12 in terms of e1, e3. Note that bar 2 is
not needed. One should always work with a statically determinate
system when applying (7—12).
Prob. 7—5
x2
- 7—6. Refer to Prob. 6—23. One can develop a variational principle similar
to the principle of virtual forces by operating on the branch potential differ-
ence—node potential relations. Show that
AiTe=0
for any permissible set of current increments. Note that the currents must satisfy
the node equations
ATi 0
Deduce Kirchhoff's law (the sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop
must equal zero) by suitably specializing Lsi in (a). Illustrate for the circuit
shown in Prob. 6—6, using branches 1, 2, 4, and 6.
7—7. By definition, the first differential of the strain-energy function due to
an increment in U1 has the form
= dV. = F,, de,,

n1
We work with expressed as a compound function of e = e(U) since it is
more convenient than expressing V directly in terms of U1. One can also
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176 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP 7
write as
(a) Using (b), show that the system of if joint force-equilibrium equations
expressed in terms of the joint displacements can be written as:
ÔU(k k=
Equation c is called Castigliano's principle, part I.
(b) Show that an alternate form of (c) is
P(k=
Note that (d) is just the expansion of (c). Rework P rob. 7—2, using (d).
7—8. Determine V(e), dv, and d2V for the case where the stress-strain
relation has the form (see Prob. 6—10)
a= — be3)
7—9. Determine V*(F), dV*, and d2V* for the case where the stress-strain
relation has the form
= (a + ca3)
7—10. Show that (7—12) can be written as
UkJ =
0Pkj
where = is defined by (7—31). This result specialized for U2 = 0 is

called Castigliano's principle, part H. Apply it to Prob. 7—5, part b. Assume
linear elastic material and f1 = = = f.
7—11. The current and potential drop for a linear resistance are related by
ef e0,j +
Inverting (a), we can express as a function of e1.
= —
(a) Suppose we define a function, which has the property that
Determine corresponding to (b).

b
(b) Let W where h = total number of branches. Considering
the branch potential drops to be functions of the node potentials,
deduce that the actual node potentials V correspond to a stationary
value of W. Use the results of Prob. 7—4. The Euler equations for
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PROBLEMS 177
W = W(V) are the node current equilibrium equations expressed in

terms of the node potentials.
(c) Suppose we define a function which has the property that
= (d)
Determine corresponding to (a).

b
(d) Let W* = W7. Show that the Euler equations for
H= iTe — = 1T(AV) — = H(i,V) (e)
are the governing equations for a d-c network.

(e) Show that the actual currents correspond to a stationary value of
One can either introduce the constraint condition, An = 0, in (e) or
use the result of Prob. 7—6.
7—12. Investigate the stability of the system shown below. Take k, = aL2k5
P
Prob. 7—12
Linear
translational
restraint
Rigid rod
ICr (Linear rotational restraint)
and consider a to range from 0 to 6.
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8
Displacement Method
Ideal Truss
8—1. GENERAL
The basic equations defining the behavior of an ideal truss consist of force-
equilibrium equations and force-displacement relations. One can reduce the
system to a set of equations involving only the unknown joint displacements
by substituting the force-displacement relations into the force-equilibrium
equations. This particular method of solution is called the displacement or
method. Alternatively, one can, by eliminating the displacements,
reduce the governing equations to a set of equations involving certain bar
forces. The latter procedure is referred to as the ,fin'ce or flexibility method.
We emphasize that these two methods are just alternate procedures for solving
the same basic equations. The displacement method is easier to automate
than the force method and has a wider range of application, However, it is
a computer-based method, i.e., it is not suited for hand computation. In
contrast, the force method is more suited to hand computation than to machine
computation.
In what follows, we first develop the equations for the displacement method
by operating on the governing equations expressed in partitioned form. We
then describe a procedure for assembling the necessary system matrices using
only the connectivity table. This procedure follows naturally if one first operates
on the unpartitioned equations and then introduces the displacement restraints.
The remaining portion of the chapter is devoted to the treatment of nonlinear
behavior. We outline an incremental analysis procedure, apply the classical
stability criterion, and finally, discuss linearized stability analysis.
8—2. OPERATION ON THE PARTITIONED EQUATIONS

The governing partitioned equations for an ideal truss are developed in
Sec. 6—7. For convenience, we summarize these equations below.
178
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SEC. 8—2. OPERATION ON THE PARTITIONED EQUATIONS 179
P1 = B1F eqs.)
P2 = B2F (r eqs.)
F = F, + kA1U1 (in eqs.)
F, = k(—e0 + A2tJ2)
The unknowns are the in bar forces (F), the r reactions (P2), and the na joint
displacements (U1). One can consider F, to represent the initial bar forces,
that is, the bar forces due to the initial elongations and support movements
with U1 0. The term kA1U1 represents the bar forces due to U1. When the
material is linear elastic, k and e0 are constant. Also, = BT when the geometry
is linear.
We obtain a set of equations relating the flj displacement unknowns, U1,
by substituting for F in (a). The resulting matrix equation has the form
(B1kA1)U1 = — B1F1
We solve (8—i) for U1, determine F from (e), and P2 from (b). The coefficient
matrix for U1 is called the system stiffness matrix and written as
K11 = B1kA1 (8—2)
One can interpret as representing the initial joint forces due to the initial
elongations and support movements with U1 = 0. Then — B1F1 represents
the net unbalanced joint forces.
When the geometry is linear, K1 reduces to
1
K11 = B1kBT = AfkA1
If the material is linear, k is constant and positive definite for real materials.
Then, the stiffness matrix for the linear case is posiLive definite when the system
is initially stable, that is, when r(B1) Conversely, if it is not positive
definite, the system is initially unstable.
If the material is nonlinear, k and e0 depend on e. We have employed a
piecewise linear representation for the force-elongation curve which results in
linear relations. However, one has to iterate when the limiting elongation
for a segment is exceeded.
The geometrically nonlinear case is more difficult since both A and B depend
on U1. One can iterate on (8—1), but this requires solving a nonsymmetrical
system of equations. It is more efficient to transform (8—1) to a symmetrical
system by transferring some nonlinear terms to the right-hand side. Nonlinear
analysis procedures are treated in Sec. 8—4.
Even when the behavior is completely linear, the procedure outlined above
for generating the system matrices is not efficient for a large structure, since
f See Prob. 2—14.
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180 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
it requires the multiplication of large sparse matrices. For example, one obtains
the system stiffness matrix by evaluating the triple matrix product,
=AfkA1
One can take account of symmetry and the fact that k is diagonal, but A1 is
generally quite sparse. Therefore, what is needed is a method of generating K
which does not involve multiplication of large sparse matrices, A method
which has proven to be extremely efficient is described in the next section.
8—3. THE DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

We start with (6—37), the force-displacement relation for bar ii:
= F0, +
=
where n4, n. denote the joints at the positive and negative ends of barn. One
can consider F0, as the bar force due to the initial elongation with the ends
fixed (un, = 0). Now, we let be the external joint force matrices
required to equilibrate the action of Noting (6—43), we see that
=
(8—4)
p,I_ =
Substituting for (8—4) expands to
= + —
pn_ =
One can interpret (b) as end action—joint displacement relations since the
elements of ± are the components of the bar force with respect to the
basic frame.
Continuing, we let
(8—5)
Note that is of order i x i where I = 2 or 3 for a two or three-dimensional

truss, respectively. When the geometry is linear, = y,, and is sym-
metrical. With this notation, (b) takes a more compact form,
= + —
(8—6)
= — +
We refer to as the bar stiffness matrix. Equation (8—6) defines the joint
forces required for bar n. The total joint forces required are obtained by
summing over the bars.
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SEC. 8—3. THE DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD
We have defined
— p2, . . , (U X 1)
= {u1, u2 (ii x 1)
as the general external joint force and joint displacement matrices. Now, we
write the complete system of if joint force-equilibrium equations, expressed in
terms of the displacements, as
= + (8—7)
We refer to if, which is of order if x as the unrestrained system stiffness

matrix. The elements of are the required joint forces due to the initial
elongations and represents the required joint forces due to the joint
displacements.
We assemble if and in partitioned form, working with successive mem-
bers. The contributions for member n follow directly from (8—6).
(Partitioned Form is j x 1)
in row
8—8
in row n.
if (Partitioned Form is j x j)
+k, in row column
— k,, in row column
—ku in row n_, column
n
Example 8—1
The connectivity table and general form of if and for the numbering shown in
Fig. E8—l are presented below:
Fig. E8—l
0
4 3
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Bar 1 2 3 4 5
+joint 1 2 2 4 2
—joint 4 1 3 3 4
U1 U2 U3 U4
k1+k2 —k2 —k1
P2 —k2 k2 + k3 + k5 —k3
--k3 k3 + k4 —k4
—k1 —k5 —k4 k1 + k4 + k0
L' UT ftT
Pai 0.1PI — 0,2P2
P0.2
L' pT
0,212 r
L' nT
0,3P3
r0,SPS
øT
,10 = UT t' UT
Po, 3 — 0. 3P3 — 0, 4P4
uT L'
Po, 4 — 0, 1I'I 1 0, 41'4 0. 5P5
Example 8—2
The external force matrix, involves and the displacement matrices for those joints
connected to joint j by bars. Now, corresponds to row j and ii,, to column j of ir. By
suitably numbering the joints, one can restrict the finite elements of X' to a zone about
the diagonal. This is quite desirable from a computational point of view.
Fig. E8—2
Sect. 1
0 fs (71
ft®
(-I
2: L6
©
-.
-..- —--
/ \ %._ —--
3
',. / ;
Consider the structure shown. We group the vertical joints into sections. The equi-
librium equations for section k involve only the joints in section k and the adjacent sections.
For example, the equations for section 3 (which correspond to P6) will involve only
the displacement matrices for sections 2, 3, 4. This suggests that we number the joints by
section. The unpartitioned stiffness matrix corresponding to the above numbering scheme
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SEC. 8—3. THE DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD
is listed below. Note that has the form of a quasi-tridiagonal band matrix when it is
partitioned according to sections rather than individual joints. The submatrices for this
truss are of order 4 x 4,
U' U2 U3 U4 U6 U7 U8
k, +k2 —k, I—k2
P2 —k, k,+k3 —k3 —k4

+k4
—k2 —k3 k2+k3 —k5 —k6 —k7
+k6
—k4 —k, k4+k51 —k8
—k6 k6+k9 —k9 —k10

+k,0
p6 —k7 —k8 —k9 k8+k7 —k1, —k,2

I +k9
+k,2
JJ7 —k,0 —k,, k10+k,, —k,,

3
p8 —k,, —k,3 k,2+k,,
The introduction of displacement restraints involves first transforming the

partitioned elements and to local frames associated with the restraints,
permuting the actual rows, and finally partitioning the actual rows. The steps
are indicated below.
-+ U
-+
We write the system of joint force-equilibrium equations referred to the local
joint frames as
= + (8—10)
The transformation la'vs for the submatrices of and follow from (6—57).
=
T
= (8—11)
€,n= 1,2,...,j
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The step, —+ P, involves only a rearrangement of the rows of We

obtain the corresponding stiffness matrix, K, by performing the same operations
on both the rows and columns of The rearranged system of equations is
written as
P = KU + P0 (8-12)
Finally, we express (8—12) in partitioned form:
= K11U1 + K1202 + P0,1

8 13
P2 = + K2202 + P0,2
The first equation in (8—13) is identical to (8—1).
Example 8—3
It is of interest to express the partitioned elements of K in terms of the geometrical,

connectivity, and displacement transformation We start with the general Un-
partitioned equations(6—28), (6—40), and (6—44), (6—50):
F F0 + kda/1 = F0 + kyC'W
Then, substituting for F in (a) and equating the result to (8—7) leads to
=
=
The matrix, DTkY, is a quasi-diagonal matrix of order im. The diagonal submatrices arc of
order i, and the submatrix at location n has the form, We have defined this product
as k,,. Then, if we let
= [ki
I. r,T
2p272
k5
we can express as
= CTk5c
Carrying out (8—9) for n = 1, 2 m is the same as evaluating the triple matrix product.
Obviously, (8—9) is more efficient than (f).
The introduction of displacement restraints can be represented as
P=
11
(g)
= D1dP
=
and
= DTU = DfU1 + (h)
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SEC. 8—3. THE DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD 185
Substituting (g) and (h) in (8—7) and equating the result to (8—13), we obtain
K,, = =
t—12
P0. = DsCTDke0 —
In order to obtain (8—13), we must rearrange the rows and columns of

and then partition. This operation is quite time-consuming. Also, it leads to
rectangular submatrices. In what follows, we describe a procedure for intro-
ducing displacement restraints which avoids these difficulties.
We start with the complete system of equations referred to the basic frame,
(8—14)
We assemble and using (8—8) and (8—9). Then, we add to the

external force matrices for those joints which are unrestrained. It remains to
modify the rows and columns corresponding to joints which are either fully or
partially restrained.
Case A: Fit!! Restraint

Suppose uq = Uq. Then is unknown. We replace the equation for Pq by
= Uq
This involves the following operations on the submatrices of X and

1. On X. Set off diagonal matrix elements in row q and column q equal
to 0 and the diagonal matrix element equal to I,.
I= 0
(8—15)
= Ii
2. On Add terms in due to
t C
X(qUq
(8—16)
j
ease B: Partial Restraint—Local Frame
We suppose the rth element in is prescribed.
= = prescribed
= unknown
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We have to delete the equation corresponding to and replace it with
4=
Step I —Assemblage of Basic Matrices
We assemble Eq, Gq, ui', according to the following:

1. Eq and Gq. We start with
G=O,
and we set
G,r +1
2. us'. We start with an ith-order column vector having zero elements and
we set the element in the rth row equal to Note that this matrix involves
only the prescribed displacements (local frame) in their natural locations.
3. We start with an ith-order column vector having zero elements and
we insert the values of the prescribed joint forces (local frame) in their natural
locations. Note that the elements corresponding to the reactions are zero.
When the joint is fully restrained,
E=O, G=11
Suppose joint 5 is partially restrained, The data consist of:

(a) The rotation matrix, R°5, defining the direction of the local frame
at 5 with respect to the basic frame.
(b) The direction (or directions) of the displacement restraint and the
value (or values) of the prescribed displacement.
direction r,
(c) The values of the prescribed joint forces:
j=1,...,i
As an illustration, suppose r = 2. Then, in (b), we read in
In (c), we read in
—5 —5
Psi P53
The four basic matrices are (for r = 2)
1 0 0 [0 0 0
E5= 0 0 0 Gs=IO 1 0
0 0 1 [0 0 0
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SEC. 8—3. THE DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD 187
1°
In —5
Step 2—Operation on Jr and

1. Premultiply row q of it" and by
=
e — 1' 2'
— .
" N, q '-'q 1% " N, q
2. Postmultiply column q of it" by — T11* and add to PPN.
=
3. Postmultiply column q of it" by (Eq
irtq = 1, 2, . .
.
4. Add Gq to irqq
= it"qq + Gq
5. Add and to
= P'N,q + U +
The operation on row q and column q are summarized below.
On Jr
= .YV'eq(E9R0")T
X'qq = (Eq R°").Y(qq(Eq +
—
—
1' 2 I
Oiz
2PN, — R0q,
q 1, 2,. . . ,j (8—18)
I?'N,q = + +0
When ir is symmetrical (this will be the case when the system is geometrically
linear), we can work only with the submatrices on and above the diagonal. The
contracted operations for, the symmetrical case are threefold:
= —
it"eq(EqR°")T (8—19)
€= 1,2,...,q.— 1
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q
q— Ttlq* + +
(8—20)
it'qq = + Gq
— — *
= (8—21)
The operations outlined above are carried out for each restrained joint.
Note that the modifications for joint q involve only row q and column q. We
denote the mOdified system of equations by
= (8—22)
Equation (8—22) represents if equations. The coefficient matrix will be

nonsingular when K1 is nonsingular. To show this, we start with the first
1
equation in (8—13) and an additional set of r dummy equations:
[K11 Olfuil —
f—P0,1 —
-
-fJ - +
— N
Equation (a) represents 1/equations. This system is transformed to (8—22) when

we permute U, to d?tJ, They are related by (sec (6—63))
U [1°?, J
= rVp
where H is a permutation matrix. It follows that
= HT[K11
and, since H is an orthogonal matrix,

= IK11I (8—23)
It is more convenient to work with (8—22) rather than (a) since the solution
of (8—22) yields the joint displacement matrices listed in their natural order,
that is, according to increasing joint number. Once ciii' is known, we convert
the joint displacement matrices to the basic frame, using
uq =
The bar forces are determined from

F,, = F0,,, + —
Next, we calculate F,, and assemble in partitioned form by summing the

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SEC. 8—3. THE DiRECT STIFFNESS METHOD 189
contribution for each member. For member n, we put (see (8—4))

+ FOIIPf in row n+
— in row n_
Once is known, we convert the force matrix for each partially restrained joint
to the local joint reference frame, using
=
The final result is required to equilibrate the bar forces. This operation
provides a static check on the solution in addition to furnishing the reactions.
When the problem is geometrically nonlinear, y,, and depend on the
joint displacements. In this case, it is generally more efficient to apply an
incremental formulation rather than iterate on (8—22).
Example 8—4
We illustrate these operations for the truss shown in Fig. E8—4.
Fig. E8—4
/50
/Ii
1. Member-Joint Connectivity Table
Bar(n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
+joint(n+) 1 3 1 3 4 3 5 3 5 6 5
—joint(n...) 2 1 4 2 2 4 3 6 4 4 6
2. Assemblage of
We consider the geometry to be linear. Then, = and = Applying
(8—9) results in listed below.
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190 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
N 1 2 3 4 51 6
k1+k2+k3 —k1 —k2 —k3

— 0
2 —k1 k1+k4+k5 —k4 —k5
3 —k2 ---k4 k2+k4+k6 —k6 —k7 -— k3
+k7+k8
4 —k3 —k5 —k6 k3+k5±k6 —k9 —k10

+k9+k10
5 —k7 —k9 +k7+k9 —k11

+k11
— 0 .
6 —k8 —k10 —k11 +k8+k10

+k11
Note that i( is symmetrical and quasi-tridiagonal. with submatrices of order 4 x 4.
3. Introduction of Joint Displacement Restraints

The original equations are
= =
where contains the external joint forces. We start with i?PN — If joint q is un-
restrained, we put in row q If joint q is fully restrained, we modify and
according to (8—15) and (8—16). Finally, if joint q is partially restrained, we use (8—19)
through (8—21). Since is symmetrical, we have to list only the submatrices on and above
the diagonal. It is convenient to work with successive joint numbers. For this system,
joint 2 is fully restrained and joints 4, 6 are partially restrained. The basic matrices for
joints 4,6 and the initial and final forms of.Yt', are listed below. Note that this procedure
does not destroy the banding of the stiffness matrix.
Joint 4 (u42 is prescribed)

R°4 2
ri 01 [0 0
E4=[ G4=[0
oj
= {O,ii42j =
Joint 6 (t42 is prescribed)
1
[ 1 ii
ii
ri 01
E6=[0
oJ
—
— =
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SEC. 8—4. INCREMENTAL FORMULATION
Initial matrices (ir and =

("1) (Us) (U4)
ir22
)r33 ir34
.X44 ir4,5
Sym
Final matrices (ir* and

(ui) (u,) (U3) (U4) (Us)
o ir,4E4
U
1,0 0
.K13 .K34E4 J35
E4ir46(E6R°6)T — —
+ G4 + + --
ir56(E6R°6)T —
,
(E6R°6)iq66(E6R°6)T E6R°6(—
+ G6
8—4. INCREMENTAL FORMULATION; CLASSICAL STABILITY

CRITERION
Equations (8—13), (8—22) are valid for both linear and nonlinear behavior.
However, it is more efficient with respect to computational effort to employ
an incremental formulation when the system is nonlinear. With an incremental
formulation, one applies the load in increments and determines the corre-
sponding displacements. The total displacement is obtained by
summing the displacement increments. An incremental loading procedure can
also be used with (8—13) but, in this case, one is working with total displacement
rather than with incremental displacement. In this section, we develop a set of
equations relating the external load and the resulting incremental
displacements. These equations are also nonlinear, but if one works with small
load increments, the equations can be linearized. Our approach will be
similar to that followed previously. We first establish incremental member
force-displacement relations and then apply the direct stiffness method to
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192 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. S
generate the incremental system equations. We complete the section with a

discussion of the classical stability criterion.
We start with (8—4), which defines the external joint forces required to
equilibrate the action of the force for bar n,
Pn* = p,, =
Equations (a) are satisfied at an equilibrium position. We suppose an in-
cremental external load AP is applied and define AU as the resulting incremental
displacement for the new equilibrium position. Since F and depend on U,
their values will change. Letting AF, AD be the total increments in F, D due to
AU, and requiring (a) to be satisfied at both positions, leads to the following
incremental force-equilibrium equations:
= Afif + + (8—24)
Ap,,.. =
To proceed further, we need to evaluate the increments in e and D. The exact
relations are given by (6—22):
= — u,,_) + — —
—
— ci,, =
To allow for the possibility of retaining only certain nonlinear terms, we write
(a) as
fi,, — = (u,,÷ — u)Tg,
= — u,,..) + — u,,) (8—25)
= Yh(ufl. — u,,_)
If all the nonlinear terms are retained,

g,, =
To neglect a particular displacement component, we delete the corresponding

element in For geometrically linear behavior, = 0. Operating on (8—25),
we obtain
dv,, = — Au,,)Tg,, (8—26)
and
Ae,, = +
= — Au,,) (827)
d2e,, —
It remains to evaluate AF,,. We allow for a piecewise linear material and

employ the relationst developed in Sec. 6—4. For convenience, we drop all the
t See (6—31), (6—32), and (6—33).

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SEC. 8—4. INCREMENTAL FORMULATION 193
notation pertaining to a segment and write the "generalized" incremental

expression in the simple form
= k(Ae — (8—28)
where k, are constant for a segment. They have to be changed if the limit
of the segment is exceeded or the bar is unloading. Since is unknown, one
has to iterate, taking the values of k, Ae0 corresponding to the initial equilibrium
position as the first estimate. This is equivalent to using the tangent stiffness.
The initial elongation, Ae0, is included to allow for an incremental temperature
change. Substituting for (8—28) takes the form
At' _AC'
— Q + I
+ if Ct
72
(8—29)
Finally, we substitute for Lw,, in (8—24) and group the terms as follows:
LXPn+ = — &i,..) + + (8—30)
where
= Fag,, +
= (8—31)
= -i- + +
We interpret k7 as the tangent stiffness matrix. The vector, L\p9, contains linear,
quadratic, and cubic terms in We have included the subscript g to indicate
that it is a nonlinear geometric term.
We write the total set of incremental joint equilibrium equations as
= + M'0 + (8-32)
where is assembled using (8—9) and MPO + with (8—8). Note that
is symmetrical. Finally, we introduce the displacement restraints by ap-
plying (8—19)—(8—21). The modified equations are
= — — (8-33)
It is convenient to include the prescribed incremental support displacement
terms in so that involves only the incremental temperature and
the variable displacement increments. The contracted equations are
K1,11 AU1 = — AP0,1 — AP9,1 — 1(1,12 AU2 (8-34)
where K1, is symmetrical.
We cannot solve (8—33) directly for since contains quadratic and
cubic terms in MI. There are a number of techniques for solving nonlinear
algebraic equations. t We describe here the method of successive substitutions,
t See Ref. 12.
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which is the easiest to implement, but its convergence rate is slower in com-
parison to most of the other methods.
First, we note that and are independent of A'1/1. They de-
pend only on the initial equilibrium position and the incremental loading. We
combine and and write (8—33) as
X7K MI1 = — (8-35)
Now, we let represent the nth estimate for LXa/IJ and determine the
(n + 1)th estimate by solving
)p* L\cW(n+ = — &?P (8—36)
The iteration involves only evaluation of and back-substitution once

is transformed to a triangular matrix. The factor method is particularly con-
venient since X7 is symmetrical. With this method,
STS (8—37)
where S is an upper triangular matrix. We replace (8—36) with
S = (8—38)
STQ = A9* —
In linearized incremental analysis, we delete in (8—35) and take the

solution of
. (8-39)
as the "actual" displacement increment. One can interpret this scheme as one
cycle successive substitution.
The solution degenerates when the tangent stiffness matrix becomes singular.
To investigate the behavior in the neighborhood of this point, we apply the
classical stability criterion developed in Sec. 7—6. The appropriate form for a
truss is given by (7—41):
± den)> 0 for arbitrary AU1 with AU2 = 0 (a)
We have already evaluated the above terms. Using (8—26), (8—27), and (8—29)
with Ae0 = 0,
+ — — Au,,) (b)
and (a) can be written as

d2WD ALT ICE, AU1 > 0 for arbitrary AU1 (8—40)
It follows that must be positive definite for a stable equilibrium position.
¶ Iterative techniques are discussed in greater detail in Secs. 18—7, 18—8, 18—9.
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_____
SEC. 8—4. iNCREMENTAL FORMULATION
But K1, and are related by
HT[Kt.11
(8—41)
where H is a nonsingular permutation matrix, which rearranges the elements

of according to
=H (8-42)
Then, and K1 have the same definiteness Finally, we can
classify the stability of an equilibrium position in terms of the determinant of
the tangent stiffness matrix:
D = = 1K1, iii
stable D>O
neutral D=0 (8—43)
unstable D< 0
Example 8—5
We illustrate the application of both the total (8—13) and incremental (8—34) formulations
to the truss shown in Fig. E8—5A. To simplify the analysis, we suppose the material is
linearly elastic, k1 = k2 = k, and there are no initial elongations or support movement.
Fig. E8—5A
b <<d
x2
d d_____
The initial direction cosines for the bars are
—b] —b]
The deformed geometric measures are defined by (8—25). They reduce to

+
= fl = 1,2
= cc, +
for this example. Since b cc d, we can neglect the nonlinear terms due to u11, i.e., we can
take
1 [0 0
1
t See Prob. 2—13 for a proof.

See Sec. 2—5.
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Using (c),
1
I
Pi —b + u12]
12 —b +
112 —b +
Continuing, the bar force-displacement relations are

= = ky,,u1 n = 1, 2
Finally, the force-equilibrium equation for joint I follows by applying (8—6) to both bars.
= (k1 + k2)u1 = k(11r71 ± 11212)U1
Equations (e) and (1) expand to
Jusi
0 — u12)(b
and
F1 = — (h —
F2 = — (b —
The diagonal form of the coefficient matrix is due to the fact that we neglected u11 in the
expressions for y and This approximation uncouples the equations. Note that (g) is
the first equation in (8—13) with U2 and P0 set to 0.
Solving the first equationt in (g). we obtain
I (J\2
Pti
The corresponding bar forces are
Pi
This result is actually the solution for the linear geometric case.
The expression for and the corresponding bar forces follow from the second equation
[2k 1
P12 — u12)(b — 1u12)j 012
t Equation (g) is (8—1) with F1 = 0.

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k 1 P12
F1 = F2 = — — (b — 2u12)u12 =
L 2b—u12
L
We can write (k) as
L2
U12 =——
2k (b — u12)(b 1
and solve (m) by iteration. Alternatively, one can specify u12 and evaluate from (k).
The latter approach works only when there is one variable. The solution is plotted in
Fig. E8-5B.
P12 Fig. E8—5B
A
9
(I +
0
b
We describe next the generation of the incremental equations which follow from (8—26)—
(8—32). Applying (8—26), (8—27) to (b)—(d) results in
= d[i,, = = [o
de, = a,1 Au11 + +
d2e, = Au1 = (Au1 )2
n=l,2
We arc assuming no initial elongation. Then,
k = k(de,, +
The tangent stiffness matrix and incremental geometric load term are defined by (8—31).
Using (n), we obtain
+ u12)
= Sym + u12)2 +
(Au12)2
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198 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
Finally, we assemble the incremental equilibrium equations for joint 1 using (8—30).
Ap1 = + k, 2)Au1 + Ap1, i + Al)9. 2 (r)
o ?4(_b + u12)2 + + F2)

0
—
[3(—b + u12) + Au12]}
Note that (s) is (8—34). Also, the incremental equations are uncoupled.
We restrict the analysis to only 112 loading. Setting F1 = F2 in (s) results in
+ + u17)2)] Au12 = Ap12 [Au12 + 3(—b + (t)
where F is determined from (e). The coefficient of Au12 is the tangent stiffness with respect
to u12.
= + + u12)2) (u)
du12 L L
Applying the classical stability criterion (8—43) to (t), we see that

> 0 stable
0 neutral (v)
du12
< 0 unstable
Points A, B are stability transition points and the segment A-B is unstable.
If k = 0, the truss is neutral with respect to Au11. Now there is a discontinuity in k
at F = — Feb, the pin-ended Euler load, when the material is linearly elastic:
k=0 (w)
,t2EI3
To determine whether the members buckle before point A is reached, we compare F4

With — Feb. Using (u),
AE( \2 AEb2
F4 = — (x)
)=
Then, for system instability rather than member instability to occur, b must satisfy
b = (y)
where p is the radius of gyration of the section.
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Lastly, we outline how one applies the method of successive substitution to (t). For
convenience, we drop the subscripts and write (t) as
Ltu = —
In the first step, we take Ap9 = 0.
=— (aa)
The second estimate is determined from
= (bb)
Generalizing (bb),
= —
The convergence is illustrated in Fig. E8—5C. Case (b) shows how the scheme diverges
Fig. ES—5C
— (a)
Lip
Ib)
in the vicinity of a neutral point = 0). Convergence generally degenerates as 0

and one has to resort to an alternate method.
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200 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAR 8
8—5. LINEARIZED STABILITY ANALYSIS

In the previous section, we illustrated the behavior of a geometrically non-
linear system. The analysis involves first solving the nonlinear equilibrium
equations for the displacements and then applying the classical stability crite-
rion to determine the stability of a particular equilibrium position. Once the
nonlinear equilibrium equations are solved, the stability can be readily deter-
mined. Now, if a geometrically nonlinear system is loaded in such a way that
it behaves as if it were geometrically linear, we can neglect the displacement
terms in that is, we can take = in the expression for This ap-
proximation is quite convenient since we have only to solve the linear problem
in order to apply the stability criterion. We refer to this procedure as linearized
stability analysis.
According to (8—40), an equilibrium position is stable ineutral, unstable)
when the tangent stiffness matrix is positive definite (positive semi-definite, in-
different). We generate transform to and test for positive defi-
niteness. We have shown that and K,, u have the same definiteness prop-
erty, i.e., K1, is positive definite if,K7 is positive definite. Working with i(7
rather than K,, avoids having to permute the rows and columns.
In linearized stability analysis, we approximate k, with
k,, = + F,,g,, (8—44)
The first term is the linear stiffness matrix. We interpret the second term as a
geometric stiffness. The bar forces are determined from a linear analysis of
the truss. If the loading is defined in terms of a single load parameter, we
can write (8—44) as
F,, =
(8—45)
k,,,, = k1,,, + ).k9,
The tangent stiffness matrix is generated by applying the Direct Stiffness Method
to each term in (8—45). We express the actual and modified matrices as
K,, = K1, ,i + Kg, ii (8—46)
and
= + (8—47)
where K1 is the system stiffness matrix for linear behavior. It is symmetrical

and positive definite when the system is initially stable. The geometrical stiff-
ness, K9, is also symmetrical but it may not be positive definite.
Equation (8—46) shows that the tangent stiffness matrix varies linearly with
the load parameter. If the system is initially stable, K,, is positive definite
for 2 = 0. As 2 is increased, a transition from stable to neutral equilibrium
may occur at some load level, say 2cr To determine we note that neutral
equilibrium (see (8—43)) corresponds to K,, = 0 which, in turn, can be
interpreted as the existence of a 'non-trivial solution of
=0
K,, (a)
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SEC. 8—5. LINEARIZED STABILITY ANALYSIS 201
Substituting for K1, transforms (a) to a characteristic value problem,

AU1 = —).K5,11 AU1 (8—48)
and is the smallest eigenvaluet of (8—48).

Since 1K1, itt = we can work with
Mt' = 0
1,1
Ault' = Mlii (8—49)
instead of (8—48). Both equations lead to the same value of However,

(8—49) has r additional characteristic values equal to — I since we have added
r dummy equations. To show this, we substitute for using (8—41) and
note (8—42).
11T [ICe, 0 1JAU51 — AHT

[Kg, ii 01 5Au1
[o U — [o i,j l,,AU2
Premultiplying by H = (a) becomes

K1. ii AU1 = '2Kg. ii AU1 (na eqs.) (b)
AU2 = —2 AU2 (r eqs.) (c)
The solution of (c) is
1 0 0
AU2C1 +C2
o o i
This solution must be disregardcd since AU2 is actually a null matrix.
Example 8—6
Consider the system shown. We suppose the bars are identical, the material is linearly
elastic, and there is no support movement,
The geometry change is negligible under a vertical load and we can use the linearized
stability criterion. Working with the undeformcd geometry, we have
F1 = F2 = —
= = —
F
Matrix iteration (Ref. 1) is a convenient computational scheme for determining 2,,. We apply
jtto
(—K9,,1)AU1 = AU1
which satisfies the restrictions on the method,

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202 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. &
A Fig. £8—B
d <<b
12
We let k1 = k2 = k. The system stiffness matrices follow from (8—44) and (8—45).
= + k€ 2 = +
0
(b)
— 21
-
and
= k8,1 + k9,2 = — (g5 + g2) (c)
It remains to determine g1 and g2 which are defined by

= + ufg,, (d)
We neglect u12 in the general expression for This is reasonable when d K< b. The
approximate expressions for fi, and g, arc
—b] —b]
L L (e)
i[l 0
0
0
0
(d)2
= 11e,ii + AKçj,ji = 2k (g)
(b)2
0 0 0
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SEC. 8—5. LINEARIZED STABILITY ANALYSIS 203
Neutral equilibrium (K1, is semidefinite) occurs at
2kb
\\L) L \,LJ
Note that (g) has only one eigenvalue instead of two. This is a consequence of our using
approximate expressions for Equations (e) instead of the exact expressions. At 2 =
the system is neutral with respect to Au1 i.e., the buckling mode is antisymmetric.
Neutral equilibrium also occurs when the bars either buckle or yield. The value of 2
for Euler buckling of the bars is
2b 2b k2EIl 2AEb/irp'\2
= — =
eb
L LLL2J I
L \L
Comparing (h) and (i), we see that Euler buckling of the bars controls when
d> irp
The exact expression for g, is
I,.
If we work with (k),
Kg,jj =
(d)2
K1, = K,, + = 2k —2
(b)2
0
In this case, there are two characteristic values and therefore two critical values of 2.
(d\2
1
= 2kb
(Ii)
2cr. 2 2kb Acri
C)
The second root corresponds to neutral equilibrium with respect to Au12. For this example,
d b, and the first root defines the critical load.
It is of interest to compare 2cr 2 with the buckling load found in Example 8—5. There
we considered d b and followed the nonlinear behavior up to the point at which the
slope of the P12 — u12 curve vanished (neutral with respect to Au12):
1(1 = 0 = (0)
du12 mex
The linearized result is significantly higher than the true buckling load. In general, the
linear buckling load is an upper bound. How close it is to the actual value will depend on
the geometry and loading. When d << b, it is quite close, while it considerably overestimates
the true load for d b.
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REFERENCES
1. C. FL, and J. B. WILCUR Elementary Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
2. HALL, A. S.. and R. W. W00DHEAD: Frame Analysis. Wiley, New York, 1967,
3. ARGYRIS, J. H. and S. Kelsey: Energy Theorems and StruciuralAnalysis, Butterworths,
London, 1960.
4. LIVESLEY, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, 1964.
5. DC VEUBEKE, B. F., Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, 1964.
6. MARTIN, H. C. Introduction to Matris Methods of StructuralAnalysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1965.
7. ARGYSIS, J. H.: Recent Advances in Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon
Press, 1964.
8. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Matric Computer Analvsis of Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1966.
9, PRZEMIENIECKI, J. S.: Theory of Matrix Structural Aizah'sis, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
10. THOMPSON, J. M. T. and A. C. WALKER: "The Nonlinear Perturbation Analysis of
Discrete Structural Systems," Jut. J. Solids Structures, Vol. 4, 1968, pp. 757—768.
11. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Structural ,S'vsse,'ns—Statics. Dynamics, and Stability, Prentice-
Hall, 1970.
12. RALSTON, A.: A First Course in Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1965.
PROBLEMS
8—1. Consider U2 and P1 to he prescribed and the behavior to be physically
linear. —
(a) Express = Vr — PTU1 in terms of U1, U2. Use
VT — e0,1)2 = eo)Tk(e e0)

=
(b) Show that (8-4) are the Euler equations for Note that
dVT = FTde de = BfAT.11
(c) Express as a quadratic form in AU1. Hint: Obtain d2e by

operating on (7—8).
8—2. For the structure sketched:
(a) Determine K11.
(b) Determine and F due to a temperature increase of 100°F for all
the bars. Assume no support movements at joints 2, 3, 4.
Determine the displacements, bar forces, and reactions.
8—4. Refer to Example 8—2. Suppose we number the joints as shown.
Develop the general form of Example 8—2.
8—5. For the structure sketched, determine
\EaJ
Develop the general form of Indicate how you would obtain K11.
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PROBLEMS 205
Prob. 8—2
E=3X ksi
Bar areas = 3
Coefficient of
thermal expansion =
6 X 106/°F
Prob. 8—3
20' 10'
E=3X
I
ksi
Initial elongation of = in.
Horizontal displacement of joint 2 = to the left
6 kips
I
x2
Prob. 8—4
0 ©
807 0
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605
20' Prob. 8—5
E constant for all bars
Bar Area
I 3a
I
2 4a
3 3a
4 4a
5 2.5a
Y3
Prob. 8-6
8—7. Determine the load-deflection relation for the system shown. Consider
the material to be linearly elastic and the bars to bc identical, Assume no initial
elongation or support movement.
8—8. Investigate the elastic stability of the system shown. Assume the
material is linearly elastic and no support movements. Use the linearized
stability criterion and work with the exact expression for Rework the
problem, considering d b and using the corresponding approximate expres-
sion for
8—9. Determine the lowest critical load for the truss shown. Assume the
material is linearly elastic and all bars have the same stiffness.
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wp Prob.8—7
0 d <<b
—
k1 —Ic2
_AE
—-•y-
x1
H K2
Prob. 8—S
2¼
Prob. 8—9
T
20'
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H
8—10. The governing equations for geometrically nonlinear behavior of a

linearly elastic discrete system such as a truss are nonlinear algebraic equations
containing up to third-degree displacement terms. We have expressed them as
= + = ±
where d, contain linear displacement terms. This form is dictated by our
choice of matrix notation. In order to expand (a), we must shift from matrix
to indicial notation.
For convenience, we employ the summation convention. If a subscript is
repeated in a term, it is understood the term is summed over the range of the
repeated subscript. An example is
(j = 1, 2 n)
We write the ith equilibrium equation for tile system as (this representation
is suggested in Ref. 8-40):
+ KIJkU,, + = 2P1
where i, j,k, range over the total number of unknowns, U1 is the total value
of the jth displacement unknown, 2 is a load parameter, defines the load
distribution, and the K's are constants which can be interpreted as second-,
third, and fourth-order tensors. The second-order tensor, is the linear
stiffness matrix.
(a) We generate the system tensors by superimposing the contribution of

each bar. The first step involves converting the matrix expressions
p,, = p,, - = — p,, (d)
where
F,, k,,e,, + F0,,,
e,, = 'y,,(u,,÷ —
+ — u)T
= + —
over to indicial form. We drop the n subscript, define p and u as
(f)
l.Pn_j (U,,J
and write (d) in the form

= (k,1 + + + Po,
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PROBLEMS 209
Show that
k11 =
+ (Ii)
=L
=
where c is defined by
[1 {::} = cu (i)
Discuss how you would locate the appropriate addresses for the bar
stiffness tensors in the system tensors. What symmetry properties do
the k's exhibit? Do these properties also apply for the system tensors?
(b) Develop the incremental equations relating Au, AA and compare with
(8—30).
(c) Specialize the incremental equations for linearized stability analysis.
Prob. 8—11
Linearly elastic material.

No support movement or
initial elongation.
Ic1 = =k
(a) Determine the nonlinear incremental equilibrium equations at the equi-

librium position corresponding to Pi = 0, P2 P2, Cr, the linearized
critical load.
(b) Take Ap1 = 0 and solve for Ap2 as a function of Au1. Comment on
how the system behaves when a small horizontal load, Pi ±ep2, is
applied in addition to
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9
Force Method
Ideal Truss
9—i. GENERAL
The basic equations for the linear geometric case have the form
P1 = B1F
e = BfU1 + e0 + fF
P2 = B2F
where the elements of B1 and B2 are constants. Equation (a) represents linear
equations relating the na prescribed joint forces and the in unknown bar forces.
For the system to be initially stable, r(B1) = that is, the rows of B1 must
be linearly independent. This requires in In what follows, we consider
only stable systems. If in = the system is said to be statically determinate
since one can find the bar forces and reactions using only the equations of
statics. The defect of (a) is equal to in — nd = q, and is called the degree of
indeterminacy. One can solve (a) for na bar forces in terms of the applied forces
and q bar forces. We refer to the system defined by the na bars as the primary
structure and the q unknown forces as force redundants. In order to determine
F, q additional equations relating the bar forces are required. These equations
are called compatibility conditions and are obtained by operating on (b) which
represents m relations between the na unknown displacements and the bar
forces.
The general procedure outlined above is called the Jbrce or flexibility
method. This procedure is applicable only when the geometry is linear. In
what follows, we first develop the governing equations for the force method
by operating on (a)—(c). We then show how one can establish the compatibility
equations using the principle of virtual forces and discuss the extremal character
of the force redundants. Finally, we compare the force method for a truss with
the mesh method for an electrical network.
210
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SEC. 9—2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS—ALGEBRAIC APPROACH 211
9-2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS—ALGEBRAIC APPROACH

We consider the first columns of B1 to be linearly independent (if the
system is initially stable, one can always renumber the bars such that this
condition is satisfied) and partition B1, B2 and F as follows:
B1 =[B11 B12]
x nil ii "a) I
(na x q)
B2 [B21 B22]
(rxm) (rxn4) (rxq)
(na x 1)
=
F2
(qx 1)
The bars corresponding to F1 comprise the primary structure and F2 contains

the q redundant bar forces. Using (9—1), the force-equilibrium equations ((a)
and (c)) take the form
B11F1 = P1 — B12F2 (ad eqs.) (9—2)
P2 = B21F1 + B22F2 (reqs.) (9—3)
Since Bit! 0, we can solve (9—2) for F1, considering P1, —B12 as right-
hand sides. The complete set of q + 1 solutions is written as
F1 = F1,0 + Fl,F,F2 (9—4)
where F1.0 and F1, F2 satisfy

1111F10 = P1
B1IFI,F2 = —B12
Note that the kth column of F1, F2 contains the bar forces in the primary
structure due to a unit value of the kth element in F2. Also, F1, contains
the bar forces in the primary structure due to the applied joint loads, P1, with
F2 = 0. The reactions follow from (9—3):
P2 = P2,0 +
P2,o = B21F1,0 (9—6)
= B21FI,F2 + B22
We consider next (b). Partitioning e, e0, and f,
(fl4X 1)
(nixl) e1
c
e = ——— = (9—7)
C2
(q< 1)
j
ii
-
L 0 f2
(q x q)
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212 FORCE METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 9
and using (9—1), the force-displacement relations expand to
B11U1 + B21U2 = = e1, o + f1F1 (ne, eqs.) (9-8)

Bf2U1 + Bf2U2 e2 = e2, + 12F2 (q eqs.) (9—9)
Once e1 is known, (9—8) can be solved for U1.

We obtain the equation for F2 by eliminating U1 in (9—9). First (see (9—5))
we note that
BT
12 —
12 \T_
1,F21 — — IF2
T T
11
Then, premultiplying (9—8) by Ff, adding the result to (9—9), and using
(a), (9—6) leads to
P2, F2U2 = ez + Ff (9—10)

= e2,0 + f2F2 + Ff,FZ(CLO + f1F1) (9—11)
The first form, (9—10), shows that the equations are actually restrictions on
the elongations. One can interpret (9—10) as a compatibility condition, i.e.,
it must be satisfied in order for the bars tofit in the deJbrmed structure defined
by U1. The second form, (9—11), follows when we express the elongations in
terms of the bar forces. Finally, we substitute for F1 and write the result as
122F2 d2 (9—12)
where
f122 C
T
t'T
1, F2t1' t,F2 1O...43
.1 —
U2 — —e2,0 —
r'T ( + v
+ nT f'r
The coefficient matrix, f22, is called the flexibility matrix for F2. One can show
that f22 is positive definite when the bar flexibility factors in f2 are all positive.t
If the material is physically nonlinear, f. and e0,, depend on F1. Iteration
is minimized by applying the loading in increments and approximating the
force-elongation relation with a piecewise linear representation. The incre-
mental equations are similar in form to the total equations4 We just have
to replace the force, displacement, and elongation terms with theit incremental
values and interpret las a segmental (tangent) flexibility.
At this point, we summarize the steps involved in the force method.
I. Determination of F1, 0, P2. 0, F1. and P2, F2

We select a stable primary structure F1 and determine the bar forces and
reactions due to P1 and a unit value of each force redundant. This step involves
q + 1 force analyses on the primary structure. Note that we obtain the primary
structure by deleting q = ni — bars. The selection of a primary structure
and solution of the force equilibrium equations can be completely
t See Prob. 9—i.

X See Prob. 9—4.
§ We reduce to an echelon matrix. See (1—61).
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SEC. 9—2. GOVERNfNG APPROACH 213
2. Deterininatio,z of F2, F,, aizdP2

We assemble d2, and solve f,,F, = d, for F,. Then, we determine F,
and P2 by combining the q + basic solutions.
F1 = F10 +
P2 = P2,0 + P2,F2F2
3. Determination of U,
Once F1 is known, we can evaluate e,,
e1 e1,0 + f1F1
and then solve (9—8).
= e,
for U,.
If only a limited number of displacement components are desired, one can
determine these components without actually solving (9—8). To show this,
we write U, as
U1—'
—t e1 — 21
—hT
111 2
We see from (9—15) that the kth column of Br,' contains the bar forces in the
primary structure due to a unit value of the kth element in P1. Also, it follows
from (9—6) that the kth column of B2 contains the reactions due to a unit
value of the kth clement in P,. Now, we obtain the kth element in U1 (which
corresponds to the kth element in P,) by multiplying the kth column of Br1' by
the kth column of B21Br,' by Of. and adding the two scalars. Then, letting
F,pJk = F, due to an unit value of PJJ, with F2 = 0
(9—14)
P2.pj,, = P2 due to an unit value of with F2 0
we can write the expression for as
0,ik I —
nT fl —
Note that one works with the statically determinant primary structure to
mine the displacements.
Example 9—1 —
Step 1: Determination of F,, o, P2, F,, F2, and P2 F2
For the truss shown in Fig. E9—IA,
= 2 in 3 q= 1
We take F3 as the redundant b,tr force:

F1={F,,F2} F2={F3}
The primary structure consists of bars I and 2. Note that all force analyses are performed
on the primary structure. The forces and reactions corresponding to P, and F3 = + 1 can
be readily obtained using the method ofjoints. The results are shown in Fig. E9—1B.
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214 FORCE METHOD: DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 9
Fig. E9—1A
2
10 kips I
20 kips
(1) A1 = 1.Oin,2 A2 0.51n.2 A3 =0.5 in.2

(2) Material is linearly elastic. E = 3 )< i04 ksi for all bars.
(3) e0,1 —1/16 in. eo,2 = 0.
(4) u32 + 1/10th. u41 =—1/I5in.
Fig. E9—1B
3.33 1/2
2.50
3/8
—20.83
10 kips
20 kips
We could have obtained the above results for F1 by solving

B11F1 = P1 B12F'2
which, for this system, has the form

[—.6 +61 (F1) 110) [01
+ [1j{F3}
[-.8 +.8flFj =
Step 2: Determination of f22, d2, F1, and F2
Since only u32 and u41 are finite, we can contract U2 and P2,
=
= {u3,.
u41}
and write
PT fl 2
/D'
2
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SEC. 9—2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS—ALGEBRAIC APPROACH 215
The force matrices follow from step 1:

F1,0 {—2083, —4.17} (kips)
F1, F2 { — (kips)
= (kips)
Also, we are given that
e1, o {eo, e0, 2} = { T'6, 0} (inches)
e2,0 = {eo,3} = 0
(inches)
It remains to assemble f2 and evaluate f22 and d2.

The flexibility factors are (in./kip)
12(25) 12(25) 12(20)

12 = 13 =
= 3 x
Then,
x
= =
f2 [f3] = 0.8(2 x
Evaluating the various products in (9-43), (9—12) reduces to

1.3SF3 = —7.31 (a)
Solving (a), we obtain
F2 = {F3} = —5.27kips
1— 17.53kips
F1 = F1,0 +
= 0.S7kips
Equation (a) actually represents a restriction on the elongations. The original form of (a)
follows from (9—10).
— 8e1 — a —
—.
Equation (b) reduces to (a) when we substitute for the elongations in terms of the bar forces.
Step 3: Determination of the Displacements

Suppose only u11 is desired. Using (9—15),
)T
= Ff, p,1e1 — (c)
Now,
fr'2 — (1 1
UO' 15
= e1,0 + f1F1 {-.-.24, —.018}
We apply a unit load at joint 1 in the X1 direction and determine the bar forces in the
primary structure and the reactions (P32, P41) corresponding to the nonvanishing prescribed
displacements
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Substituting in (c), we obtain
a11 = +185 — .033 = +15 in

If both displacement components are desired, we apply (9—15) twice. This is equivalent
to solving (9—8).
9—3. GOVERNING EQUATIONS—VARIATIONAL APPROACH

We obtained the elongation compatibility equations (9—10) by operating on
the elongation-displacement equations. Alternatively, one can use the principle
of virtual forces developed in Sec. 7—3. It is shown there (see Equation (7—14))
that the true elongations satisfy the condition,
AFTe — 0
for any statically permissible system of virflial bar forces and reactions which
satisfy the constraint condition,
B1 AF = AP1 = 0
Equation (b) states that the virtual bar forces cannot lead to increments in the
prescribed jOint loads, i.e., they must be self-equilibrating.
Now, using (9—4), (9—5), we can write
F
= {Fio}
+
where
B1
and
B1 = 0
Then
AF2
=
satisfies (b) for arbitrary AF2. The reactions due to AF2 are obtained from
(9—6):
A?2 = B2 AF = P2 F2
Substituting for AF and A?2, (a) expands to

F2e1 + C2 — F2U2) 0
Equation (h) must be satisfied for arbitrary AF2. Finally, it follows that
FT,F,el + C2 P2 F2U2 = 0 (i)
Equation (i) is identical to (9—10). Note that the elongation compatibility

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SEC. 9—4. COMPARtSON OF THE FORCE AND MESH METHODS 217
equations are independent of the material behavior. If the material is physically

linear, (i) leads to a set of q linear equations in F2 when we substitute for the
elongations in terms of the bar forces.
We determine the displacements by applying the general form of the principle
of virtual forces (see (7—10))
AFTe — = APfU1
where the virtual forces satisfy the force-equilibrium equations,
=
Since only F1 is required to equilibrate P1, we can take

=
AF2 = 0
and (j) leads to
U1 = —
Note that
I — 1)11
One can interpret the compatibility equations expressed in terms of F2 as the

Euler cquations for the total complementary energy function,
— Pf02 =
This approach is discussed in sec. 7—5. We take X = F2 in (7—35). Then,
= P2,F,
=
and (7—37) coincides with (i). We have written the expanded form of (i) as
f22F2 = d2
Since (i) are the Euler equations for

= d2)
and it follows that
H _I T2 221 2 —
c — 2U2
for the linearly elastic case. One can show that the stationary point corresponds
to a relative minimum value of H. when the tangent flexibility factors for the
redundant bars are all positive. t
9-4. COMPARISON OF THE FORCE AND MESH METHODS

It is of interest to compare the force method for a truss with the procedure
followed to find the currents in an electrical network. The latter involves the
t See Prob. 9—8.

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application of Kirchhoff's laws and is called the mesh method. Various phases
of the electrical network formulation are discussed in Probs. 6—6, 6—14, and the
governing equations for a linear resistance d-c network are developed in Probs.
6—14, 6—23. We list the notation and governing equations for convenience:
b = number of branches
n number of nodes
N=n—1
M—b—N=b—n+1
= potential at node j with respect to the reference potential,
k+, k = nodes at positive and negative ends of branch k
= current in branch k, positive when directed from node k_ to node
ek = potential drop for branch k = Vk. — Vk+
e0, k = emf for branch k
= resistance for branch k
The governing equations expressed in matrix notation are (see Prob. 6—23):
An = 0 (N eqs.) (9—16)
e = AV = e0 + Ri (b eqs.) (9—17)
where
i
e = {ej, e2, . . , (9—18)
v={V1,V2
R1
R2
R=
Rb
and A is obtained by deleting the last column of the branch-node connec-

tivity matrix d. Note that d has only two entries1 in any row. For row k
(Ic =
jlkk = +1
dkk+ = —1 1 k+ ork. (9—19)
dkj =0 1= 1,2,...,N
Actually, d is just the matrix equivalent of the branch-node connectivity table.
Example 9—2
A network can be represented by a line drawing consisting of curves interconnected at

various points. The curves and intersection points are conventionally called branches and
nodes respectively. Each branch is terminated at two different nodes and no two branches
have a point in common which is not a node. Also, two nodes are connected by at least
one path. A collection of nodes and branches satisfying the above restrictions is called
a linear connected graph, If each branch is assigned a direction, the graph is said to be
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SEC. 9—4. COMPARISON OF THE FORCE AND MESH METHODS 219
oriented. The connectivity relations for a network are topological properties of the cor-
responding oriented graph.
Consider the oriented graph shown. We list the branch numbers vertically and the node
numbers horizontally. We assemble d working with successive branches. Finally, we
obtain A by deleting the last column (cot. 4) of d.
Fig. E9—2
2
Node
Branch I 2 3
1 —1 +1
2 +1 A
3 +1 —.1
—1
—1
Now, A has N linearly independent columns. Therefore, it is possible to

solve (9—16) for N branch currents in terms of b — N = M branch currents.
We suppose the branches are numbered such that the first N rows of A contain
a nonvanishing determinant of order N and partition A, i after row N.
(N x N)
(bxN)
— [ A1
[A2
(MXN)
(Nx 1)
= JJi__
(Mx))
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FORCE METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 9
220
Introducing (9—20) in (9—16) leads to

ATi1 = (9—21)
Since tAil 0, we can solve for i1 in terms of i2. We write the solution of the
node equations as
i= Ci2
(9—22)
[Cii.I'2
= I
Note that C1 is of order N by M and is related to A1, A2 by

C1 = (9—23)
It remains to determine a set of M equations for i2.

One can express (9—17) in partitioned form and then eliminate V, or alterna-
tively, one can use the variational principle developed in Prob. 7—6. Using
the first approach, we write (9—17) as
= A1V = e1 + R1i1 (N eqs)
(9—24)
e2 A2V = e20 + R212 (M eqs)
Once i1 is known, we can find V from
A1V e1 = e1 + R1i1 (9—25)
Eliminating V from the second equation in (9—24) and using (9—23), we obtain
e2 + CTe1 = 0 (9—26)
Equation (9—26) represents M equations relating the branch potential differ-

ences (voltages). Finally, substituting for in terms of leads to
(R2 + CTR1C1)i2 —e2,0 — Cfe10 (9—27)
The coefficient matrix for i2 is positive definite when the branch resistances
are positive. This will be the case for a real system.
The essential step in the solution involves solving (9—21), that is, finding C1.
Note that C1 corresponds to for the truss problem. Also, the branches
comprising A1 (and i1) correspond to the primary structure. Although the
equations for the truss and electrical network are similar in form, it should be
noted that the network problem is one dimensional whereas the truss problem
involves the geometry as well as the cpnnectivity of the system. One can as-
semble C1 using only the topological properties of the oriented graph which
represents the network. To find the corresponding matrices (F1, 0 and
for a truss, one must solve a system of linear equations. In what follows, we
describe a procedure for assembling C1 directly from the oriented graph.
A closed path containing only one repeated node that begins and ends at
that node is called a mesh. One can represent a mesh by listing sequentially
the branches traversed. A tree is defined as a connected graph having no
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SEC. 9—4. COMPARISON OF THE FORCE AND MESH METHODS 221
meshes. Let hT be the number of branches in a tree connecting 11 nodes. One

can easily show that
bT=n—l=N (9—28)
We reduce a graph to a tree by removing a sufficient number of branches such

that no meshes remain. The branches removed are generally called chords.
The required number of chords is equal to b — = b — N = M. Now, we
associate the branches comprising a tree with the rows of A1. Selecting a tree
is equivalent to selecting N linearly independent rows in A. The M chords
correspond to the redundant branches, that is, the rows of A2. Note that one
can always number the branches such that the first N branches define a tree.
Chord j and the unique path (in the tree) connecting the terminals of chord
j define a mesh, say mesh j. We take the positive direction of mesh j (clockwise
or counterclockwise) such that the mesh direction coincides with the positive
direction for chord j. Now, the current is constwit in a niesh. Suppose branch
r is contained in mesh j. Then, the current in branch r due to a unit value of
is equal to + 1 (—1) if the positive directions of branch rand meshj coincide
(are opposite in sense).
We have expressed the solution of the node equations as
I) (NXM) (Mxl)
i1=C1 12
Now, we take the elements of i2 as the chord (mesh) currents. Then i1 represents
the required branch currents in the tree. We assemble C1 working with the
columns. The column corresponding to involves only those branches of the
tree which are contained in mesh j. We enter (+1, — 1,0) in row k of this
column if branch k is (positively, negatively, not) included in mesh j.
Example 9—3
For the graph in example 9—2, N = n — 1 = 3 and b = 6. Then M = b — N = 3
and we must remove 3 branches to obtain a tree. We take branthes 4 , 5 , and 6 as the
chords. The resulting tree is shown in Fig. E9—3. We indicate the chords by dashed lines.
2 Fig. E9—3
1
3
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For this selection of a tree,

ij = {i1, i2, 13} i2 {i4, i5, i6}
The meshes associated with the chords follow directly from the sketch:
mesh4
mesh5
mesh6
To assemble C1 we list the branches of the tree vertically and the chord numbers hori-
zontally. We work with successive columns, that is, successive chords. The resulting matrix
is listed below. Note that C1 is just the matrix equivalent of(a).
4 5 6
1 —l• 0 +1
1
Branches —
ofthe 2 +1 +1 0
tree
3 0 —1 —1
1
The matrices, A1 and A2, follow from Example 9—2:

—! +1 0
A1= 0 +1 0
0 +1 —l
—1 0 0
A2= 0 0 —1
+1 0 —1
One can readily verify that

C1 =
The matrix, C = {C1, Im}, is called thc branch-mesh incidence matrix. Using
(9—23), we see that A and C have the property
(N x Ill)
ATC = 0 (9—29)
Also, we can express the compatibility equations, (9—26), as

(SIx 1)
CTe = 0 (9—30)
The rows of CT define the incidence of the meshes on the branches. Equation
(9—30) states that the sum of the potential drops around each mesh must be
zero and is just Kirchhoff's voltage law expressed in matrix form. The matrix
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PROBLEMS 223
formulation of the network problem leads to the same system of equations

that one would obtain by applying Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws to the
various nodes and meshes. This, of course, also applies to the truss problem.
The two approaches differ only with respect to the assemblage of the governing
equations. In the conventional approach, one assembles the equations in-
dividually. This involves repeated application of the basic laws. When the
equations are expressed in matrix form, the steps reduce to a sequence of matrix
multiplications.
REFERENCES
1. C. H., and J. B. WILBUR: Elementa,'v Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
2. HALL, A. S., and R. W. W000HEAD: Frame Analysis, Wiley. New York, 1967.
3. MORICE, P. B.: Linear Structural Analysis, Ronald Press, New York, 1969.
4. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Matrix computer Analyris of Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1966.
5. PRZEMIENIECKI, J. S.: Theory of Ma/rLr Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
6. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Structural Systems—Statics, Dynamics, and Stability, Prentice-
FlaIl, 1970.
7. Di MAGGIO, F. D., and W. R. SNLLERS: "Network Analysis of Structures," Eng.
Mech. Div.. A.S,C.E., Vol. 91, No. EM 3, June 1965.
8. FF.NVE.S, S. .1., and F. H. BRANIN, JR.: "Network-Topological Formulation of Struc-
tural Analysis," J. Structures Div., A.S.C.E. Vol. 89, No. ST4, August 1963.
PROBLEMS
9—1. Show that the coefficient matrix f22 is positive definite for arbitrary
rank of F1 P2 when is positive definite. Use the approach suggested in
Problems 2—12 through 2—14.
9—2. Solve the following system using the procedure outlined in Sec. 9—2.
TakeX1 {xi,x2}
2 1 0 0 0 x1 3
2 2 0 0 0 x2
+
3 4 l.Y25 00 1 0 X3 1
12 0002 x4 2
9—3. Consider a system of in equations in n unknowns, ax = c, where

in> n. Suppose r(a) = a and the first a rows of a are linearly independent.
Let q = m — n.
(a) Show that the consistency requirement. for the system leads to q
relations between the elements of c.
(b) Interpret (9—10) from this point of view.
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224 FORCE METHOD: DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 9
9—4. Develop an incremental "force" formulation starting with

— B1 AF
= B2 AF
Ae Bf AU1 + AU2 = + ft AF
where f', represent the flexibility factor and incremental initial elongation
for the segment corresponding to the initial value of F. One has to modify
bothft and if the limit of the segment is exceeded (see sec. 6—4 for a detailed
treatment).
Consider the case where the loading distribution is constant, i.e., where only
the magnitude is increased. Let P1 1,/i where 2 is the load parameter and
defines the loading distribution. Discuss how you would organize the
computational scheme. Also discuss how you would account for either yielding
or buckling of a bar. Distinguish between a redundant bar and a bar in the
primary structure.
9—5. Solve Prob. 8—3 with the force method: Take F3 as the force re-
dundant.
9—6. Assemble the equations for F2 = (F8, F9, F10, F, for the truss
shown.
Prob, 9—6
x2
xl
15' 15'
(1) Material is linear elastic and the flexibility factors are equal.
(2) Only u42 is finite. Take = {u42 }
(3) Only initial elongation for bar 4.
9—7. For the truss shown:

(a) Using (9—10), determine the elongation-compatibility relations. Takt
bars ©, as the redundant bars.
(b) Express u52 in terms of the elongations and support movements.
9—8. By definition (see (7—26) and (7—31))
= AFTe —
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PROBLEMS 225
Prob. 9—i
2
x2
x1
Then
— = AFT de
Express d2fl, as a quadratic form in AF2. Consider the material to be nonlinear
elastic and establish criteria for the stationary point to be a relative minimum.
9—9. Consider the oriented linear graph shown.
Prob. 9—9
(a) Determine A.
(b) Determine C.
(c) Verify that ATC = 0.
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Part III
ANALYSIS OF A
MEMBER ELEMENT
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10
Governing Equations for
a Delormable Solid
10—1. GENERAL
The formulation of the governing equations for the behavior of a deformable
solid involves the following three steps:
1. Study of deformation. We analyze the change in shape of a differential
volume element due to displacement of the body. The quantities re-
quired to specify the deformation (change in shape) are conventionally
called strains. This step leads to a set of equations relating the strains
and derivatives of the displacement components at a point. Note that
the analysis of strain is purely a geometrical problem.
2. Study of forces. We visualize the body to consist of a set of differential
volume elements. The forces due to the interactions of adjacent volume
elements are called internal forces. Also, the internal force per unit
area acting on a differential area, say dAd, is defined as the stress vector,
this step, we analyze the state of stress at a point, that is, we
investigate how the stress vector varies with orientation of the area
element. We also apply the conditions of static equilibrium to the
volume elements. This leads to a set of differential equations (called
stress equilibrium equations) which must be satisfied at each point in
the interior of the body and a set of algebraic equations (called stress
boundary conditions) which must be satisfied at each point on the
surface of the body. Note that the study of forces is purely an equilibrium
problem.
3. Relate forces and displacements. In this step, we first relate the stress
and strain components at a point. The form of these equations depends
on the material behavior (linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, inelastic, etc.).
Substitution of the strain-displacement relations in the stress-strain
relations leads to a set of equations relating the stress
and derivatives of the displacement components. We refer to this
system as the stress-displacement relations.
229
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230 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
The governing equations for a deformable solid consist of the stress equilib-
rium equations, stress-displacement relations, and the stress and displacement
boundary conditions.
In this chapter, we develop the governing equations for a linearly elastic solid
following the steps outlined above. We also extend the variational principles
developed in Chapter 7 for an ideal truss to a three-dimensional solid.
In Chapter 11, we present St. Venarit's theory of torsion-fiexure of prismatic
members and apply the theory to some simple cross sections. St. Venant's
theory provides us with considerable insight as to the nature of the behavior
and also as to how we can simplify the corresponding mathematical problem
by introducing certain assumptions. The conventional engineering theory of
prismatic members is developed in Chapter 12 and a more refined theory
for thin walled prismatic members which includes the effect of warping of the
cross section is discussed in Chapter 13. In Chapter 14, we develop the engi-
neering theory for an arbitrary planar member. Finally, in Chapter 15, we
present the engineering theory for an arbitrary space member.
1O—2. SUMMATION CONVENTION; CARTESIAN TENSORS

Let a and b.represent nth-order column matrices:
a= {Oj, 02
10—1
b= {h1,b2
Their scalar (inner) product is defined as
aTb = bTa = a1b1 + a2h2 + ... +

=
To avoid having to write the summation sign, we introduce the convention
that when an index is repeated in a term, it is understood the term is summed
over the range of the index. According to this convention
(i = 1,2 ii) (10—2)
and we write the scalar product as

aTb = a1b1 (10—3)
The summation convention allows us to represent operations on multi-

dimensional arrays in compact form. It is particularly convenient for formu-
lation, i.e., establishing the governing equations. We illustrate its application
below.
Example 10—i
1. Consider the product of a rectangular matrix, a, and a column vector, x.

c=ax aisrnx n
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SEC. 10—2. SUMMATION CONVENTION; CARTESIAN TENSORS 231
The typical term is
c• => (b)
2. Let a, b be square matrices, x a column vector, and f, g scalars defined by

frxTax
g = xrbx (c)
The matrix form of the product, fg, is
fg =(xTax)(xTbx)
One could expand (d) but it is more convenient to utilize (b) and write (c) as
f=
g = bk(xkxe
fg = alJbk,xlxfxkx(
= DIJk(XIXJXkX(
3. We return to part 1 The inner product of c is a scalar, H,

II = xT(aTa)x
Using (b),
H = c-c1 = 0f50
The outer product is a second-order array, il,

d= ccT axxraT
and can be expressed as
= = alkaf,xkx,.
= AIJk(XkXe
According to the summation convention,

= d11 + d22 + = trace of d
Then, we can write (h) as
H= d11 = AIIk(XkX(
4. Let represent square second-order arrays. The inner product is defined as the
sum of the products of corresponding elements:
Inner product ç,) =

= + + + + g21e21 + (m)
In order to represent this product as a matrix product, we must convert cki, ejj over to
one-dimensional arrays.
Let represent a one-dimensional set of elements associated

with an orthogonal reference frame having directions If the
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corresponding set for a second reference frame is related to the first set by
—
— k
(10—4)
= cos
1, 2, 3
we say that the elements of b comprise a first-order cartesian tensor. Noting

(5—5), we can write (10—4) as
= (10—5)
and it follows that the set of orthogonal components of a vector are a first-order
cartesian tensor. We know that the magnitude of a vector is invariant. Then,
the sum of the squares of the elements of a first-order tensor is invariant.
(10—6)
A second-order cartesian tensor is defined as a set of doubly subscripted

elements which transform according to
= (10—7)
j. k. ,n.
1.2. 3
An alternate form is
= (10—8)
The transformation (10—8) is orthogonal and the trace, sum of the principal
second-order minors, and the determinant are invariant.t
=
fl(2)
where
=
=
b12 b22 b23 b11 b13
L 7
+ 7 7
+
021 022 032 033 1733
In the cases we encounter, b will be symmetrical.
10-3. ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION; CARTESIAN STRAINS

Let P denote an arbitrary point in the undeformed state of a body and the
position vector for P with respect to 0, the origin of an orthogonal cartesian
reference frame. The corresponding point and position vector in the deformed
state are taken as F'; and the movement from P to P' is represented by the
displacement vector, fl. By definition,
(10—10)
This notation is shown in Fig. 10—1.

f See Prob. 2—5.
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SEC. 10—3. ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION; CARTESIAN STRAINS 233
Excluding rigid body motion, the displacement from the initial undeformed
position will be small for a solid, and it is reasonable to take the initial Cartesian
coordinates (xi) as the independent variables. This is known as the Lagrange
Undeformed
dp
F' (Deformed)
i3
112
Fig. 10—1. Geometric notation.
approach. Also, to simplify the derivation, we work with cartesian components

for ü. Then,
ii
=
We consider a differential line element at P represented by the vector dii.
(See Fig. 10—1). The initial length and direction cosines are ds and We are
using the subscript notation for partial differentiation.
= /
= (10—12)
The corresponding line in the deformed state is Since we are

following the Lagrange approach, p = arid we can write
= = (10—13)
The extensional strain, r, is defined as the relative change in length with respect
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to the initial length.t

= (1 + (10— 14)
Using the dot product, (10—14) becomes
(1
Finally, we write (a) as

e(1 + 4c) = ap.kejk
(10—15)
= —
One can readily establish that (eJk) is a second-order symmetrical Cartesian

tensor4
Taking the line element to be initially parallel to the direction and letting
represent the extensional strain, we see that
= e0
+ (no sum)
(10—16)
= -1)
To interpret the off-diagonal terms, we consider 2 initially orthogonal
line elements represented by (see Fig. 10—2) and having direction cosines
d r', I
xa
— '/12
p.-
dp'1
x2
Fig. 10—2. Notation for shearing strain.
t This is the definition of Lagrangian strain. In the Eulerian approach, the cartesian coordinates
for the deformed state are taken as the independent variables,
=
and the strain is defined as
= (1 —
See Prob. 10—4. It is known as Green's strain tensor. The elements, are also called the
components of finite strain. They relate the difference between the square of the initial and deformed
lengths of the line element, i.e., an alternate definition of Cjk
— ds2 = 2eJkdxJdxk
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We define as the angle between the lines in the deformed

state. The expression for which is called the shearing strain, follows by
taking the dot product of the deformed vectors.
(it , .
COS — — J= Y12 =
)
Substituting for
k)dsf
(sum on k only)
= (1 +
and noting that the lines are initially orthogonal,
=
(a) takes the form
(1 + + = (10—17)
Specializing (10—17) for lines parallel to X,, shows that is related to the
shearing strain.
(I + + = 2e13 = (10—18)
Equations (10—15) and (10—17) are actually transformation laws for exten-
sional and shearing strain. The state of strain is completely defined once the
strain tensor is specified for a particular set of directions. To generalize these
expressions, we consider two orthogonal frames defined by the unit vectors
and (see Fig. 10—3), take the initial frame parallel to the global frame
= ti), and let = 15 tk. With this notation:
+ = )
(10—19)
(1 + + =
The strain measures (e, y) are small with respect to unity for engineering
materials such as metals and concrete. For example, e for steel.
Therefore, it is quite reasonable (aside from the fact that it simplifies the
expressions) to assume r, y in the strain expressions. The relations for
1
"small" strain are:

(10—20)
It remains to expand eJk. Now,

= + ii + u,,Ji,,
Differentiating with respect to

S OP —
= + Un, j)l,n
=
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236 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID Cl-lAP. 10
and substituting into the definition of (Equation (10—15)) leads to
eJk = k + Uk. + 4Um, ,u,,,, k (sum on m only) (10—21)
In order to simplify (10—21), we must establish the geometrical significance of

the various terms.
x3
t3
t2
/ t,3
Fig. 10—3. Unit vectors defining transformation of orthogonal directions.
With this objective, we consider a line element initially parallel to the X1

axis. Figure 10—4 shows the initial and deformed positions, and the angles
012, which define the rotation of the line toward the X2, K3 directions.
The geometrical relations of interest to us are
X2
033
sin 0j3 =
1 +
1421
sine12
(1 + 81)cos 0j3
)2
(1 + + + uj 1
Also, by definition,
+ = e11 = U1, 1+ i+ i4, i+

We solve (a), (b) for u2, and 03,
03,1 (1 +
1 013 —
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and then solve (c) for u1,
1= (1 + {1 — A}112 — 1
(10—23)
A= sin2 013 + cos2 013 sin2 012
Applying the binomial expansion,

(1 — x)"2 = I — + + (10—24)
to (1 — we can write (10—23) as
— + + — + + (10—25)
In what follows, we assume small strain and express the derivatives and exten-
sional strain (see Equation (d)) as
u3. 1 = 0(013) 1= 0(012,
n2
U1 1— t/12, "13
a11 = u1, + + (f)
The various approximate theories are obtained by specializing (f).

'U3
dx1
dx1
1123 dx1
X1,u1
Fig. 10—4. Initial and deformed positions of a line element.
In the linear geometric case, the rotations are neglected with respect to strain.
Formally, one sets 012 = 613 = 0 in (f) and the result is a linear relation between
strain and displacement, -
a11 (g)
Note that, according to this approximation, the deformed orientation coincides
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238 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMA8LE SOLID CHAP. 10
with the initial orientation. The general relations for the linear geometric case
(small strain and infinitesimal rotation) are
= en = (no sum)
(10—26)
= = + ui,,
The next level of approximation is to consider 62 to be of the same order
as strain.
02 = 0(s) << 1
sin 0 0 (10—27)
cos 6 1
We can neglect with respect to 1 in (f), but we must retain 1

and 1
since they are of 0(62).
ci u11 + + (h)
The complete set of strain-displacement relations for small strain and small-
finite rotation are listed below for reference.
= = + + (no sum)
(10—28)
-
= + + Uk iUk. j
I k
We utilize these expressions to develop a geometrically nonlinear formulation

for a member in Chapter 18.
Lastly, if no restrictions are imposed on the magnitude of the rotations,
one must use (10—21). The relations for finite rotation and small strain are
= = + + + (no sum)
10—29
= = + + u11(l + + Uk.iUk,j
k
Note that the truss formulation presented in Chapter 6 allows for arbitrary
magnitude of the rotations.
We have shown that linear strain-displacement relations are based on the
following restrictions:
1. The strains are negligible with respect to unity, and
2. Products of the rotations are negligible with respect to the strains.
The first condition will always be satisfied for engineering materials such as
metals, concrete, etc. Whether the second restriction is satisfied depends on
the configuration of the body and the applied loading. If the body is massive
in all three directions, the rotations are negligible with respect to the strains
for an arbitrary loading. We have to include the nonlinear rotation terms in
the strain displacement relations only if the body is thin (e.g., a thin plate or
slender member) and the applied loading results in a significant change in the
geometry. As an illustration, consider the simply supported member shown
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in Fig. 10—5. We can neglect the change in geometry.if only a transverse loading
is applied (case 1). However, if both axial and transverse loads are applied
(case 2), the change in geometry is no longer negligible and we must include the
nonlinear rotation terms in the strain-displacement relations.
Case 2 (Q,P) Case1 (Q)
Fig. 10—5. Example of linear and geometrically nonlinear behavior.
To treat a geometrically nonlinear problem, we must work with the deformed

geometry rather than the initial geometry. This can be defined by tracking
the movement of a triad of line elements initially parallel to the global directions.
We let be the initial set and the deformed set (see Fig. 10—6). By definition,
= (no sum)
= (no sum)
= (1 +
The unit vector pointing in the direction of dTh is denoted by Using (a),
we can write
vi p.
=
for small strain
Finally, we express in terms of the unit vectors for the initial frame.
/3jklk
(10—30)
I3jk — +
+ for small strain
We will utilize (10—30) in the next section to establish the stress equilibrium
equations for the geometrically nonlinear case.
Equations (10—30) reduce to
(10—31)
for the geometrically linear case and to

+ 13j1Jk + (no sum)
[0—32
for the case of small strain and small-finite rotations.
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/ =dxji1
ii
Fig. 10—6. Initial and deformed geometries.
10—4. ANALYSIS OF STRESS

The effects of the surroundings on a body such as contact pressure, gravita-
tional attraction, etc.,result in internal forces. In this section, we establish the
equilibrium conditions for the internal forces in a body. This step is generally
called the analysis of stress.
Consider a body subjected to some effect which results in internal forces.
We pass a cutting plane through the deformed body and separate the two
segments as shown in Fig. 10—7. We let in denote the outward normal direction
for the internal face of body and refer to this face as the + in face. In general,
the subscript, m, is used for quantities associated with the + m face. Now, we
consider a differential area element AAm, and let A Fm be the resultant internal
force vector acting on this element. The stress vector, is defined as
hm (10—33)
AA, -. I)
Note that has the units of force/area. Also, it depends on the orientation
of the area element, i.e., on the direction of the outward normal. We do not
allow for the possibility of the existence of a moment acting on a differential
area element. One can include this effect by defining a vectort
in addition to a stress vector.
f See Ref. 6, p. 68.
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SEC. 10—4. ANALYSIS OF STRESS 241
We consider next the corresponding area element in the —rn face. From
Newton's law,
=
and it follows that
= —ö,,, (1O—34)
The stress vector has the same magnitude and line of action but it's sense is
reversed.
Body I Body 2
Note: Deformed state
Fig. 10—7. Notation for internal force.
In order to analyze the state of stress at a point, say Q, we need an expression

for the stress vector associated with an arbitrary plane through Q. With this
objective, we consider the tetrahedron shown in Fig; 10—8. The orientation of
the arbitrary plane is defined by q, the outward normal direction. The outward
normals for the other three faces are parallel to the reference axes (X1; j = 1,
2, 3). To simplify the notation, we use a subscript j for quantities associated
with the X face, that is, the face whose outward normal points in the +
direction. For example, we write
=
= = (10—35)
=
etc.
The force vectors acting at the centroids of the faces are shown in Fig. 10—8.
The term M0 represents the change in due to translation from Q to the
centroid.
For equilibrium, the resultant force and moment vectors must vanish. In the
limit (as P Q), the force system is concurrent and therefore we have to
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consider only the force equilibrium condition. From Fig. 10—8, we have
- - - —
crq + &Tq = (a3 +
Now, AA1 is the projection of AAq on the X2-X3 plane. Noting that the projec-
tion of LxAq on a plane is equal to AAq times the scalar product of and the
unit normal vector for the plane, and letting aqj be the direction cosine for the
q direction with respect to the direction, we can write
AA.
= = cos(q, X1) = (10—36)
Finally, in the limit, Equation (a) reduces to

= (1037)
Once the stress vectors for three orthogonal planes at Q are known, we can deter-
mine the stress vector for an arbitrary plane through Q with (10—37).
x2
i2
I
+
x3
+ 2)LXA2
Fig. 10—8. Differential tetrahedral element.
Equation (10—37) is the transformation law for the Stress vector. The com-
ponent of 5q in a particular direction is equal to the scalar product of 6q and
a unit vector pointing in thedesired direction. Now, we express the stress
vectors in terms of their components with respect to the coordinate axes
(j = 1, 2, 3).
-
j = 1,2,3 (10—38)
= aqklk
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Note that the first subscript on a stress component always refers to the flice,
and the second to the direction. For example. a12 acts on the X1 face and
points in the X2 direction. The positive sense of the components for a negative
face is reversed since The normal (a13) and in-plane (afk) com-
ponents are generally called normal and shearing stresses. This notation is
illustrated in Fig. 10—9.
x2
ta22
T
FIg. 10—9. Notation for stress components.
Substituting for the stress vectors in (10—37) results in

= cxqjajk (10—39)
The component of 5q with respect to an arbitrary direction, m,is determined from
aqn,
Letting
and noting (10—38), (a) expands to
We generalize (c) for two orthogonal frames specified by the unit vectors
(see Fig. 10—3) where
t. = -ii
(10—40)
t3 = cJ3k:k
Defining as the component acting on the 1 face in the direction and

identifying with i,,,, (c) takes the form
= (10—41)
This result shows that the set is a second-order cartesian tensor.

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244 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOUD CHAP. 10
It remains to establish the equilibrium equations for a differential volume

element. The equilibrium equations relate to the deformed state, i.e., we must
consider a differential element on the deformed body. Since we have defined
the stress components with respect to the global Cartesian directions, it is natural
to work with a rectangular parallelepiped having sides parallel to the global
directions. This is shown in Fig. 10—10. Point 0 is at the centroid of the element.
i3 +
dfl3
dr13
+ (— di73
ant
Fig. 10—10. Differential volume element in Eulerian representation.
The stress vectors are considered to be functions of the deformedt coordinates

We obtain the forces acting on the faces by expanding the stress vectors
about 0 and retaining only the first two terms4 Letting b denote the external
force per unit volume and enforcing the equilibrium conditions leads to
(10-42)
and
= 0 x = 0 (10—43)
The scalar force equilibrium equations are obtained by expanding the vector
equations using (10—38).
Force equilibrium + = 0 k= 1, 2, 3 (10—44)
Moment equilibrium = (10—45)

k= 1 23
Moment equilibrium requires the shearing stress components to be symmetrical.
Then, the stress tensor is symmetrical and there are only six independent stress
measures for the three-dimensional case and three for the two-dimensional case.
t We arc following the Eulerian approach here. Later we will shift back to the Lagrange approach
Second- and higher-order terms will vanish in the limit, i.e.. when the element is shrunk to a
point.
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Equations (10—44) must be satisfied at each point in the interior of the body.
Also, at the boundary, the stress components must equilibrate the applied
surface forces.
We define as the outward normal vector at a point on the deformed surface
and write
= (10—46)
The external force per unit deformed surface area is denoted by

= pnjlj (10—47)
Applying (10—37) leads to the stress-boundary force-equilibrium relations:

Ph =
(10—48)
Pnj i3nk0kj f= 1, 2, 3
When p,0 is prescribed, i.e., (10—48) represent boundary conditions
on the stress components. If is prescribed, is a reaction.
Our derivation of strain-displacement relations employed the Lagrange
approach, i.e., we considered the displacements (and strains) to be functions
of the initial coordinates (xi). The analysis of stress described above is based
on the Eulërian approach, where the deformed coordinates are taken as the
independent variables. This poses a problem since the strain and stress measures
are referred to different volume elements. Figure 10—Il shows the initial and
Initia'
(I + €2)dx2
/ Deformed
dX2[ Lagrange
(1 +e1)dxj
dx1
4
U12
(I
Eu'er
drj1
(I
x2
Fig. 10—11. Comparison of Eulerian and Lagrangian representations for a volume

element.
f See Prob. 10—12.

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deformed area elements corresponding to the two viewpoints. To be consistent

with the Lagrange strains, we must work with a nonorthogonal parallelepiped
whose sides are parallel to the deformed line elements in the analysis of stress.
Conversely, to be consistent with the Eulerian stresses, we have to refer the
strain measures to nonorthogonal directions in the initial state.
In the linear geometric case, we assume small strain and neglect the change
in orientation due to rotation. The two approaches coalesce and we just have
to replace with and with where is the direction cosine for the
initial direction of the exterior normal. The linear equilibrium equations are:
+ hk 0
CXj
(10—49)
For the geometrically nonlinear case, we work with stress measures referred
to the deformed directions (see Fig. 10—6) defined by the unit vectors, We
define as the stress vector per unit initial area acting on the face which
initially is normal to the direction, b* as the force per unit initial volume, and
as the force per unit initial surface area. Figure .10—12 shows this notation
for the two-dimensional case. The stress and force vectors are considered to be
functions of the initial coordinates (xe).
The equilibrium equations at an interior point are
+ b* = 0 (10—50)
(X1
(1 + x 0
We express the body force and stress vectors as

—
k
(10-5 1)
= +
The set, is called the Kirchhoff stress tensor. Substituting for using
(10—30), results in the following scalar equations, which correspond to (10—44)
and (10—45): -
+ b7 = 0 1,2,3 (10-52)
(10—53)
1, 2, 3
The boundary equilibrium equations are obtained by expanding
= (10—54)
and have the form
*_
pnj —
k
—
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These equations apply for arbitrary strain and finite rotation. For small
strain, we neglect the change in dimensions and shape of the volume element.
This assumption is introduced by taking
(10—56)
Since the deformed unit vectors are orthogonal (toe 1), the Kirchhoff stresses
now comprise a second-order cartesian tensor and they transform according
p2
x2
p,,ds
1,, = 4
—oj dx2
/ pn = ij
dx2
dx1
c4 dx1
(1 e2)dx2
/
dx2
dx
(1 + €1)dx1
x1
Fig. 10—12. Definition of stress components in Lagrangian representation.
to (10—41). The equations simplify somewhat if we assume small-finite

For infinitesimal (linear geometry), and
the equations reduce to (10—49), (10—50).
In what follows, we will work with the Kirchhoff stress components to keep
the treatment general. However, we will assume small strain.
t See Prob. 10—16.
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10—5. ELASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS

A body is said to be elastic if it returns to its initial dimensions and shape
when the applied forces are removed. The work done during the deformation
process is independent of the order in which the body is deformed. We treat
first an arbitrary elastic material and then specialize the results for a linearly
elastic material.
Our starting point is the first law of thermodynamics:
5W = OVT + OQ
where OW = first-order work done by the forces acting on the body
0 VT = first-order change in the total strain energy (also called internal
energy)
= first-order change in the total heat content.
When the deformation process is isothermal or adiabatic, OQ = 0, and (a) re-
duces to
OW
Now, we apply (b) to a differential volume clement in the deformed state

(see, e.g., Fig. 1Q—12). We define V as the strain energy per unit initial volume.
In general, V is a function of the deformation measures.
V= = Y12' . . .) (10—57)
The material is said to be hyperelastic (Green-type) when V is a continuous

function. This requires
= (10—58)
oek, cejj ciek(
By definition,
= OV(dx1 dx2 dx3)
cW
= (10—59)
cetj
where is the first-order changet in due to an incremental displacement,
M. Also, one can show that the first order work done by the force vectors
acting on the element is
OW = . + + . + h Ltfl)dx1 dx2 dx3
(10—60)
dx2 dx3
Equating OVT and OW leads to the general form of the stress-strain relation for
a Green-type material,
=
(3• (10—61)
tSeeProb. 10—11.
See Prob. 10—18. The forces are in equilibrium. is. they satisfy (10—50).
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SEC. 10—5. ELASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS 249
This definition applies for arbitrary strain. Once V is specified, we can obtain
expressions for the stresses in terms of the strains by differentiating V. Since V
is continuous, the stress-strain relations must satisfy (10—58), which requires
(10—62)
43e1j
In what follows, we restrict the discussion to small strain and a linearly elas-
tic material, i.e., where the stress-strain relations are linear. We also shift from
indicial notation to matrix notation, which is more convenient for this phase.
We list the stress and strain components in column matrices and drop the
superscript k on the Kirchhoff stress components:
=
= {e11, e22, e33, 2e12, 2e23, 2e31} (10—63)
=
With this notation,
(10—64)
The matrix transformation laws are

=
(10—65)
Since ÔV is invariant under a transformation of reference frames, the trans-

formation matrices are related by
1 (10—66)
The total strain, e, is expressed as

a a° ± (10—67)
where a° contains the initial strains not associated with stress, e.g., strain due
to a temperature increment, and A is called the material compliance matrix.
We write the inverted relations as
= D(a — a°) (10—68)
where D = A' is the material rigidity matrix. Equation (10—62) requires D

(and A) to be symmetrical. The elements of A are determined from material
tests, and D is generated by inverting A. Substituting for in (10—64), we
obtain the form of the strain energy density for the linear case,
—
V= — a°)TD(a a°) (10—69)
Since V > 0 for arbitrary (E — a°), D and A are positive definite matrices.
There are 21 material constants for a linearly elastic Green-type material.
The number of independent constants is reduced if the material structure
t See Prob. 10—6, 10—13.
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exhibits In what follows, we describe the transition from an aniso-

tropic material to an isotropic material.
A material whose structure has three orthogonal axes of symmetry is called
orthotropic. The structure of an orthotropic material appears identical after a
1800 rotation about a symmetry axis. To determine the number of indepen-
dent constants for this case, we suppose X1, X2, X3 are axes of symmetry and
consider a 180° rotation about X2. We use a prime superscript to indicate the
rotated axes. From Fig. 10—13,
= —x1
= -x3
= x2
The stress and deformation quantities are related by (we replace 1 by — I and
3 by —3 in the shear terms)
= = 1,2.3
a12 = —a12 a23 —a23 a13 = a13
Y12 = Y12 = Y23 Y13 Y13
Now, the stress-strain relations must be identical in form. We expand e =

a' Acv', and substitute for using (b). Equating the expressions for
Fig. 10—13. Rotation of axes for symmetry with respect to the X2-X3 plane.
tA material whose structure has no symmetry is said to be anisotropic.
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SEC. 10—5. ELASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS 251
and leads to the following relations between the elements of A,

+ = 314(T12 — ti15a33
a24a12 + a25a23 = —a24a12 — a25a23
a34a12 + a35a23 = —a34u12 —
For (c) to be satisfied, the coefficients must vanish identically. This requires
£434 = a15 = 0
a24 = £435 = 0
a34a350
We consider next the expansions for The symmetry conditions require
a46 = a56 = 0. By rotating 1800 about X1, we find
a16 = = a36 = a45 0
A rotation about the X3 axis will not result in any additional conditions.
Finally, when the strains are referred to the structural symmetry axes, the
stress-strain relations for an orthotropic material reduce to
a11 a12 0j3
a12 a22 a23 0 a1,
-
— (10-70)
£444 0 0 a12
-—
0 0 0 a23
Y31 0 0 a66 (733
We see that A is quasi-diagonal and involves 9 independent constants. There

is no interaction between extension and shear. Also, the shearing effect is
uncoupled, i.e., cr12 leads only to
An alternate form of the orthotropic stress-strain relations is
a1 = AT + — !(733
—
1 V32
—-----a33
E2
(10—71)
1
= /13 AT + a33 — — —i—-
1 1 1
Y12 = Y23 = Y31 =
where E4 are extensional moduli, are shear moduli, Vjk are coupling coeffi-
cients, and AT is the temperature increment. The coupling terms are related by
(10-72)
E2 E1 E3 E1 E3 E2
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It is relatively straightforward to invert these relations:t One should note that

(10—71) apply only when X, coincide with the material symmetry directions4
If the stress-strain relations are invariant for arbitrary directions in a plane,
the material is said to be transversely orthotropic or isotropic with respect to
the plane. We consider the case where the X1 direction is the preferred direc-
tion, i.e., where the material is isotropic with respect to the X2-X3 plane. By
definition, A is invariant when we transform from X1-X2-X3 to
This
c,
'—'12'-'31'--'
v32 v23 v 1 2(1 + v)
--
F
and the relations reduce to
= AT + — (a22 +
= PAT + — — (10—74)
= pAT + — va27)
1 1
y23
2(l+v)
Yi2 Y31
There are five independent constants (F, v, E1, v1, G1).

Lastly, the material is called isotropic when the stress-strain relations are
Invariant for arbitrary directions, For this case, A = A' for arbi-
trary The relations are obtained by specializing (10—74):
= p AT + (at, — + akk))
(10—75)
2(1 + v)
F
Note that now there are only two independent constants (F, v). The coupling
coefficient, v,is called Poisson's ratio.
The inverted form of (10—75) is written as
a= a0 + + + +
a0 = (10—76)
= + 2G)pAT
t See Prob. 10—19 for the inverted form of (10—7 1).
IO--21.
§ See Prob. 10—22.
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where G are called Lamé constants and are related to E, v by

E
G= shear modulus =
2(1 + v)
(10—77)
yE
A
— (1 + v)(1 — 2v)
Since D must be positive definite, v is restricted to — 1 < v < 1/2. The limiting
case where v = + 1/2 is discussed in Problem 10—24.
10—6. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS; PRINCIPLE OF.

STATIONARY POTENTIAL ENERGY; CLASSICAL STABILITY
CRITERIA
Chapter 7 dealt with variational principles for an ideal truss. For com-
pleteness, we derive here the 3-dimensional form of the principle of virtual
displacements, principle of stationary potential energy, and the classical stability
criterion. The principle of virtual forces and stationary complementary energy
are treated in the next section.
The principle of virtual displacements states that the Iirst-order work done
by the external forces is equal to the first oidcr work done by the internal
forces acting on the restraints for an arbitrary virtual displacement of
the body from an equilibrium position. f In the continuous case, the external
loading consists of body (b) and surface loads and the internal forces are
represented by the stress vectors.
We follow the Lagrange approach, i.e., we work with Lagrange finite
strain components (eJ,j, Kirchhoff stresses and external force measures per
unit initial volume or area (b*, p*). This is consistent with our derivation of
the equilibrium equations. Let Au denote the virtual displacement. The first-
order external work is
= dx1 dx2 dx3 + JJj3* Au
10—78
= dx1 dx2 dx3 ± dfI
where fI is the initial surface area. The total internal deformation work is
obtained by summing the first-order work done by the stress vectors acting on
a differential volume element. *
= dx2dx3
(10—79)
= dx1 dx2 dx3
Equating (a) and (b), we obtain the 3-dimensional form of the principle of
See Sec. 7—2.

See Fig. 10—12.
§ See (10—60).
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virtual displacements,
5WD =
dx1 dx2 dx3 = fJJh* dx1 dx2 dx3 + (10—80)
dx1 dx2 dx3 = dx1 dx2 dx3 +

Requiring (10—80) to be satisfied for arbitrary (continuous) is equivalent to
enforcing the equilibrium equations.
To show this, we work with the vector form and utilize the following inte-
gration by parts formula: t
= J — dx2dx3 (10-81)
where is the direction cosine for the initial outward normal (n) with respect
to the direction. Operating on the left-hand term and equating coefficients
in the volume and surface integrals leads directly to (10—50) and (10—54).
The principle of virtual displacements applies for arbitrary loading (static
or dynamic) and material behavior. When the behavior is elastic and the loading
is independent of time, it can be interpreted as a variational principle for the
displacements. The essential steps required for the truss formulation are de-
scribed in Sec. 7—4. Their extension to a continuous body is straightforward.
When the behavior is elastic,
=
Letting VT denote the total strain energy, the left-hand side of (10—80) reduces to
dx1 dx2 dx3 fJJ öVdx1 dx2 dx3 =
We consider the surface area to consist of 2 zones as shown in Fig. 10—14.
+
where displacements are prescribed on
U1 on cd (10—82)
and surface force intensities arc prescribed on

pni Pni on
The displacement variation, L\u1, is admissible if it is continuous and satisfies
= 0 on (10—83)
We also consider the surface and body forces to be independent of the displace-
ments. With these definitions, the principle of virtual displacements is trans-
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formed to
= 0 for arbitrary admissible
(1084)
fl,, = VT cIx1 dx2 dx3 —
where is the total potential energy functional. According to (10—84), the

displacements defining an equilibrium position correspond to a stationary
value of the total potential energy functional. Note that this result applies for
arbitrary strain and finite rotations. The only restrictions are elastic behavior
and static loading.
PH
Fig. 10—14. Classification of boundary zones.
Example 10—2
Direct methods of variational calculus such as Rayleigh-Ritz, Galerkin, weighted resid-
uals, and others are applied to fl,, to determine approximate solutions for the displacements.
In the Rayleigh-Ritz method, one expresses the displacements in terms of unknown param-
eters, q, and prescribed functions, x2, x3),
U1 = +
where
>
= 0 forj = 1. 2
The displacement boundary conditions on fd are called "essential" boundary conditions.

Substituting for transforms to a function of the q's. When the material is linearly
elastic, V is a quadratic function of the strains. Then, V will involve up to fourth-degree
terms for the geometrically nonlinear case. If the behavior is completely linear, reduces
H, = Const. + qTQ +
q = (3N x 1)
. . . . . .
K is symmetrical
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GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
256
Finally, requiring to be stationary for arbitrary c5q leads (for linear behavior) to
Kq = Q
The strains are evaluated by operating on (a) and the stresses are determined from the
stress-strain relations.
Polynomials and trigonometric functions are generally used to construct the spatial
distribution functions. The mathematical basis for direct methods is treated in numerous
texts (see Refs. 9, 10).
The "classical" stability criterion for a stable equilibrium position ist

— o2WE > 0 for arbitrary Ad
where = is the second-order work done by the external forces

during the incremental displacement, Ad, and WD = ó(ö WD) is the second-
order work done by the internal forces acting on the restraints during the
incremental deformation resulting from Ad. The form of the work terms for
a continuous body are obtained by operating on (10—78) and
= Sfl Ad dx1 dx2 dx3 + j( Ad

= Au1 dx1 dx2 dx3 + J$ Au,
= (10—85)
dx2 dx3
= ie11 + dx2 dx3
If = Ô2WE for a particular Ad, the equilibrium position is neutral. The

position is unstable if ö2 WD < o2 Note that öb, are itull vectors when
the forces are prescribed.
For elastic behavior, the incremental deformation work is equal to the
increment in strain energy = and (10—84) can be written as
= > 0 for arbitrary Ad (10—86)
It follows that a stable equilibrium position corresponds to a relative minimum

value of the total potential energy. Bifurcation (neutral equilibrium) occurs
when = 0 for some Ad, say Ada. If the loading is prescribed,
and ö2VT = 0 at bifurcation.
The governing equations for bifurcation can be obtained by expanding
ö2WD = This involves transforming the integrand of by applying
(10—81). Since bifurcation corresponds to the existence of an alternate equili-
brium position, it is more convenient to form the incremental equations directly.
The equations for the case of linearly elastic material and prescribed external
forces are listed below.
f See Sec. 7—6 for a derivation of the classical stability criterion.

See Probs. 10—11, 10—18.
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L Equilibrium Equation in the Interior
+ + = 0 = 1,2,3
2. Stress-Boundary Force Equations on
+ + Au1 0 J = 1, 2, 3 (10—87)
3. Stress-Strain Relations
= D
4. Strain-Displacement Relations
= 3 + AUJ, + AIIm, j + Urn, j Am,
Au1 = 0
10—7. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES; PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY

COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY
Let u1 be the actual displacements in a body due to some loading and the
geometrically linear strain measures corresponding to u1. The strain and
displacement measures are related by
= +
u1=fl
Once the strains are known, we can find the displacements by solving (a) and
enforcing (b). The principle of virtual forces is basically a procedure for deter-
mining displacements without having to operate on (a). It applies only for
linear geometry. We developed its form for an ideal truss in Sec. 7—3. We will
follow the same approach here to establish the three-dimensional form.
The essential step involves selecting a statically permissible force system,
i.e., a force system which satisfies the linear equilibrium equations. For the
continuous case, the force system consists of stresses, surface forces,
on and reactions, on Static permissibility requires
Ac31,3 = 0
= on (10—88)
= on
If we multiply e13 by Ac13, integrate over the volume using (10—81), and note the
static relations, we obtain the following identity,t
Acr13 dx1 dx2 dx3 = u1 + $ Th (10—89)
0,,
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which is referred to as the principle of virtual forces (or stresses). This result is
applicable for arbitrary material behavior. 1-lowever, the geometry must be
linear.
Suppose the translation at a point Q on in the direction defined by is
desired (see Fig. 10—15). Let d0 be the displacement. We apply a unit force
at Q in the tq direction and generate a statically permissible stress field.
(1) 1q at point Q Acr and
The integral on reduces to (l)dQ, and it follows that

= dx1 dx2 dx1 — (10—90)
A second application is in the force method, where one reduces the governing
equations (stress equilibrium and stress displacement) to a set of equations
Fig. 10—15. Notation for determination of the translation at point Q.
involving only force unknowns. We start by expressing the stress field in terms
of a prescribed distribution and a "corrective" field
+ cit, (10—91)
where is a particular solution of the equilibrium equations which satisfies

the boundary conditions on
+ 0
(10-92)
= Thu on
and satisfies
= 0
= 0 on (10—93)
on
Stress fields satisfying (10—93) are called seljequilibrating stress fields. For the
ideal truss, a-° corresponds to the forces in the primary structure due to the
prescribed loading and ? represents the contribution of the force redundants.
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The governing equations for the force redundants were obtained by enforcing
geometric compatibility, i.e., the bar elongations are constrained by the require-
ment that the deformed bar lengths fit in the assembled structure.
Geometric compatibility for a continuum requires the strains to lead to
continuous displacements. One can establish the strain compatibility equations
by operating on the strain- displacement relations. This approach is described
in Prob. 10—10. One can also obtain these equations with the principle of
virtual forces by taking a self-equilibrating force system. Letting Aox, Apc denote
the virtual stress system, (10--89) reduces to
dx1 dx2 dx3 = (10—94)
The compatibility equations are determined by expressing in terms of stress

functions and integrating the left-hand term by parts. We illustrate its applica-
tion to the plane stress problem.
Example 10—3
If the stress components associated with the normal direction to a plane are zero, the
stress state is called planar. We consider the case where = = 033 = 0. The
equilibrium equations and stress-boundary force relations reduce to
+ + b1 = 0
012 5 + 2 + b2 = 0
+ a,,2o21
= + •z,,2a22
The stress field, oi,, must satisfy (a) with h1 = h2 = 0 and also p,,1 = = 0 on
We can satisfy the equilibrium equations by expressing in terms of a function, as
follows:t
= 033 =
=
The boundary forces corresponding to are
Pa
= OS
where s is the arc length on the boundary (sense is from X1 —* X2).

pC
Substituting for crC, in terms of i/i, (10-94) expands to
+ a2 11 — y52 12)dx1
if
— f CS Ps
0
,i
There is no loss in generality by taking = 0 on S. Then, integrating (e) by parts,
22 + a2, — 712, dx1 dx2 0
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and requiring (f) to be satisfied for arbitrary results in the strain compatibility equation,
+ — 0
which is actually a continuity requirement

U1 122 + 211 — (u1 212 + 112 112) = 0
We express (g) in terms of by substituting for the strains in terms of the stresses.t
The principle of virtual forces is also employed to generate approximate

solutions for the stresses. It is convenient to shift over to matrix notation for
this discussion, and we write (10—94) as
dx1 dx2 dx3 ApC
if
We express the stress matrix in terms of prescribed stress states and unknown
parameters, a1,
= +
= + + (12(l)2 + ' + 04,,
where satisfies (10—92) and (1 1, 2,...,r) are self-equilibrating stress
states, i.e., They satisfy the homogenous equilibrium equations and boundary
conditions on The corresponding surface forces arc
p = p° + 0101 + 0209 + +
p° = p
= 0 (i = 1, 2,
Taking virtual-force systems corresponding to (i = 1, 2, ., r) results in r

equations for the parameters.
dx1 dx2 dx3 = jjT9. 1 1, 2,...,r (10—97)
In order to proceed, we need to introduce the material properties. When the

material is linearly elastic,
+ Ai'= + +
and the equations expand to
= d1 i,j = 1, 2,....r
f,j = dx1 dx2 dx3 (10—98)
d, = — r$J1T(a° + A6°)dx1 dx2 dx3
One should note that (10—97) are weighted compatibility conditions. The
true stresses must satisfy both equilibrium and compatibility throughout the
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domain. We call the corrective stress field since it is required to correct the
compatibility error due to
For completeness, we describe here how one establishes a variational principle
for Our starting point is (10—94) restricted to elastic behavior. We define
= according to
c5V* = = (10—99)
and call V* the complementary energy density. The form of V* for a linearly
elastic material is
= + (10—100)
By definition, V* complements V, i.e.,

V+ = (10—101)
Then, letting
= cjx1 dx2 dx3 (10—102)
we can write (10—94) as

(511. 0 for arbitrary
* (10—103)
TiC — $$ =
This form is called the principle of stationary complementary energy and shows
that the true stresses correspond to a stationary value of
Since is linear in the second variation of reduces to
(52fl = = dx1 dx2 dx3 (10—104)
We shift over to matrix notation and express öe as

= A, (10— 105)
where represents the tangent compliance matrix. Now, must be positive

definite in order for the material to be stable.t Then, (5211. > 0 for arbitrary
and we see that the solution actually corresponds to a relative minimum
value of
The approximate method described earlier can be applied to 11g. Substituting
for given by (10—95) converts to a function of the stress parameters
(a1. a2, . , ar).
. . When the material is linearly elastic,
H, = — ard + const (10—106)
The equations for the stress parameters follow by requiring H. to be stationary
for arbitrary
(511, = — ci) = 0
(10—107)
fa=d
The classical stability criterion specialized for elastic material and linear geometry requires
SCTD, & > 0 for arbitrary Sc which, in turn, requires D, to be positive definite. Since
A, D1', it follows that A must be positive definite for a stable material.
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Operating on
c52fl = LtaTfLui (10—108)
and noting that ö211. > 0, we conclude that f is positive definite.
REFERENCES
I. CRANDALL, S. J., and N. C. DAHL: An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
2. BISPLINGHOFF, R. L., MAR., J. W., and T. H. H. PlAN: of Deformable Solids.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1965.
3. WANG, C. T.: Applied Elasticity, McGraw-I-jill, New York, 1953.
4. TIMOSHENKO, S. J., and J. N. GooDiag: Theory of Elasticity, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1970.
5. SOKOLNIKOFF, I. S.: Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 2d ed. • McGraw-Hill. New
York, 1956.
6. FUNG, Y. C.: Foundations of Solid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, 1965.
7. LEKIINITSKU, S. G. Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Elastic Body, Holden-Day,
San Francisco, 1963.
8. WAsmzu, K. Variational Methods in Elasticity and Plasticity, Pergamon Press, 1968.
9. HLDEBRAND, F. B.: Methods of Applied Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, 1965.
10. CRANDALL, S. J.: Engineering Analysis, McGraw-Hill. New York, 1956.
PROBLEMS
10—1. Write out the expanded form of the following products. Consider
the repeated indices to range from 1 to 2.
(a)
(b) + u1, where =
± Urn, + Urn. k) —
10—2. Let f be a continuous function of x1, x2, x3. Establish the trans-
formation laws for and (3Xk.
10—3. Establish the transformation law for Jbk where are cartesian
tensors.
10—4. Prove that
eJk = — ôJk)
is a second-order cartesian tensor. Hint: Expand

(3/3 (If)
P. P.
10—5. Equations (10—19) are the strain transformation laws. Since is

a symmetrical second-order cartesian tensor, there exists a particular set of
directions, say Xi', for which is a diagonal array. What are the strain com-
ponents for the frame? Consider a rectangular parallelepiped having sides
dXy in the undeformed state. What is its deformed shape and relative change
in volume, with respect to its initial volume? Specialize the expression for
for small strain. Then determine for the initial (Xi) directions and small
strain. Finally, show that r.., is invariant.
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PROBLEMS 263
10—6.
(a) Specialize (10—19) for small strain and write out the expressions for
in terms of ei, 62, . . P13•
(b) Let = P12, P23, y31}. We can express the strain trans-
formation (small strain) as
=
Develop the form of using the results of part a.
(c) Evaluate TE in terms of cos 0, sin 0 for the rotation shown below.
Comment on the transformation law for the out-of-plane shear strains
P32.
Prob. 10—6
x2
10—7. Tn the Eulerian approach, the cartesian coordinates for the

deformed state are taken to be the independent variables, i.e.,
Ui = Xj(f/k)
Almansi's strain tensor is defined as

— (ds)2 = 2Efk thik
Determine the expression for EJk in terms of the displacements. Compare the
result with (10—21).
10—8. Consider the case of two-dimensional deformation in the X1-X2
plane (83 = P13 = P23 = 0). Let be the extensions in the a, b, c direc-
6b,
tions defined below and let 6N = {8a, 6b, We can write
= BE
C=
(a) Determine the general form of B.

(b) Determine for = 0, 9b = 90c.
(c) Determine B1 for Oa = 0, 6h = 60°, = 120°.
(d) Extend (a) to the three-dimensional case. Consider six directions
having direction cosines GJ2, with respect to X1, X2, X3. Can
we select the six directions arbitrarily?
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Prob. 10—8
xz
-a
10—9. For small strain, the volumetric strain is

= + + C3 = eti + &22 +
Rather than work with one can express it as the sum of two tensors,
= +
where is called the spherical strain tensor,
=
and is the deviator strain tensor.
(a) Write out the expanded form for and
(b) Determine the first invariant of and compare with the invariant
of ejj.
10—10. This question concerns strain compatibility equations.
(a) Show that
+ = +
CX,, cXj, — 8X,,, (?X,,
where
1 (CII,,
eflk = ek, = — +
2 \CXk
and k, in, n range from I to 3. This expression leads to six indepen-

dent conditions, called geometric compatibility relations, on the strain
measures.
(b) Show that for two-dimensional deformation in the X1-X2 plane
= 813 = = 0; this called plane strain) there is only one com-
patibility equation, and it has the following form:
22 + 83 11 = Y12. 12
Is the following strain state permissible?

= +
82 = kx2
Y12 = 2kx1x2
k = constant
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PROBLEMS 265
10—11. Equation (10—21) defines the strain measures due to displacements,

To analyze geometrically nonlinear behavior, one can employ an incre-
mental formulation. Let represent the displacement increment and Ae1k
the incremental strain. We write
= +
where contains linear terms (Aug) and öeJk involves quadratic terms. The
5-symbol denotes the first-order change in a functional and is called the varia-
tional operator (see Ref. 8). We refer to 5e as the first variation of e. Determine
the expressions for
10—12. Let i,, be the unit vector defining the initial orientation of the
differential line element d1,, at a point.
= dsi,, 1, =
The unit vector defining the orientation in the deformed state is
= (1 + =
Determine the general expression for Then specialize it for small strain.
10—13. The several parts of this question concerns stress transformation.
(a) Starting with (i0--41). write out the expressions for in terms of
all, a22, . , .
(b) Let = a22, a33, ai2, = stress matrix. We express the

stress transformation as a matrix product.
a' = T,a
Develop the form of T,, using the results of part a.
(c) Evaluate 1',, in terms of cos (9, sin (9 for the axes shown.
x2 Prob. 1O—13
x,t
xl
(d) Plane stress refers to the case where a13 = a23 = a33 = 0. We work
with reduced stress and strain matrices,
Er {a11, a22,
=
and write the transformations in the same form as the three-dimensional
case:
a' =
a' =
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Evaluate T,. from part c above and T, from Prob. 10—6. Verify that
13
10—14. This question develops a procedure for generating self-equilibrating

stress fields.
(a) Expand the linear equilibrium equations, (10—49) and (10—50).
(b) Specialize the equilibrium equations for plane stress (a13 = a23 =
a33 = 0).
(c) Suppose we express the two-dimensional stress components in terms
of a function = as follows:
a11 = t1'.22 —
b1 dx1
a22 = tI'. ii — fx7 b2 dx2
a12 = —1//,12
The notation for body and surface forces is defined in the following
sketch.
Prob. 10—14
x2
x1
Verify that this definition satisfies the equilibrium equations in the

interior. Show that the expressions for and P2 ifl terms of derivatives
with respect to x1, x2, and s are
Pi — b1 dx1
P2 = T t/"1 — b2 dx2
10—15. The mean stress, a,,,, is defined as
am = + a22 + a33)
Rather than work with we can express it as the sum of two tensors,
—
— L
aU
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PROBLEMS 267
where is called the spherical stress tensor,

= óijOrn
and is the deviator stress tensor.

Write out the expanded forms for
(a) and
Determine the first invariant of
(b)
10-46. Establish the stress-equilibrium equations for small-finite rotation
and small strain.
10—17. Starting with (10—52), (10—55) specialized for small strain, establish
the incremental equilibrium equations in terms of Au, Ab*, and
Group according to linear and quadratic terms. Specialize these equations
for the case where the initial position is geometrically linear, i.e., where can
approximate with in the incremental equations.
10—18. Prove (10—60). Hint:
= + P.k
/=
10—19. Verify that the inverted form of(l0—71) is
D(e —
where
D11 = E1/C3 D12 D13 C4D11
D22 = E2/C1 + (C2/C1)D12
D23 = v32E2/C1 + (C2/C1)D13
D31 = E3 + v31D13 + v32D23
and
C1 = 1 —
C2 = v21 + v31v32(E2/E3)
E2C1
C4 = v31 + "32
Specialize for plane strain = = = 0)

10—20. Consider 2 sets of orthogonal directions defined by the unit vectors
and The stress-strain relations for the two frames are
= +
(a°)' + A'&
Express A' in terms of A and Also determine D'.
1O--21. Consider the three-dimensional stress-strain relations defined by
(10—71).
(a) Specialize for plane stress = = = 0).
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268 GOVERMNG EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOUD CHAP. 10
(b) Let
a22, cri2}
C= 62, Y12}
C=
Verify that D has the following form:
V2t 0
I
1
G
(1 —
n =
E2
Assuming X1-X2 in the sketch are material symmetry directions,
determine D' for the X'1-X'2 frame. Use the results of Prob. 10—13,
10—20. What relations between the properties are required in order
for D' to be identical to D?
Prob. 10—21
x2
xI
10—22. Verify (10—73). Start by requiring equal properties for the X2 and
X3 directions. Then introduce a rotation about the X1 axis and consider the
expression for Isotropy in the X2-X3 plane requires
I.
Y23 =7
023
10—23. Verify that the directions of principal stress and strain coincide for
an isotropic material. Is this also true for an orthotropic material?
10—24. Equations (10—76) can be written as
a11 = a°&1 + + 2Ge11
where is the volumetric strain. Using the notation introduced in Probs. 10—9
and 10—15——
(a) Show that
= Ka,, + a0
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PROBLEMS 269
where K is the bulk modulus = (E/3(1 — 2v)). Discuss the case where
(b) Show that

=
(c) Verify that the strain-energy density can be written as
V —
= — +
= +
Determine and for the isotropic case.
(d) When v = = We must work with 7 stress measures ('u' Urn)
and the mean stress has to be determined from an equilibrium con-
sideration. Summarize the governing equations for the incompressible
case.
.10—25. Prove (l0--81) for the two-dimensional case. Is this formula re-
stricted to a specific direction of integration on the boundary? Does it apply
for a multi-connected region, such as shown in the figure below?
Prob. 10—25
10—26. Verify Equation (10—89).

10—27. Refer to Example 10—3. Express (g) in terms of Consider the
material to be orthotropic.
10—28. Verify that the stationary requirement
=0 for arbitrary
where
= — — dx2
— — —
= Kirchhoff stress
= Lagrange strain = + + 1u,,,,
= complementary energy density (initial volume)

= prescribed force measures (initial dimensions)
leads to the complete set of, governing equations for an elastic solid, i.e.,
1. stress equilibrium equations
2. stress-displacement relations
3. stress boundary conditions on
4. displacement boundary conditions on
5. expressions for the reaction surface forces on
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This variational statement is called Reissner's principle (see Ref. 8).

(a) Transform HR to by requiring the stresses to satisfy the stress
displacement relations. Hint: Note (10—101).
(b) Transform 11R to — by restricting the geometry to be linear =
and (ui, + and requiring the stresses to satisfy the stress
equilibrium equations and stress boundary conditions on Hint:
Integrate by parts, using (10—8 1).
10—29. Interpret (10—90) as
dQ ==
where PQ is a force applied at Q in the direction of the displacement measure, dQ.
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11
St. Venant Theory of
of
Prismatic Members
11—1. INTRODUCTION AND NOTATION
A body whose cross-sectional dimensions are small in comparison with its
axial dimension is called a member. If the centroidal axis is straight and the
shape and orientation of the normal cross section are the member
is said to be prismatic. We define the member geometry with respect to a
global reference frame (X1, X2, X3), as shown in Fig. 11—1. The X1 axis is
taken to coincide with the centroidal axis and X2, X3 are taken as the principal
inertia directions. We employ the following notation for the cross-sectional
properties:
A = if dx2 dx3 = dA
12 — Sj(x3)2 dA
13 = fl(x2)2 dA
Since X2, X3 pass through the centroid and are principal inertia directions,
the centroidal coordinates and product of inertia vanish:
'23 jJx2x3 dA = 0
One can work with an arbitrary orientation of the reference axes, but this will
complicate the derivation.
St. Venant's theory of torsion-flexure is restricted to linear behavior. It is an
exact linear formulation for a prismatic member subjected to a prescribed
t The case where the cross-sectiona' shape is constant but the orientation varies along the
centroidal axis is treated in Chapter 15.
271
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272 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. it
distribution of surface forces applied on the end cross sections. Later, in

Chapter 13, we modify the St. Venant theory to account for displacement
restraint at the ends and for geometric nonlinearity.
x2
F3
Fig. 11—i. Notation for prismatic member.
The distribution of surface forces on a cross section is specified in terms of

its statically equivalent force system at the centroid. Figure 11—1 shows the
Stress components on a positive face. We define M.. as the force and
moment vectors acting at the centroid which are statically equivalent to the
distribution of stresses over the section. The components of F.., M÷ are called
stress resultants and stress couples, respectively, and their definition equations
are
F1 = ffcrij c/A F2 c/A F3 = JJcc13 c/A
M1 = JJ(x2cr13 — x3c12)dA
(11—3)
M2 = JJx3crj1 dA
M3 = dA
The internal force and moment vectors acting on the negative face are denoted
byF_,M_. Since
F_ = —F÷ M_ = (11—4)
it follows that the positive sense of the stress resultants and couples for the
negative face is opposite to that shown in Fig. 11 —1.
We discuss next the pure-torsion case, i.e., where the end forces are statically
equivalent to only M1. We then extend the formulation to account for flexure
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SEC. 11—2. THE PURE-TORSION PROBLEM 273
and treat torsional-flexural coupling. Finally, we describe an approximate

procedure for determining the flexural shear stress distribution in thin-walled
sections.
11—2. THE PURE-TORSION PROBLEM

Consider the prismatic member shown in Fig. 11—2. There are no boundary
forces acting on the cylindrical surface. The boundary forces acting on the end
cross sections arc statically equivalent to just a twisting moment M1. Also,
there is no restraint with respect to axial (out-of-plane) displacement at the ends.
The analysis of this member presents the pure-torsion problem. In what
follows, we establish the governing equations for pure torsion, using the
approach originally suggested by St. Venant.
Fig. 11—2. Prismatic member in pure torsion.
Rather than attempt to solve the three-dimensional problem directly, we

impose the following conditions on the behavior and then determine what
problem these conditions correspond to.
1. Each cross section is rigid with respect to deformation in its plane,
i.e., = = 723 = 0.
2. Each cross section experiences a rotation w5 about the X3 axist and
an out-of-plane displacement u1.
These conditions lead to the following expansions for the in-place displace-
ments:
112 = —C01X3
(11—5)
03 +W3.3.2
The corresponding linear strains are

13 = a3 = Y23 0
Li —Ui 1 (11—6)
712 U12 + 012 —
713 = U5, + U3, = 05,3 + X20)1, 1
t Problem 11—i treats the general case where the cross section rotates about an arbitrary point.
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274 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
Now, the strains must be independent of x1 since each cross section is

subjected to the same moment. This requires
= const = k1
= u1(x2, x3)
We consider the left end to be fixed with respect to rotation and express
co1,u1aS
= k1x1
(11—8)
U.1 =
where = x3) defines the out-of-plane displacement (warping) of a cross

section. The strains and stresses corresponding to this postulated displacement
behavior are
Cl = = C3 = 0
712 = x3)
713 + x2)
and
a11 = a22 = a33 O'23 = 0
a12 = Gy12 = 2 — x3) = a12(x2, x3) (11—10)
U13 = Go'13 + x2) a1 3(x2, x3)
We are assuming that the material is and there are no initial strains.
One step remains, namely, to satisfy the stress-equilibrium equations and
stress boundary conditions on the cylindrical surface. The complete system of
linear stress-equilibrium equations, (10—49), reduces to
U21,2 + = 0 (11—11)
Substituting for the shearing stresses and noting that Gk1 is constant lead to
the differential equation
(11-12)
which must be satisfied at all points in the cross section.

The exterior normal n for the cylindrical surface is perpendicular to the X1
direction. Then 0, and the stress boundary conditions, (10—49), reduce to
Pfli = + =0 (11—13)
Using (11—10), the boundary condition for is
2 — x3) + + x2) = 0
(11—14)
— (on S)
t Problem 11 —3 treats the orthotropic case.
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The pure-torsion problem involves solving V2q5, = 0 subject to (11—14). Once

çb, is known, we determine the distribution of transverse shearing stresses from
(11—10). Note that depends oniy on the shape of the cross section.
The shearing stress distribution must lead to no shearing stress resultants:
F2 = dA = 0
F3 = J$a13 dA 0
This requires
J J OX2 JJ ('X3
To proceed further, we need certain integration formulas. We start with
dA = (IS
if
which is just a special case of (10—81). Applying (11—15) to dA leads to
Green's theorem,
JJV2VJdA +
0X2
11—16
.1 ôn
If is a harmonic function (i.e., = 0), Green's theorem requires
dS = 0
Now, /, is a harmonic function. For the formulation to he consistent, (11—14)

must satisfy (c). Usiiig (11—15), (c) transforms to
— = 0
#(XH2x3
Since is specified on the boundary, we cannot apply (11—15) directly

to (b). In this case, we use the fact that = 0 and write
(j=2,3)
cxi ax2 ax2j ox3 \ ax31
Integrating (e),
(j=2,3)
and then substituting for the normal derivative, verifies (h).
The constant k1 is determined from the remaining boundary condition,
= J$(x2c13 — x3c12)dA (11—17)
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We substitute for the shearing stresses and write the result as
Gk1J
where J is a cross-sectional property,
+ — X3 dA
= if +
At this point, we summarize the results for the pure-torsion problem.
1. Displacements
=
02
U3 = W1X2
= k1x1
k1 =
(if
2. Stresses
M3
J \(;X2
(11—20)
A'11
0j3 = —H + X2
J
3. Governing Equations
mA:
on S: —
It is possible to obtain the exact solution for for simple cross sections.
The procedure outlined above is basically a displacement method. One
can also use a force approach for this problem. We start by expressing the
shearing stresses in terms of a stress function so that the stress-equilibrium
equation (Equation 11—li) is identically satisfied. An appropriate definition is
012
X3
(11—21)
013
The shearing stresses for the 2, v directions, shown in Fig. 11—3, follow directly
from the definition equation
01A
cv
(11—22)
0lv = — CA.
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SEC. 11-2. THE PURE-TORSION PROBLEM 277
Taking S 900 counterclockwise from the exterior normal direction, and noting
that the stress boundary condition is = 0, lead to the boundary condition
fort/i,
= const on S (11—23)
We establish the differential equation for t/i by requiring the warping function
be continuous. First, we equate the expressions for a in terms of t/i and
M1
a12 = — x3)
a13 = = + x2)
Now, for continuity,
=
Operating on (a), we obtain
=
It is convenient to express t/.' as
(11—24)
The governing equations in terms of aret

M1 dt/
a12 =
=
(11--25)
a 13
j
and
= —2 (mA)
tJi = (on boundary S1) (11—26)
Substituting (11—25) in the definition equation forM1 leads to the following

expression for J:
cr7
—
JJ \. CX3J
Applying (10—8 1) to (a) and that

dS = A1 = area enclosed by the interior boundary curve, S1 (b)
—
= C1 = const
t Equations (11—26) can be interpreted as the governing equations for an initially stretched
membrane subjected to normal pressure. This interpretation is called the "membrane
See Ref. 3.
The S direction is always taken such that n — S has the same sense as X2 — X3. Then, the
+ S direction for an interior boundary is opposite to the + S direction for an exterior boundary
since the direction for n is reversed. This is the reason for the negative sign on the boundary integral.
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we can write
J= dA + (11—27)
where = 0 on the exterior boundary.

To determine the constants C, for the multiply connected case, we use the
fact that is continuous. This requires
dS 0 (11—28)
Js ('IS
for an arbitrary closed curve in the cross section,

x
x2
Fig. 11—3. Definition of n-s and A.-vdirections.
x3
Fig. 11—4. Graphical representation of sector area.
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Consider the closed curve shown in Fig. 11 —4. The shearing strain is
given by
Yis = ct52y12 + 0t53y13
Using (11—9), we can write (a) as
Yis = 2+ 3 — xacls2 +
= k1 + (11-29)
where p is the projection of the radius vector on the outward normal.t The
magnitude of p is equal to the perpendicular distance from the origin to the
tangent. Integrating between points P, Q, we obtain
= — + 2APQ) (11—30)
where
r50
APQ = J
p dS = sector area enclosed by the arc PQ and the
radius vectors to P and Q.
Finally, taking P =
5dS = 2k1A5 (11—31)
where A5 denotes the area enclosed by the curve. Since = we can

write
2Gk1A5 = (11-32)
Note that the +S direction for (11—32) is from .X2 toward X3. Also, this result
is independent of the location of the origin.
Instead of using (11—9), we could have started with the fact that the cross
section rotates about the centroid. The displacement in the + S direction fol-
lows from Fig. 11—4:1
u,5 = x is) = w1p k1x1p (11—33)
Substituting for in
Yss = Us + s (11—34)
and noting that Ut = lead to (11—29).

Using (11—22), we can write
M5
= (11—35)
=
t This interpretation of p is valid only when S is directed from X2 to X3, i.e., counterclockwise
for this case.
See Prob. 11—14 for an alternate derivation.
§ This development applies for arbitrary choice of the +S direction. The sign of p is positive
if a rotation about X1 produces a translation in the +S direction. Equation (11—29) is used to
determine the warping distribution once the shearing stress distribution is known. See Prob. 11—4.
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Then, substituting for in (11—32), we obtain
= (11—36)
.3 s
where n is the outward normal, A5 is the area enclosed by S, and the + S sense
is from X2 to X3. This result is valid for an arbitrary closed curve in the cross
section. We employ (11—36) to determine the values of 17 at the interior bound-
aries of a multiply connected cross section.
It is of interest to determine the energy functions associated with pure tor-
sion. When the material is linearly elastic and there are no initial strains, the
strain and complementary energy densities are equal, i.e., V =
We let
V V dA strain energy per unit length (11—37)
The strain energy density is given by
V= +
Substituting for Y12' '/13,
V= X3)
2
+( + x2)j
2
and integrating (b) over the cross section, we obtain
V= (11—38)
Since = V, and M1 = GJk1, it follows that
= + (11—39)
WI xl
dx1
Fig. 11—5. Differential element for determination of the rotational work.
Instead of integrating the strain-energy density, we could have determined

the work done by the moments acting on a differential element. Consider the
element shown in Fig. 11—5. The boundary forces acting on a face are statically
equivalent to just a torsional moment. Also, the cross sections are rigid in
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SEC. 11—S. THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS 281
their plane and rotate about X1. The relative rotation of the faces is
/((01 + dw1 '\
—dx1 — = dx1
dx1 ,i
and the first-order workdone by the external forces due to an increment in wj
reduces to
5WE = M1 ,Xk1 dx1
Now,
= = 5jJ dx2dx3 = óVdx1
for an elastic body. Then, expanding ö V.
and it follows that

= M1 = GJk1
dk1
V=
11—3. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION OF THE TORSION PROBLEM FOR

THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS
We consider first the rectangular cross section shown in Fig. 11—6. The exact
solution for this problem is contained in numerous texts (e.g., see Art. 5—3 of
Ref. 1) and thcrefore we will only summarize the results obtained.
x3
I
dl 2
d, 2
H-
FigS 11—6. Notation for rectangular section.
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When t d, the maximum shearing stress occurs at x2 = ± t/2, x3 = 0

(points 5, 6). The exact expressions are
dt3
J = K1—
(11-41)
= K2t
where
192 (t'\ I
K1 = 1 — tanh
=
8 1 1
K2 = 1
— (2n+1)2 cosh A,,
2n+1 Id
Values of K1, K2 for d/t ranging from 1 to 10 are tabulated below:
d/t K1 K2
1 0.422 0.675
2 .687 .930
3 .789 .985
4 .843 .997
5 .873 .999
10 0.936 1.000
If t d, we say the cross section is thin. The approximate solution for a

thin rectangle is
J 4dt3
(113 2—-—x2 = 2Gk1x2
(11-42)
x2x3
(t)2
(We take d/t = in the exact solution.) The shearing stress varies linearly
across the thickness and
M1 3M1
A view of the warped cross section is shown in Fig. 11—7.

Since the stress function approach is quite convenient for the analysis of
thin-walled cross sections, we illustrate its application to a thin rectangular
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SEC. 11—3. THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS 283
cross section. Later, we shall extend the results obtained for this case to an
arbitrary thin walled open cross section. The governing equations for a simply
connected cross section are summarized below for convenience (see (11—26),
(11—27)):
= —2 (in A)
0 (on the boundary)
=
J = (1A
where the S direction is 900 counterclockwise from the is direction.t Since t is

small and a12, the shearing Stress component in the thickness direction, must
_:k,1,
Fig. 11—7. Warping function for a rectangular cross section.
vanish on the boundary faces, it is reasonable to assume = 0 at all points

in the cross section. This corresponds to taking independent of x3. The
equations reduce to
d2
= —2
Solving (b), we obtain -
=
J dx2 =
M1
= ——---—-- = 2——x2
J
t This applies for X3 counterclockwise from X2. The general requirement is the n — S sense
must coincide with the X2-X3 sense.
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TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
284
The expression for developed above must be corrected near the ends
(x3 ± d/2) since it does not satisfy the boundary condition,
ti
This will lead to a12 0 near the ends, but will have a negligible effect on J
and Actually, the moment due to the approximate linear expansion for
is equal to only one half the applied moment:
I't/2 P4 /1
d x2a13 dx, = dt3) =
J
The corrective stress system (a12) carries M1/2. This is reasonable since, even
though is small in comparison to amax, its moment arm is large.
-f-s
t(s)
Fig. 11—8. Notation for thin-walled open cross section.
We consider next the arbitrary thin-walled open cross section shown in

Fig. 11 —8. The S curve defines the centerline (bisects the thickness) and the n
direction is normal to S. We assume = 0 and take = —n2 + t2/4. This
corresponds to using the solution for the thin rectangle and is reasonable when
S is a smooth curve. The resulting expressions for I and are
J= 4 t3 dS
(11—43)
M1
a15, ma, = = Gkitrnax
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SEC. 11—3. THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS 285
The results for a single thin rectangle are also applied to a cross section
consisting of thin rectangular elements. Let t1 denote the length and thickness
of element i. We take J as
J= (11—44)
Asan illustration, consider the symmetrical section shown in Fig. 11—9. Apply-
ing (11—44), we obtain
3
1'ff + w4v
..i 3
The maximum shearing stress in the center zone of an element is taken as

M1
= —7t1 = Gk1t1 (11—45)
In general, there is a stress concentration at a reentrant corner (e.g., point A in

Fig. 11—9) which depends on the ratio of fillet radius to thickness. For the case
bi
+ (Iw
I
Fig. 11—9. Symmetrical wide-flange section.
of an angle having equal flange thicknesses, the formulat
= + (1146)
\ 4rf/
where is the fillet radius and 0rn is given by (14—45), gives good results for
rf/t < 0.3. The stress increase can be significant for small values of rf/t. For
example, for Tf = 0,lt. Numerical procedures such as finite
differences or the finite element must be resorted to in order to obtain
exact solutions for irregular sections. -
t See Ref. 2 and Appendix of Ref. 9.

See Ref. 4.
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11—4. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION OF THE TORSION PROBLEM FOR

THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS
The stress function method is generally used to analyze thin-walled closed
cross sections. For convenience, the governing equations are summarized below
(see (11—26), (11—27), (11—36)):
—2 (in A)
(on the exterior boundary)
— ci (on the interior boundary, S,)
J — dA + = area enclosed by
S
— and +S sense from X2 toward X3,)
£ dS = —2A5
j on
We consider first the single cell shown in Fig. 11—10. The curve defines
the centerline. Since there is an interior boundary, we have to add a term
n
S.
Sect. E-E
Fig. 11—10. Single closed cell.
involving C1 to the approximate expression for used for the open section.
We take as
+
tz 2n\ (11—47)
where represents the contribution of the interior boundary. This expression

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SEC. 11—4. THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS 287
satisfies the one-dimensional compatibility equation and boundary conditions,
atn— +t/2
(a)
= C1 atn = — t/2
and is a reasonable approximation when S is a smooth curve.
Differentiating
b
(fl
and substituting (b) in the expressions for the shearing stress components lead to
0
M1 / + C1\
7) (11—48)
cr?5 +
The tangential shearing stress varies linearly over the thickness and its average
value is We let q be the shear stress resultant per unit length along S,
positive when pointing in the + S direction,
1/2
q cr15 (11—49)
= J —1/2
and call q the shear flow. Substituting for a we find
q (11—50)
The additional shearing stress due to the interior boundary (i.e., closed cell)
corresponds to a constant shear flow around the cell. One can readily verifyt
that the distribution, q = const, is statically equivalent to only a torsional
moment, given by
= (11—51)
The torsional constant is determined from

J dA + 2C1A1 M1/Gk1 (a)
Substituting for using (11—47), we obtain

j = Jo + (11—52)
4 t3 dS =
Equation (a) was established by substituting for the shearing stresses in terms
in the definition equation forM1 and then transforming the integrand. We
could have arrived at (11—52) by first expressing the total torsional moment as
M1 = + (11—53)
See Prob. 11-5.

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288 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRfSMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
where MI is the open section contribution and is due to the closure. Next,
we write
M1 = GkIJ it'll = Gk1J° = Gk1J' (11—54)
Then,
J= J0 + JC (11—55)
and it follows that
Jc
Jo
(11-56)
Finally, using (11—5 1), we can express JC as

JC
= Mu/(M1/J) = (11—57)
This result shows that we should work with a modified shear flow,
C q/(M1/J) (11—58)
rather than with the actual shear flow. Note that C C1 for the single cell.
It remains to determine C1 by enforcing continuity of the warping function
on the centerline curve. Applying (11—32) to we have
= (11—59)
Substituting for
M1C1
q/t
=
leads
(1160)
One should note that C1 is a property of the cross section. Once C1 is known,
we can evaluate .J from (11—52) and the shearing stress from
M1 (
(11—61)
+ -i—,)
Example 11—1
Consider the rectangular section shown. The thickness is constant and a, b are centerline
dimensions. The various properties are
CdS 2(a+h)
Cl =
t See Prob. 11—6.

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SEC. 11-4. THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS 289
We express J as
= +
For this section,
J° 1 (r'Y /
We consider a > b. Then,

Jo (t'Y
= 01—
J' \\h
The section is said to be thin-walled when c< b. In this case, it is reasonable to neglect
Jo vs.
Fig. Eli—i
H
b -
+s, q I
r+tb
The strcss follows from (11—61),
M1C1/ t2'\ (I
= —-———ii
J t\,
± —-I
C11
= ± —s—
where, for this section,

t2 / h'\t (t
If the section is thin-walled, we can neglect the contribution of i.e., we can take
M1
= q/t =
We consider next the section shown in Fig. 11—li. Rather than work with
it is more convenient to work with the shear flows for the segments. We
number the closed cells consecutively and take the + S sense to coincide with
the X2-X3 sense. The +S sense for the open segments is arbitrary. We define
q3 as the shear flow for çellj and write
(11—62)
Note that is the value of on the interior boundary of cell j and the shear
flow is constant along a segment. The total shear flow distribution is obtained
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q2. S2
x3
Fig. 11—11. Cross section consisting of closed cells

and open segments; A, and A,, are centerline areas.
by superimposing the individual cell flows. Then, the shear flow in the segment
common to cells i andj is the difference between qj and q1. The sign depends
on the sense of S.
q= — q2 = — C2) for S1
(11—63)
q=q2—q1 forS2
The shearing stress is assumed to vary linearly ovcr the thickness. For con-
venience, we drop the subscripts on and write the limiting values as
cr = ±a° + Cr"
where
M1 /Cnet
cr=—1-t (11—64)
It remains to determine C1, C2, and J.

We have shown (see (11—55)) that
J= Jo + Jc (a)
and
= (h)
We determine J° from
(11—65)
segments
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Substituting for
MI = 2qjA1 + 2q2A2
+ C2A2)
in (b) leads to
-
+ A2C2) (11—66)
The constants are obtained by enforcing continuity of on the centerline

of each cell. This can also be interpreted as requiring each cell to have the same
twist deformation, k14
I = 1,2 (11-67)
Substituting for q in terms of C and letting

C dS C dS Cads
= a22 = = = —I
JS, t .J52 Jc t
where a12 involves the segment common to cells 1, 2, the continuity equations
take the following form:
+ a12C2 = (11—69)
a12C1 + a22C2 = 2A2
We solve this system of equations for C2, then determine f with (11—66),
and finally evaluate the stresses with (11—64).
We can represent the governing equations in compact form by introducing
matrix notation. The form of the equations suggests that we define
[a11
c = A a a121
a22j
(11—70)
With this notation,

JC = 2ATC
(11—7.!)
aC 2A
Substituting for A in the expression for
JC CTaC
and noting that JC is positive, we conclude that a must be positive definite,

The complementary energy per unit length along the centroidal axis is defined
by (11—39),
11 2
We apply (11—51) to each cell.

See (11—32).
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Since ais varies linearly over the thickness, the open and closed stress dis-
tributions are uncoupled, i.e., we can write
= + toq
where
=
2G
(11-72)
aq)
—
i
It is reasonable to neglect the open contribution when the section is thin-walled.

Examp'e 11—2
The open-section torsional constant for the section shown is
= ± 2(b +d+ + htfl (a)
Applying (11 —68) to this section, we obtain

= hd
A2=hb
a11 = 1(h + 2d) +
11 t2
6
012 =
a22 = tl + 2b) +
t2
and the following equations for C1. C2 and i.
+ +2 C2 = 2 dt1
—
c1 + + ±2 C2 = 2bt1
—
J= Jo + Jo
Finally, the shear stress intensities in the various segments are
M1 (C1
(k— +
=
M1 /C1 — C2
+t2
J t2 /
M1 (C2
+ t1
=7
M1
= t3
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____
_____________
SEC. 11—5. TORSION-FLEXURE WITH UNRESTRAINED WARPING 293
Fig. E11—2
t3 tl
03
1
Ii I
I
032 A2 h
X3
a'
M1
When d= b.
Cl = C2 = —s
2bt3
1 + 2-
13
and the section functions as a single cell with respect to shear flow.
11—5. TORSION-FLEXIJRE WITH UNRESTRAINED WARPING
Consider the prismatic member shown in Fig. 11—12. There are no boundary
forces acting on the cylindrical surface. The distribution of boundary forces
x2
x2
xI I +S
if
—_____ P2
Fig. 11—12. Prismatic member in shear loading.
on the cross section at x1 = L is statically equivalent to a single force P212,

acting at the centroid. Also, the end cross sections are not restrained against
warping, i.e., displacement. In what follows, we describe St.
Venant's torsion-flexure formulation for this problem. Later, in Chapter 13,
we shall modify the theory to include restraint against warping.
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294 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. il
We start by postulating expansions for the stresses. The stress resultants and
couples required for equilibrium at x1 are
=A4,r0
F2 = P2
M3 = P2(L — x1)
Introducing (a) in the definition equations for the stress resultants and couples
leads to the following conditions on the stresses:
dA = JJx3a13 c/A = 0
dA = P2(L — x1)
Jj712 c/A = P2
$fcrj3 c/A = 0
S$(x2a13 — x3cr12)dA —, 0
The expansion,
M3 P2
= = —
13 13
satisfies the first three conditions (i.e., F1, M3) identically since
JJx2 c/A = jJx2x3 dA = 0

dA = 13
The last three conditions (i.c., F2, F3, M1) require a12, a13 to be independent
of x1. This suggests that we consider the following postulated stress behavior:
P2
cru = ——--—x2 = — x1)x2
13 13
a1 2 a1 2(x2, x3) (11 —73)

a13 = a13(x2, X3)
a22 a33 0
Introducing (11—73) in the stress-equilibrium equations and stress boundary

conditions for the cylindrical surface leads to
P2
a21,2 + a31,3 + 0 (mA)
13 (11—74)
2a21 + =0 (on S)
At this point, we can either introduce a stress function or express (11—74) in
terms of a warping function. We will describe the latter approach first.
The displacements can be found by integrating the stress-displacement rela-
tions. We suppose the material is linearly elastic, isotropic with respect to the
X2-X3 plane, and orthotropic with respect to the axial direction. This is a
convenient way of keeping track of the coupling between axial and in-plane
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SEC. 11—5. TORSION-FLEXIJRE WITH UNRESTRAINED WARPING 295
deformation. Substituting for the stresses in (10—74), we obtain
I P2
= u1 = (L — xj)x2
E1 E113
V1P2
= u2,2 =
V1
= —(L
El3
—. x1)x2
v1 v1P2
63 = u33 = = —7—(L — xj)x2
LI3
I
'Y12 = u1, 2 + u2, = = function ofx2, x3
1
Y13 U1 3 + U3, 1 = = function ofx2, x3
Y23 = U2,3 + U3,2 0
Integrating the first three equations leads to
u1 = (Lx1 —
1
+ f1(x2, x3)
E1 13
v1P2
(L — + .f2(xj, x3) (b)
=
v1P2
u3 = ——- (L — x1)x2x3 + x2)
El3
The functions f1, f2, f3 are determined by substituting (b) in the last three
equations. We omit the details and just list the resulting expressions, which
involve seven constants:
= C1 + C5x2 + C6x3 + x3)

f2 = C2 — C5x1 + C4x3 — k1x1x3
v1P2 (c)
— Xi. + —--7-(L —
2E,iJ 3
= C3 — C5x1 — C4x2 + k1x1x2
The constants C1, C2, ..., C6 are associated with rigid body motion and k3
is associated with the twist deformation.t
We consider the following displacement boundary conditions:
1. The origin is fixed:
u1=u2=u3==0 at(0,0,0)
2. A line element oh the centroidal axis at the origin is fixed:
= u3,1 = 0 at(0,0,O)
fSee Eq. (11—5).
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296 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. Ii
3. A line element on the X2 axis at the origin is fixed with respect to rotation
in the X2-X3 plane:
u2,3 = 0 at (0, 0, 0)
These conditions correspond to the "fixed-end" case and are sufficient to
eliminate the rigid body terms. The final displacement expressions are
u1 (Lxj — + 4)(x2, x3)
= — — + — (11—75)
—
Vj 2 -
— x1)x2x3 + k1x1x2
El3
One step remains, namely, to satisfy the equilibrium equation and boundary
condition. The transverse shearing stresses are given by
1 v1P2
41,2 — k1x3 + —. x2)
2L13
(11—76)
1 v1P2
(7j3 4), + k1x2 — x2x3
LI3
Substituting for the stresses in (11—74), we obtain the following differential
equation and boundary condition for 4):
P2f'2v1 l\ (mA)
- 1
- 77
+
v1P2 C
12) +
The form of the above equations suggests that we express 4) as
4) = kjq5t — + + (11-78)
+
where is the warping function for pure torsion and 4)2. and 4)2d are harmonic
functions which define the warping due to flexure. Substituting for 4) leads
to the following boundary conditions for 4)2. and
2
2
+ (11—79)
2 )
One can show, by using (11—15), that
= 0
cn
dS = 0
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and therefore the formulation is consistent. Terms involving vj/E are due to
in-plane deformation, i.e., deformation in the plane of the cross section, and
setting v1/E = 0 corresponds to assuming the cross section is rigid. Then,
defines the flexural warping for a rigid cross section and represents the
correction due to in-plane deformation.
The shearing stress is obtained by substituting for in (11—76). We write
the result as
01j = + 01j,r + (j = 2,3) (11—SO)
where crU, is the pure-torsion distribution and r, d are flexural distri-

butions corresponding to and 42d:
2 2
2
P2
x2x3)
The pure torsion distribution is statically equivalent to only a torsional mo-

ment, = G1k1J. One can show thatt
dA P2 dA — 0
(11—82)
J$a12,a dA = 0 dA 0
Note that the shear stress due to in-plane deformation does not contribute
to P2.
The total torsional moment consists of a pure torsion term and two flexural
terms,
M1 = G1k1J +
S2r 2 + X24)2r 3)dA

S2d + X242d,3 X34)2a,2)dA
Since and depend only on the shape of the cross section, it follows that
and S2d are properties of the cross section. For convenience, we let
X3
1
(1184)
13\ £. J
and (11—83) reduces to
= — (11—85)
Now, — is the statically equivalent torsional moment at the centroid due
tSeeProb. Il—lO.
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to the fiexural shear stress distribution. Then, defines the location of the
resultant of the flexural shear stress distribution with respect to the centroid.
The twist deformation is determined from
k1 + (11—86)
where M1 is the applied torsional moment with respect to the centroid. If P2

is applied at the centroid, M1 = 0, and
k1 =
The cross section will twist unless = 0. Suppose P2 has an eccentricity e3.
In this case (see Fig. 11—13), M1 = —e3P2, and
P2
k1 — e3)
For Ilexure alone to occur, e3 must equal
x3
Fig. 11—13. Notation for eccentric load.
Whether twist occurs depends on the relative eccentricity, e3 — Now, to

find x3, one must determine S2. and S2d. This involves solving two second-
order partial differential equations. Exact solutions can be obtained for simple
cross sections. In the section following, we present the exact solution for a
rectangular cross section. If the section is irregular, one must resort to such
numerical procedures as finite differences to solve the equations. In Sec. 11—7,
we describe an approximate procedure for determining the flexural shear stress
distribution in thin walled cross sections.
Suppose the cross section is symmetrical with respect to the X2 axis. Then,
is an even function of x3 and is an odd function of x3. The form of the
boundary conditions (11—79) requires and to be even functions of x3
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forthis case. Finally, it Ibilows thatt S2,. = 0 and S2d = 0. Generalizing this
result, we can state:
The resultant of the shear stress distribution due to fiexure in the
direction passes through the centroid when is an axis of symmetry
for the cross section.
x3
Shear center
Fig. 11—14. Coordinates of the shear center.
We consider next the case where the member is subjected to P2, P3 and
at the right end (see Fig. 11—14). The governing equations for the P3 loading
can be obtained by transforming the equations for the P2 case according to
> X3 .-
U2 —* U3 U3—> —U2
(3
13
—---+-— —--*------
13 (3
ox2 Ox3 Ox3 Ox2

U12 U13 —a12
13 '* 12
Two additional flexural warping functions must be determined. The expres-

sions defining the flexural shear stress distributions due to P3 are
P3
cr12 r -r
12
413r. 2
3
r ((/33r, 3
'2 (11—87)
.v1G1 P3
d = L.
2 x2x31!
12
Vj i
= —i---
+ + (,b3d, 3]
D
t is even in x>, is odd in x3, and S2r, Ssd involve only integrals of odd functions of
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where q53r, are harmonic functionst satisfying the following boundary

conditions:
=
2
(11—88)
(X2 +
=
2
Note that the distribution due to leads to no shearing stress resultants.

Finally, the total normal stress is given by
M2 M3 (P3 P2 '\
(11—89)
12 13 13
J
Superimposing the shearing stresses and evaluating the torsional moment,
we obtain
M1 = G1k1J — + (11—90)
where defines the location of the resultant of the flexural shear stress distri-
bution due to P3. One can interpret X2, x3 as the coordinates of a point,
called the shear center. The required twist follows from (11—90):
k1 (M1 + —
=
Since (see Fig. 11—14)
M1 + P2x3 — P3x2
(11—91)
= the applied moment with respect to the shear center = MT
we can write (a) as
k1 = (11—92)
To determine the twist deformation (and the resulting torsional stresses), one
must work with the torsional moment with respect to the shear center, not the
centroid. For no twist, the applied force must pass through the shear center.
In general, the shear center lies on an axis of symmetry. lithe cross section
is completely symmetrical, the shear center coincides with the centroid.
It is of interest to determine the complementary energy associated with
torsion-flexure. The only finite stress components are 012, aild Then
V* reduces to
= + + dA (a)
The contribution from follows directly by substituting (11 —89) and using
the definition equations for 13.
t The total flexural warping function for P3 is

P3 ( I '\ v,P3( 1
— + + —4
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SEC. 11—5. TORSION-FLEXURE WITH UNRESTRAINED WARPING
1 M2 M2
= (11-93)
+
Now, the total shearing stress is the sum of three terms:
1. a pure torsional distribution due to MT
2. the flexural distribution due to F2
3. the fiexural distribution due to F3
Each of the flexural distributions can be further subdivided into—
dr. the distribution corresponding to a rigid cross section (defined
by
2. dId, the distribution associated with in-plane deformation of the cross
section (defined by 4)jd)
We combine the flexural distributions and express the total stress as
C33 d12,t + C12,, + C12.d
= 013.1 + C13r + 013,d
where the various terms are defined by (11—81) and (11—87). For example,
F2 • F3
r= 13
2
13
2
The complementary energy due to pure torsion follows from (11—38) and
(11—92):
a as
F2 F3_
C12r —
2
3 3
r+ r) and integrating over the cross section, we obtaint

F2 2FF F2
+ + +
JJ
= + dA (1196)
2+ 3413r, 3)dA CIA

Jj = JJ
1 See Prob. 11—il.
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The coupling term, I/A23, vanishes when the cross section has an axis of
symmetry.
We consider next the coupling between or., and
JJ(a12,to12,r +
= 2 ± 2)
+ + x2) + dA
=
+ — + + (11—97)
MT ""F2 F3
+ dA = 0
— Jj 13 12
The remaining terms involve a,a, the shearing stress distribution due to in-
plane deformation of the cross section, We will not attempt to expand these
terms since we are interested primarily in the rigid cross section case.
Summarizing, the complementary energy for flexure-torsion with unre-
strained warping is given by
1 M2 M2 M2 I F2 FF F2
(11-98)
+ terms involving v1/E
where M1 + — We introduce the assumption of negligible
in-plane deformation by setting v1/E = 0. Similarly, we introduce the assump-
tion of negligible warping due to flexure (&3r by setting 1/A1 =
1/A2 1/A23 = 0.
In Sec. 11 —7, we develop an approximate procedure, called the engineering
theory, for determining the flexural shear stress distribution, which is based
upon integrating the stress-equilibrium equation directly. This approach is
similar to the torsional stress analysis procedure described in the previous
section. Since the shear stress distribution is statically indeterminate when the
cross section is closed, the force redundants have to he determined by requiring
the warping function to be continuous. For pure torsion, continuity requires
(see (11—32))
= 2G1k1A5
where the integration is carried out in the X2-X3 sense around S. and is the
area enclosed by S. To establish the continuity conditions for flexure, we
operate on (11 —81) and (11 There are four requirements:
j 2,3
2v1G1P2
(aisd)F2 dS X3 dA
(11—99)
2v1G1P3 rr
dS =ii X2 dA
El2 ,jj
4,
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SEC. 11—6. EXACT FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION 303
In the engineering theory of flex ural shear stress distribution, the cross section
is considered to be rigid, i.e., the distribution due to in-plane deformation is
neglected. The consistent continuity condition on the flexural shearing stress
4sajsdSO (11—100)
One can take the + S direction as either clockwise or counterclockwise. By
definition, the positive sense for coincides with the + S direction.
11—6. EXACT FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS DiSTRIBUTION FOR A

RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION
We consider the problem of determining the exact shear stress distribution
due to F2 for the rectangular cross section shown in Fig. 11—15. For con-
venience, we first list the governing equations:
x2
rd3
— dt3
'2
A = dt
r
Fig. 11—15. Notation for rectangular cross section.
1. Warping functions
+
=
2
= 1
an
+
= +
2 )
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2. Shearing stresses
012 = - + + + xi)]
F2 v1G1E2
= T13 3) + x2x3)
Determination of
The boundary conditions for are
l(d'\2 d
=0 atx3 =
We can take the solution as

.i. 112
<P2r = X2
The corresponding stresses and warping function are
2r = 4)2r
13 12 X2 —
13
012,r (11—101)
=
0j3,r 0
One can readily show that

F2
Finally, we evaluate 1/A2 using (11—96):
= (11—102)
Determinatio,, of
The boundary conditions for /2d are
1(d2 '\ d
2= + at x2 =
atx3 =
Now, the form of (a) suggests that we express q52d as
= — — f(x2, x3) (b)
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SEC. 11—6. EXACT FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS D!STRJBUTON 305
where f is an harmonic function. The shearing stresses and boundary condi-

tions expressed in terms of f are
v1G1 P2 2
= —f 2)
VLGI F2
=
f3=0
It remains to solve V2f = 0 subject to (d).
Since the cross section is symmetricaL f must be an even function of x3 and
an odd function of x2. We express f as
(2nxx2)
f= B0x2 + B,, cos sinh
This expansion satisfies V2f = 0 and the boundary condition at x3 = ± t/2.

The remaining boundary condition requires
(2nn nicd\ 2nicx3
B0 + B,, co sh c os——- = x32 < x3 < (f)
—)
Expanding in a Fourier cosine series and equating coefficients leads to
t2
B0
B,, = (±..Y
mr1 mtd
cosh ——
The final expressions for the shearing stresses are
2nxx2\ 1
cosh
v1G1 P2 1/t\2 I
= —
.a t nnd
cosh—
t /J
1
[ sinh
2nirx2
—-—
v1G1 F2 t . 2n7tx3
cJl3,d = sin ——- (11—103)
E 13 n2 mid t
cosh— j
[ t
This system is statically equivalent to zero.

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To investigate the error involved in assuming the cross section is rigid, we

note that the maximum value of • occurs at x2 0:
F2 2
2, ci
Specializing d for x2 0,
v1G1 F2 d2 2nnx3
(512, d)x20 = C,, COS
13 '1 t
where
1
1
2,, cosh 2,,
Now, C,, decreases rapidly with n. Retaining only the first term in (b) leads to the
following error estimate,
4 / 1
1
I5lz,di
2,. I cosh
Results for a representative range of d/t and isotropic material are listed below.
They show that it is reasonable to neglect the corrective stress system for a
rectangular cross section. The error decreases as the section becomes thinner,
i.e., as d/t becomes large with respect to unity:
d/t 1512,4/512.r
2 0.024
1 0.092
0.122
11—7. ENGINEEffiNG THEORY OF FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS

DISTRiBUTION IN THiN-WALLED CROSS SECTIONS
The "exact" solution of the flexure problem involves solving four second-
order partial differential equations. If one assumes the cross section is rigid
with respect to in-plane deformation, only two equations have to be solved.
Even in this case, solutions can be found for only simple cross sections. When
the cross section is irregular, one must resort to a numerical procedure such as
finite differences or, alternatively, introduce simplifying assumptions as to the
stress distribution. In what follows, we describe the latter approach for a thin-
walled cross section. The resulting theory is generally called the engineering
theory of shear stress. We apply the engineering theory to typical cross sections
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SEC. 11—7. ENGINEERING THEORY OF FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS 307
and also illustrate the determination of the shear center and the energy
efficients, 1/Ai (j 2, 3).
Figure 11—16 shows a segment defined by cutting planes at x1 and x1 + dx1.
Since the cross section is thin-walled, it is reasonable to assume that the normal
stress, Oh, is constant through the thickness and to neglect Also, we work
qA
xl
Fig. 11—16. thin-wafled segment.
with the shear flow, q, rather than with Integrating the axial force-equi-
librium equation,
— + —(a11t) 0
C2S
with respect to S, we obtain the following expression for q,

('S
(11—104)
JSA
Equation (11—104) is the starting point for the engineering theory of shear
stress distribution. Once the variation of over the cross section is known,
we can evaluate q. Now, we have shown that the normal stress varies linearly
over the cross section when the member is subjected to a constant shear (F2, F3
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constant) and the end sections can warp freely. Noting that the member is
prismatic, the derivative of for this case is
— X3 dM2 x2dM3
— 12 dx1 13 dx1
3 '2
X3 + X2
12 13
and (11—104) expands to

12!i'S ,' i'S
q=qA—-—I x2tdS—-7-H x3tdS
13 j54 JSA
The integrals represent the moment of the segmental area with respect to X2, X3
and are generally denoted by Q2, Q3:
rs
x3tdS = Q2(S,SA)
Q2 =j (11—105)
x2t c/S = Q3(S, SA)
=
With this notation, (b) simplifies to
F2 F3
q= — — —-Q2 (11—106)
13
Equation (11—106) defines the shear flow distribution for the case of negligible
restraint against warping, i.e., for a linear variation in normal stress. Note
that q is positive when pointing in the + S direction.
We consider first the open section shown in Fig. 11—17. The end faces are
unstressed, i.e.,
= =0
Taking the origin for S at A, (11—106) reduces to
F2 F3
q= f-Q2 (11-107)
Q3 =J5x2tdS Q2 =$x3tdS
We determine Q2, Q3 and then combine according to (11—107).
The shearing stress distribution corresponding to F2,
q=
satisfies
ffai2 c/A = F2
dA = 0
identically. To show this, we expand

= +
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x3
B I Shear center
X2
Centroid
Fig. 11—17. Flexural shear flow—open segment.
and evaluate the shear stress resultants:
Jjui2dA =
dS
J
Equation (b) requires
rsa
J0
=
=0
Now,
Integrating (e) by parts and noting that X2, X3 are principal centroidal axes,t
we obtain
=
— J" dS = 13
= x2x3t dS = 0
— J
The shear stress distribution predicted by (a) is statically equivalent to a
force F212. To determine the location of its line of we evaluate the
moment with respect to a convenient moment center. By applying the same
argument, one can show that the shear flow corresponding to F3 is statically
t See Eq. (11—2).

11—12.
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310 TORSJON-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
equivalent to a force, The intersection of the lines of action of the two

resultants is the shear center for the cross section (see Fig. 11—17).
Example 11—3
Consider the thin rectangular section shown. We take + S in the + X2 direction. Then,
+ q points in the +X2 direction and q/t = The various terms are
tx2 dx2 =
= j -d(2 2 4 —
F2 tF2 (d2
q=
q F2/'d2 2
—
This result coincides with the solution for obtained in Sec. 11—6. Actually, the engi-
neering theory is exact for a rigid cross section, i.e., for r1/E = 0.
Fig. E11—3
x2
I +
Example 11—4
We determine the distribution of q corresponding to F2 for the symmetrical section
of Fig. Eli —4A. Only two segments, AB and BC, have to be considered since 1Q31 is
symmetrical.
Segment AB
=
q =
According to our definition, + q points in the + S direction (from A to B). Since q is

negative for this segment, it actually acts in the negative S direction (from B to A).
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____________________________
SEC. 11-7. ENGINEERING THEORY OF FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS 311
Pg. E11—4A
IC d
tw
tf
It
I,
H
Segment BC
We measure S from B to C. Then,
= + —
q= [hh1t1 + — xi)]
Note that the actual sense of q is from C to B. The distribution and sense of q are shown
in Fig. E1I—413.
It is of interest to evaluate A2. Specializing (11-96) for a thin-walled section,
dS
=
fl
if dA
5
and substituting for q yields
1 1 2dS
=
We let
j
= area of the web =
A1 = total flange area = 2b1t1
A2 = kA,.
The resulting expression for kis
lÀ,.
I
3Af\ 6A1
2A F id, l/bf\2
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x2 Fig. E11—48
.4
— X2)
x3
4.
This factor is quite close to unity. For example, taking as typical, for a wide-flange section,
= 2ç
(If = 3,
1..
we find
.4f =
k= 0.95
The shearing stress corresponding to F3 varies parabolically in the flanges and is zero in
the web. Each flange carries half the shear and
1 61 1
A3 — 5 A1 — 5 hr1
Examp'e 11—5
Cross-Sectional Properties
This section (Fig. Eli —5A) is symmetrical with respect to X2. The shift in the centroid
from the center of the web due to the difference in flange areas is
b2t2 —
(a)
b,t1 + b2t2 +
We neglect the contribution of the web in '2 since it involves
12 + ('2)2 = + (b)
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Determination of
Taking S as shown in the sketch, we have
= t[(b)2
t2 [,"b2\2
—X32 (c)
=0 since X2 is an axis of symmetry.
Fig. E11—5A
x3
I
I Centroid
Distribution of q Corresponding to
The shear flow corresponding to F3 is obtained by applying
p3
q= Q2
and is shown in Fig. El 1—SB. The shear stress vanishes in the web and varies parabolically
in each flange.
Integrating the shear flow over each flange, we obtain
= F3
Then, the distribution is statically equivalent to F373 acting at a distance e from the left
flange, where
R2d (12)2
e = =
R 12
Since X2 is an axis of symmetry, the shear center is located at the intersection of R and X2,
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Fig. E11--58
R = F3
q
1'3t2frbf\2 2
12
X3
R1
The coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid are
,c3 0
(I
= e —(1 +
=d —
L12 2
Torsional Shear Stress

The flexural shear stress distribution is statically equivalent to a torsional moment equal
to with respect to the centroid. We have defined M1 as the required torsional moment
with respect to the centroid. Then, the moment which must be balanced by torsion is
— F3; the required torsional moment with respect to the shear center. Using
the approximate theory developed in Sec. 1 1 —3, the maximum torsional shear stress in a
segment is
= M ti
where
.1 = + +
We consider next the closed cross section shown in Fig. 11 —18. We take the
origin for S at some arbitrary point and apply (11-106) to the segment Se-S:
F2 F3
q= q1 — -1—Q3 — (11— 108)
13 12
= Q3 =
where q1 is the shear flow at P. The shear flow distribution is statically indeter-
minate since q1 in unknown. We have previously shown that q q1 = con-
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stant is statically equivalent to only a torsional moment equal to The

second and third terms are statically equivalent to F212 and F313.
The constant q1 is determined by applying the continuity requirement to the
centerline curve. Since the engineering theory corresponds to assuming the
cross section is rigid with respect to in-plane deformation, we use (11—100).
Fig. 11—18. Notation for closed cell.
The flexural shear stress distribution must satisfy
0 (11—109)
for an arbitrary closed Substituting for q.

C dS F2 C dS f (IS
and considering separately the distributions corresponding to F2 and F3, we

obtain
q = +
= T (B2 — Q3) (B3 — Q2)
QdS QdS (11-110)

B 27
—
B
dS
I
Each distribution satisfies (11—109) identically. Also, the distribution is
statically equivalent to a force Fyi,, located Y4 units from the centroid. Note
that q = B3 leads only to a torsional moment equal to
f One can interpret (11-109) as requiring the flexural shear stress distribution to lead to no twist
deformation, See Prob. 11 —14 for the more general expression, which allows for a variable shear
modulus.
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TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
The general expression for 1/Ai follows from (11— 96):
== j = 2,3 (11—111)
Substituting for
1 =
— 2BJQk + (j k;j, k 2,3)
'k
and noting that
.1
we obtain
2dS dS
(11—112)
42j
QkT
which applies for an arbitrary single cell.
Example 11—6
We illustrate the determination of for the square section of Fig. Eli —6A. It is
convenient to take P at the midpoint since the centerline is symmetrical.
Fig. E11—6A
2z
= a2
(a3\ a2 3
= + = 4a3t
= (at)(a/2) —
5a1 10
it
fdS
= 3.5-
a
t
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Determination of
We start at P and work counterclockwise around the centerline. The resulting distribu-
tion and actual sense of q due to arc shown in Fig. Eli —6B. Note that + Q2 corresponds
to a negative i.e., clockwise, q.
Fig. E11—6B
Evaluation of B3
By definition,
1
" dS
B3=
rds.
it I
Using the above results, and noting that the area of a parabola is equal to (2/3) (base) x
(height), we obtain
I dS
+
a3
B3 =
of Flexural Shear Flov for F3

The shear flow is given by
F3 F3(( 4Q2
q— Q2)
12
—
a
—
3at
(+ sense clockwise). The two distributions are plotted in Fig. Ell—6C.
To locate the line of action of the resultant, we sum moments about the midpoint (0 in
the sketch:
I /a\ 4F3 /a\ 19
(M)0 = aF
+ =
The resultant acts e units to the right of 0, where
19
e= a
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_
Fig. Eli —6C
t
j F3/21
I
q — a 1.21
I F3
i F3
30
6a
F3f 4 Q2
Finally, the coordinates of the shear center with respect to the ccntroid (which is A units to
the right of 0) are
16
x2 = e — LI = +
X3 = 0
Torsional Shear
The shear flow for pure torsion is due to Mr, the torsional moment with respect to the
shear center. For this section,
Mr 5L2F3 + M1 —
We apply the theory developed in Sec. II —4. One just has to replace M1 with MT in
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SEC. 11—7. ENGtNEERING THEORY OF FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS
Equation (11—61):
Ci = 4at
— ±
I
C1
J= +
Determination of 1/A3
Applying (11—112), we find
dS dS'\ 1.276
I-
1 1 —
2
- B
I) - 3at
Note that 3at is the total web area.
We consider next the analysis of a two-cell section and include open segments
for generality. There is one redundant shear flow for each cell. We select a
convenient point in each cell and take the shear how at the point as the redun-
dant for the cell. This is illustrated in Fig. 11—19: qj represents the shear flow
redundant for cell j and the + S sense coincides with the X2-X3 sense to be
consistent with the pure-torsion analysis. The + S sense for the open segments
is inward from the free edge. For convenience, we drop the CL (centerline)
subscript on S and A.
+5, q
x3
x2
Fig. 11—19. Notation for section.

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The total shear flow is the sum of q0, the open cross-section distribution
(q1 = q2 = 0), and
q q0 + (11—113)
We determine q0 by applying (11—107) to the various segments. The redun-

dant shear-flow distribution is the same as for pure torsion (see Fig. 11—11).
Finally, we obtain a system of equations relating q1, q2 to F2, F3 by applying
the continuity requirement to each centerline, t
q—--= 0 j = 1,2 (11—114)
where q is positive if it points in the + S direction. Using the aJk notation

defined by (11—68), the equations take the following form:
a11q1 + a12q2 =
a12q1 + a22q2 =
11—115
The shear flows q2, for pure torsion are related by (we multiply (11—71)
by MT/J and note (11—62))
+ a12q2,1 = 2A1
(11--1l6)
MT
a12q1,1 + a22q2,1 2A2
Thus, the complete shear stress analysis involves solving aq = b for three differ-
ent right-hand sides. The equations developed above can he readily generalized.
Example 11—7
We determine the flexural shear stress distribution corresponding to F3 for the section
shown in Fig. E11—7A. We locate and P2 at the midpoints to take advantage of
symmetry.
A1 = 202
A2 a2
=
(a3t\ [ a21
+ 2[(3at)_4_j
7
'2
Ga 4a a
= — a22 = 012 =
See Prob. 1!-- 14 for the more general expression, which allows for a variable shear modulus.
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_______a _______
Fig. Eli—lA
x2
I +S,q
2a a
Distribution of
This system (Fig. E1l—7B) is statically equivalent to a moment
2a2(2q1 +
Distribution of q0 Due to F3
We apply
—--i02
'2
to the various segments starting at points P1. P2. The resulting distribution is shown in
Fig. Eli —7C.
Deter,niiuztion of q1. q2
=
C dS 2F3
q0—=+
t
.322
The equations for q1 and q2 are
1 F3
6q1 — q2 =
7a
2 F3
—q1 + 4q2 = ——
70
Solving (a), we find
2F3
q1 = —
161 a
11 F3
q2 = +
The total distribution is obtained by adding qR and q0 algebraically.
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Fig. El 1 —7B
q2
4
2q1a q2a
q1a
q1
Fig. Eli —7C
I P3
14 a
Location of the Shear Center

Taking moments about the midpoint of the left web, and letting e be the distance to the
line action of the resultant, we obtain
M( + 2a2(2q1 + q2) + (2a) + (3a) F3) = eF3
(2 32\
e = + a= 1.61a
The shear center is located on the K2 axis and

= c — (2a — = +O.055a
REFERENCES
1. WANG, C. T.: Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York. 1953.
2, TIMOSHENKO, S. J., and J. N. Oooo!ETt: Theory of Elasticity, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1970.
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PROBLEMS 323
3. Dmt HARTOG, J. P.: Advanced Strength of Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York,

1952.
4. HERRMANN, L. R.: "Elastic Torsional Analysis of Irregular Shapes," I. Eng. Mech.
Div., A.S.C.E., December 1965.
5. SOKOLNIKOFF, LS.: Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. McGraw-Hill, New York,
1956.
6. TIMOSHFNKO, S. J.: Strength of Materials, Part 2, Van Nostrand, New York, 1941.
7. CEiRNICA, J. N.: Strength of Materials, I-Jolt, Rinchart, New York, 1966.
8. DABROWSKI, R.: GekrUmmte diinnwan.dige Trëger ("Curved Thin-walled Girders"),
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1968.
9. KOLLBRUNNER, C. F., and K. Basler: Torsion in Structures, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
1969.
10. VLASOV, V. Z.: Thin- Walled Elastic Beams, Israel Program for Scientific Transla-
tions, Jerusalem, 1961.
11. ODEN, J. T.: Mechanics of Elastic Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
PROBLEMS
il—i. The pure-torsion formulation presented in Sec. 11—2 considers the
cross section to rotate about the centroid, i.e., it takes
U2 = W1X3 wj =
= +(01x2 a1 =
Suppose we consider the cross-section to rotate about an arbitrary point
The general form of (a) is
a2 = —wj(x3 — wj = k1x1 + c1
U3 = +w1(x2 — a1 = k147
(a) Starting with Equation (h), derive the expressions for a13 and the
governing equations for
(b) What form do the equations take if we write
= + C2 +
Do the torsional shearing stress distribution and torsional constant J
depend on the center of twist?
11—2. Show that .1 can be expressed as
= + 2) — 3)2]dA
)2
= I,, — + 3)2]dA
Hint:
dA = 0
Compare this result with the solution for a circular cross section and comment
on the relative efficiency of circular vs. noncircular cross section for torsion.
11—3. Derive the governing differential equation and boundary condition
for for the case where the material is orthotropic and the material symmetry
axes coincide with the X1, X2, X3 directions.
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11—4. The variation in the warping function along an arbitrary curve S

is obtained by integrating (11—29),
= k1 + (a)
where is the perpendicular distance from the center of twist to the tangent.
One selects a positive sense for S. The sign of p is positive when a rotation
about the center of twist results in translation in the +.S direction. We express
as
1 lM1
(b)
and (a) reduces to

-
+ a15 (c)
Determine the variation of along the centerline for the two thin-walled open
sections shown.
Prob. 11—4
x3
tf
Center
/
of twist
—
Center of twist
4
b/2 b/2
(a) (bi
11—5. Verify that the distribution. q = const, satisfies

F2 = ja12 = dS= 0
F3 = dA = dS = 0
= x =
for the closed cross section sketched.
11—6. Refer to Prob. 11—4. To apply Equation (c) to the centerline of a
closed cell, we note that (see (11—50))
— J Jq C
(a)
a15 = = k—— = —
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PROBLEMS 325
Prob. 11—5
= + £3
x2
Then,
Ct
+-C
Integrating (b) leads to the distribution of Apply (h) to the section shown.
Take = 0 at point P. Discuss the case where a = b.
Prob. 11-6
T p
.
11—7. Determine the torsional shear stress distribution and torsional

constant J for the section shown. Specialize for t a.
11—8. Determine the equations for (j = 1, 2, 3) and J for the section
shown. Generalize for a section consisting of "n." cells.
I 1—9. Determine the distribution of torsional shear stress, the torsional
constant J, and the distribution of the warping function for the section shown.
Take = 0 on the symmetry axis and use the results presented in Prob. 11—6.
11—10. Verify Equation (11—82). Utilize (11—15).
11—11. The flexural warping function satisfy
mA
on S
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326 TORS!ON-FLEXURE OF PRISMA1]C MEMBERS CHAP. 11
Prob. 11—7
0 —
t
+S1
+S2
I
H
Prob. 11—8
t t t
t
I I
-
:f
T t—.
0 0 0
Si
t t t
a a— a
Prob.11—9
I
t
I
Utilizing the following integration formula,
212,2 + 3f2, 3)dx2 dx3 dS JJII V2f2 dx2 dx3

if (fr, —
where 11,12 are arbitrary functions, verify Equation (11—96).

11—42. Refer to Fig. 11—17. Starting with (11—107), derive the expressions
for the coordinates of the shear center in terms of the cross-sectional parameters.
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_a
PROBLEMS 327
11 —13. Determine the flexural shear flow distributions due to F2, F3 and
locate the shear center for the five thin-walled sections shown.
Prob. 11—13
I-
R
T
d/2
+
I
x3
(b)
(a)
2/ 2/ 2/
I
I H-a
+ -j
(c) (dl
I
:L
1 = Ca
(el
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11—14. We established the expression for the twist deformation (Equation

(11—31) by requiring the torsional warping function to be continuous. One
can also obtain this result by applying the principle of virtual forces to the
segment shown as part of the accompanying figure.
Prob. 11—14
Arbitrary
closed
curve
-44 44—
M'11 wi LsM1 w1 + dx1
(a)
(b)
2G(2E)
x3
GtE) G(E)
X21 2G(2E)
F
a-
Ic)
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PROBLEMS 329
The general principle states that

(J$eT dA)dx1 = (if AbTu dA)dx1 + if ApT x+dx (a)
for a statically permissible force system. Now, we select a force system acting
on the end faces which is statically equivalent to only a torsional moment M1.
If we consider the cross section to be rigid, the right-hand side of (a) reduces
to AM1o,1 1 dx1,and we can write
Next, we select an arbitrary closed curve, S (part b of figure), and consider the
region defined by S and the differential thickness dn. We specialize the virtual-
stress system such that AG = 0 outside this domain and only is finite
inside the domain. Finally, using (11 -51), we can write
dn(&riz)
=
and Equation (b) reduces to
k1
if
The derivations presented in the text arc based on a constant shear modulus
G throughout the section, so we replace (d) with
Gk1 =
If G is a variable, say G = fG* (where f = f(x2, x3)), we have to work with
G*k1 =
Also, we define the torsional constant J according to

G*k1J
Consider a thin-walled section comprising discrete elements having different
material properties. Develop the expressions for the torsional and fiexural
shear flow distributions accounting for variable G and E. Determine the
normal stress distribution from the stress-strain relation. Assume a linear varia-
tion in extensional strain and evaluate the coefficients of the strain expansion
from the definition equations for F1, Al2, and M3. Apply your formulation
to the section shown in part c of the figure.
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Engineering Theory of
Prismatic Members
12—1. INTRODUCTION
St. Venant's theory of fiexure-torsion is restricted to the case where—-

1. There are no surface forces applied to the cylindrical surface.
2. The end cross sections can warp freely.
The warping function consists of a term due to flexure (ç&j) and a term due to
pure torsion Since is independent of x1, the linear expansion
F1 M2 M3
a11 =—;—+——X3 ——---Xz
'2 13
is the exact solutiont for The total shearing stress is given by

= + crj (12—2)
where is the pure-torsion distribution (due to and represents the

flexural distribution (due to We generally determine by applying the
engineering theory of shear stress distribution, which assumes that the cross
section is rigid with respect to in-plane deformation. Using (12—1) leads to the
following expression for the flexural shear flow (see (11—106)):
—
= — (12—3)
The warping function will depend on x1 if forces are applied to the cylindrical
surface or the ends are restrained with respect to warping. A term due to
variable warping must be added to the linear expansion for This leads
to an additional term in the expression for the flexural shear flow. Since (12—1)
t A linear variation of normal stress is exact for a homogeneous beam. Composite beams (e.g.. a
sandwich beam) are treated by assuming a linear variation in extensional strain and obtaining
the distributions of from the stress-strain relation. See Probs. 1—14 and 12—1.
330
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SEC. 12—2. FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS 331
satisfiesthe definition equations for F1, M2, M3 identically, the normal stress
correction is self-equilibrating; i.e., it is statically equivalent to zero. Also, the
shear flow correction is statically equivalent to only a torsional moment since
(12—3) satisfies the definition equations for F2, F3 identically.
In the engineering theory of members, we neglect the effect of variable warping
on the normal and shearing stress; i.e., we use the stress distribution predicted
by the St. Venant theory, which is based on cons tant warping and no warping
restraint at the ends. In what follows, we develop the governing equations for
the engineering theory and illustrate the two general solution procedures. This
formulation is restricted to the linear geometric case. In the next chapter, we
present a more refined theory which accounts for warping restraint, and in-
vestigate the error involved in the engineering theory.
12—2. FORCE.EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

In the engineering theory, we take the stress resultants and couples referred
to the centroid as force quantities, and determine the stresses using (12—1),
(12—3), and the pure-torsional distribution due to MT. To establish the force-
equilibrium equations, we consider the differential element shown in Fig.
12--i. The statically equivalent external force and moment vectors per unit
F—dxi/2 .-I. clxl/2___H

— dF+ dx1
dx1 + dx1
'
+
4L dx1
Fig. 12—1. Differential element for equilibrium analysis.
length along X1 are denoted by b, Summing forces and moments about 0

leads to the following vector equilibrium equations (note that F = —
+ =o
dx1
dM÷ — — -
+ m+ x F+) = 0
dx1
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332 ENGINEERING THEORY OF MEMBERS CHAP. 12
We obtain the scalar equilibrium equations by introducing the component

expansions and equating the coefficients of the unit vectors to zero. The re-
sulting system uncouples into four sets of equations that arc associated with
stretching, flexure in the X1-X2 plane, flexure in the X1-X3 plane, and twist.
Stretching
dF1
+ b1 = 0
dx1
Flexure in X1-X2 Plane
dF2
+ b2 0
dx3
(12—4)
+ m3 + F2 = 0
dx1
Flexure in X1 -X3 Plane
--s- + b3 = 0
dx1
dM2
+ ni2 — F3 = 0
dx1
Twist
dM1
—— + m1 = 0
ax
This uncoupling is characteristic only of prismatic members the equilibrium
equations for an arbitrary curved member are generally coupled, as we shall
show in Chapter 15.
The fiexure equilibrium equations can be reduced by solving for the shear
force in terms of the bending moment, and then substituting in the remaining
equations. We list the results below for future reference.
Flexure in X1 -A'2 Plane

dM3
F2 — ui3
dx1
d2it.13 din3
2 + — b2 = 0
dx1 dx1
Flexure in X1 -A'3 Plane (1 25)
dM2
+ in2
dx1
d2M2 din2
+ -— + b3 = 0
dx12 dx1
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SEC. 12—3. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS 333
Note that the shearing force is known once the bending moment variation is
determined.
The statically equivalent external force and moment components acting on
the end cross sections are called end forces. We generally use a bar superscript
to indicate an end action in this text. Also, we use A, B to denote the negative
and positive end points (see Fig. 12—2) and take the positive sense of an end
x2
MA2
x3
—L
Fig. 12—2. Notation and positive direction for end forces.
force to coincide with the corrcsponding coordinate axis. The end forces are
related to the stress resultants and couples by
=
(J 1 2 3) (12—6)
FAJ =
MAJ =
A minus sign is required at A, since it is a negative face.
12—3. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS; PRINCIPLE OF

VIRTUAL FORCES
We started by selecting the stress resultants and stress couples as force
parameters. Applying the equilibrium conditions to a differential element re-
sults in a set of six differential equations relating the six force parameters. To
complete the formulation, we must select a set of displacement parameters and
relate the force and displacement parameters. These equations are generally
called force-displacement relations. Since we have six equilibrium equations,
we must introduce six displacement parameters in order for the formulation
to be consistent.
Now, the force parameters are actually the statically equivalent forces and
moments acting at the centroid. This suggests that we take as displacement
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334 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
parameters the equivalent rigid body translations and rotations of the cross
section at the centroid. We define i? and as
= = equivalent rigid body translation vector at the centroid
(12—7)
= equivalent rigid body rotation vector
By equivalent displacements, we mean
(force intensity) (displacement) dA = fl +M (.12—8)
Note that (12—7) corresponds to a linear distribution of displacements over the

cross section, whereas the actual distribution is nonlinear, owing to shear de-
formation. In this approach, we are allowing for an average shear deforma-
tion determined such that the energy is invariant.
We establish the force-displacement relations by applying the principle of
virtual forces to the differential element shown in Fig. 12—3. The virtual-force
dx1 I
dx1
dudXl
dx1 2
2
Fig. 12—3. Statically permissible force system.
system is statically permissible; that is, it satisfies the one-dimensional equili-

brium equations
ö
dx1
+ x = O
dx1
Specializing the principle of virtual forces for the one-dimensional elastic
case, we can write
dV* dx1 = AP1
where represents a displacement quantity, and is the external force quan-

tity corresponding to The term dV* is the first-order change in the one-
dimensional complementary energy density due to increments in the stress
resultants and couples.
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SEC. 12—3. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATfONS 335
Evaluating the right-hand side of (b), we have
+ A]\+ + dx1
=
Using the second equation in (a), (c) takes the form
+ x +
Finally, evaluating the products, we obtain

= [AF1u1,1 + /XF2(u2, — co3) + AF3(u3, 1 + (02)
+ + zXM2a2 + j]dx1 (12—9)
Continuing, we expand dV*:
dV* = +
\CFJ
3
= +
1
The quantities and k1 are one-dimensional measures. Equating

(12—9) and (12—10) leads to the following relation between the deformation
measures and the displacements:
av*
Cl = = u1, = WL
e2 —— = 112. j —. (03 k2 = (02, 1 (12—Il)

aF2 cM2
(123 23
We see that—
1. e1 is the average extensional strain.
2. e2, e3 are average transverse shear deformations.
3. k1 is a twist deformation.
4. k2, k3 are average bending deformation measures (relative rotations of
the cross section about X2, X3).
Once the form of V" is specified, we can evaluate the partial derivatives. In
what follows, we suppose that the material is linearly elastic. We allow for the
possibility of an initial extensional strain, but no initial shear strain. The
general expression for is
+ + +
=
where denotes the initial extensional strain. Now, for unrestrained
torsion-Ilexure is given by (11—98). Since we are using the engineering theory
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336 ENGINEERING THEORY OF MEMBERS CHAP. 12
of shear stress distribution, it is inconsistent to retain terms involving in-plane

deformation, i.e., v1/E. Adding terms due to F1/A, and neglecting
the coupling between F2, F3 leads to
= Fie? + + + LF2
2AE 2GA2 2GA3 (12—12)
+ + + + +
where
MT M1 + F2x3 —
e?
= $5 x2e1 cIA
We take (12—12) as the definition of the one-dimensional linearly elastic com-

plementary energy density for the engineering theory. One can interpret
e?, as "weighted" or equivalent initial strain measures.
Differentiating (12—12) with respect to the stress resultants and couples, and
substituting in (12—11), we obtain the following force-displacement relations:
F1 MT
F2 M2
+ U21 (03 k2 =k2 (12—13)
F3
X2 = U3 1 + (02 k3 = k3 + = (03,
To interpret the coupling between the shear and twist deformations, we note
(see Fig. 12—4) that
U2 X3W1
U3
defines the centroidal displacements due to a rigid body rotation about the
shear center. Comparing (a) with (12—13), we see that the cross section twists
about the shear center, not the centroid. This result is a consequence of neglect-
ing the in-plane deformation terms in i.e., of using (12—12).
Instead of working with centroidal quantities (M1, u2, u3), we could have
started with M1. and the translations of the shear center. This presupposes
that the cross section rotates about the shear center. We replace u2, u3 (see
Fig. 12—4) by
U2 + (01X3
(12—14)
U3 = t01X2
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SEC. 12—3. FORCE-DtSPLACEMENT 337
where um, U53 denote the translations of the shear center. The terms involving
F2, F3, Al1 in (12—9) transform to
1+ 1 — w3) + 1 + w2) (a)
Then, taking as an independent force parameter, we obtain
= a)1,1
F2
US2, 1 (12— 15)
F3
053 1 + (02
Since the section twists about the shear center, it is more convenient to work
with and the translations of the shear center. Once 052, 053, and w1 are
x2
Fig. 12—4. Translations of the centroid and the shear center.
known, we can determine 02, 03 from (12—14). We list the uncoupled sets of
force-displacement relations below for future reference.
Stretching
F1
e? + 01:1
Flexure in X1 -X2 Plane

F2
= 1 — (03
GA2
+ =
El3
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Flexure in X1-X3 Plane (12—16)
F3
U53 +
k2 + = I
Twist About the Shear Center
MT
= Wi,1
The development presented above is restricted to an elastic material. Now,

the principle of virtual forces applies for an arbitrary material. Instead of first
specializing it for the elastic case, we could have started with its general form
(see (10—94)),
[ss dA] = AP1 (12—17)
where represents the actual strain matrix, and denotes a system of statically
permissible stresses due to the external force system, AP1. We express the
integral as
.
if
A j=1
and determine using as defined by the engineering theory. For example,
taking
AF1 AM2 AM3
+ —— —
A 12 13
leads to
e1 = dA
if
k2
if
k3 x2c1 dA
if
Once the extensional strain distribution is known, we can evaluate (b).
Using (12—18), the one-dimensional principle of virtual forces takes the form
+ AM1)]dxj = AP1 (12—19)
The virtual-force system must satisfy the one-dimensional equilibrium equations

(12—4). One should note that (12—19) is applicable for an arbitrary material.
When the material is elastic, the bracketed term is equal to dV*, and we can
write it as
dV's dx1 = >d1 AP1 (12—20)
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SEC. 12—4. SUMMARY OF THE GOVERNING EQUATIONS 339
The expanded form for the linearly elastic case is
[(eq + AF1 + AF2 + AF3 +

J (12-21)
+ + El2) AM2 + + El) AM3] dx1 =
We use (12—21) in the force method discussed in Sec. 12—6.
12—4. SUMMARY OF THE GOVERNING EQUATIONS

At this point, we summarize the governing equations for the linear engineering
theory of prismatic members. We list the equations according to the different
modes of deformation (stretching. flexure, etc.). The boundary conditions reduce
to either a force or the corresponding displacement is prescribed at each end.
Stretching (F1, u1)

F1 I + b1 = 0
F1 (12—22)
F1 or u1 prescribed at x1 = 0, L
Flexure in X1-X2 Plane (F2, M3, U2, 0)3)

F2,+ b2 = 0
M31 + m3 + F2 = 0
F2
= U2 i—
2
(12—23)
M
+ (03,1
u2 or F2 prescribed at x1 = 0, L
M3 or 0)3 prescribed at .x1 = 0, L
Flexure in the X1-X3 Plane (F3, M2, U3,

F3,1 + b3 0
M2, + — F3 = 0
F3
= u3 1+ 0)3
(12—24)
M
u3 or F3 prescribed at x1 = 0, L
0)3 or M2 prescribed at x1 = 0, L
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Twist About the Shear Center (MT, (01, u2, u3)
MT. 1 + 01T 0
MT
=
or a1 prescribed at x1 = 0, L (12—25)
m5. = m1 + b2x'3 — b3g2
U2 X3W1
U3 =
12-5. DISPLACEMENT METHOD OF SOLUTION—PRISMATIC MEMBER

The displacement method involves integrating the governing differential
equations and leads to expressions for the force and displacement parameters
as functions of x1. When the applied external loads are independent of the
displacements, we can integrate the force-equilibrium equations directly and
then find the displacements from the force-displacement relations. If the applied
load depends on the displacements (e.g., a beam on an elastic foundation),
we must first express the equilibrium equations in terms of the displacement
parameters. This.problem is more difficult, since it requires solving a differential
equation rather than just successive integration. The following examples illus-
trate the application of the displacement method to a prismatic member.
Example 12—1
We consider the case where b2 = coast (Fig. This loading will produce flexure
in the X1-X2 plane and also twist about the shear center if the shear center does not lie on
the X2 axis. We solve the two uncoupled problems, superimpose the results, and then
apply the boundary conditions.
Flexure in X1 -A'2 Plane
We start with the force-equilibrium equations,
F21
M3,1 = —F2
Integrating (a), and noting that b2 = coast, we have

F2 = — b2x1
For convenience, we use subscripts A, B for quantities associated with x1 = 0, L:

= FAJ etc.
With this notation, (c) simplifies to
F2 = FA2 — b2x1
Substituting for F2 in (b), and integrating, we obtain

= MAI — XIFA2 +
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SEC. 12—5. DISPLACEMENT METHOD OF SOLUTION
We consider next the force-displacement relations,
M3
£03, 3
F2
Uz, i —. +
GA2
Integrating (g) and then (h), we obtain
£03 = WA3 + — (x1MA3 —
4 4 \
\2E13/ GA 12Ff)
The general flexual solution (for b2 = const) is given by (e), (f), and (I).
Fig. E12—1
x2
b3 13
Shear center
Centroid
H L
Twist About the Shear Center

The applied torsional moment with respect to thc shear center is
mr =
Substituting for mr in the governing equations,
=
MT
(01,1
=
and integrating, we obtain
MT = MAT — b2y3x1
= +
The additional centroidal displacements due to twist are
U2 = X3W1
U3 =
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Cantilever Case
We suppose that the left end is fixed, and the right end is free. The boundary conditions
are
UA2 = =0
FBZ = M53 = MBT
Specializing the general solution for these boundary conditions requires
= b2L
An 11. i2
A3 2
MAT = b2;L
and the final expressions reduce to
F2 = b2(L — x1)
M3 = — Lx1 +
= — x1)
U2 = + b2Lx1 +
- + ()
U3 =
b2 4L 4
a)1
It is of interest to compare the deflections due to bending and shear deformation.

Evaluating u2 at x1 = L, we have
I h2L
U52 =
LI
lh2L2
UB2 =
E 13
GL2A2
As an illustration, we consider a rectangular cross section and isotropic material with

v = 0.3 (d = depth):
13 613d2
A2 5 A 10
=
By definition, d/L is small with respect to unity for a member element and, therefore, it is
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SEC. 12—5. DISPLACEMENT METHOD OF SOLUTION 343
reasonable to neglect transverse shear deformation with respect to bending deformation
for the isotropic case.t Formally, one sets 1/A2 = 0.
Fixed-End Case
We consider next the case where both ends are fixed. The boundary conditions are
0.42 = W.43 = (ISA! = 0

= = =0
Specializing (h), (i), and (k) for this case, we obtain
b2L
FAZ=----
2
b2L2
M.43 =
12
MAT = b2T3L
The final expressions are
IL2 Lx1
M3 = b2
+
MT = b2T3 —
b2 (u)
u2 = + — x1
2)
+ — 2L4 + xi)
U3 = —X20)1
b2IL2 L
(03 Xj + xi)
= El
b2y3
= xi)
Example 12—2
We consider a member (Fig. E12—2) restrained at the left end, and subjected only to
forces applied at the right end. We allow for the possibility of support movement at A.
The expressions for the translations and rotations at B in tcrms of the end actions at B
and support movement at A are called member force-displacement relations. We can
obtain these relations for a prismatic member by direct integration of the force-displacement
t For shear deformation to be significant with respect to bending deformation, G/E must be of
the same order as l/A,L2 where A, is the shear area. This is not possible for the isotropic case.
However, it may be satisfied for a sandwich beam having a soft core. See Prob. 12—1.
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relations. In the next section, we illustrate an alternative approach, which utilizes the
principle of virtual forces4'
Fig. E12—2
x2
M1, WB 1
FA3
UB 3
MA3/
x3
/ 3
The boundary conditions at x1 = L are

=
(a)
=
Integrating the force-equilibrium equations and applying (a) lead to the following expres-
sions for the stress resultants and couples:
= (j= 1,2,3)
MT
(b)
M2 = M52 — (L — x1)F53
M3 MB3 + (L
Using (b), the force-displacement relations take the form
C03,j = + (L — xi)F5]
U3,1 = + +
—
= El2
_
U3 j = — 0)2 + M5.,-
—
Col,i =
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Integrating (c) and setting x1 = L, we obtain
UB1 UAI +
L_
(.053 03.43 +
L_M83 + L2
UA2 + LWA3 +
L2
+
LX3_
Mjjr +
/L +
L3\..
L2_
(052 + M82 —
U83 = UA3 — LWA2 —

L2 —
— +
IL +
L3\_
L
= co,0 + MET
Finally, we replace MET by
MET = + X31B2
and write the equations in matrix form:
L
US'
L L3
+
U82
L L3
GJ
L
(082
(053
L2 L -
+ UA2 + U.43 LOA2, (.0,42, (.0A3} (f)
The coefficient matrix is called the member "flexibility" matrix and is generally denoted
by fB.
We obtain expressions for the end forces in terms of the end displacements by inverting
f. The final relations are listed below for future reference:
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AE
(um — UA1)
=
FB2 — + WA3) (coB! WA!)
— —
(u53 — UA3) + (co82 + C°A2) + (co81 — WAI)

—
rGJ 12E
MB1 + + — WA1)
=
(082 — UA2) + + (0A3)
— L3
+ — UA3) + + COA2)
MB2 = — UA3) + — WA!)
+ (4 + a2) + (2 — a2)
j_ WA2
M83 — (053 UA2) + — (1)4j)
-1 (4 + + (2 a3)_L_coA3
where
12E12 12E13
a2 a3
=
=
1+03
We introduce the assumption of negligible transverse shear deformation by setting
03 = a3 = 0
The end forces at A and B are related by
(j= 1,2,3)
MA! = —!V151
MA2 + LF53
MA3 —M53 — LF52
We list only the expressions for M43:
MA2 = — 0A3) + — WA!)
+ (4 + a2) WA2 + (2 — 02)
MA3 —T-(uB2 — UA2) + — WA!)

L2
+ (4 + a3) C0A3 + (2 — a3)
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Example 12—3
We consider next the case where the applied loads depend on the displacements. To
simplify the discussion, we suppose the shear center is on the X2 axis and the member is
loaded only in the plane. The member will experience only flexure in the X1-X2
plane under these conditions.
The governing equations are given by (12—23):
F2 = —M3,1 — in3 (b)

M3
(03
An alternate form of(a) is

M3 + 1723, b2 0
Once M3 is known, we can, using (b), find F3.
Now, we solve (d) for 03 and substitute in (c):
F2
F,1
(03,1 p2,11 +
Then,
M3 E13(u3 + b2 —
and
F2 = —m3 — El2 (02 + b2, —
Finally, we substitute forM3 in (e) and obtain a fourth-order differential equation involving
02 and the load terms:
d4u2
+
d2 ( b2
—
'\
+
I (din3
— h2)
\ = 0
The problem reduces to solving (i) and satisfying the boundary conditions:
F2 or 02 prescribed
or (03 prescribed)
Neglecting transverse shear deformation simplifies the equations somewhat. The re-
sulting equations are (we set 1/GA2 = 0)
(03 j
= E13(u2, 11 —
F3 = —in3 — E13(u2 —
d4u3 d2 1 (din3 '\

— — b2) = 0
+
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As an illustration, consider the case of linear restraint against translation of the centroid,
e.g., a beam on a linearly elastic foundation. The distributed loading consists of two
terms, one due to the applied external loading and the other due to the restraint force.
We write
= q — ku3
where q denotes the external distributed load and k is the stiffness factor for the restraint.
We suppose rn3 = = 0, k is constant, and transverse shear deformation is negligible.
Specializing (k) for this case, we have
(03 = U2
M3 = E13u2,
F2 = —E13u2
d4u2 k q
+
=
F3 or u2 prescribed 1
0L
M3 or (03 prescrihedJ
The general solution of (n) is
+ sin A.x1 + C2 cos Ax1) + sin Ax1 + C4 cos Ax1)
/ k
where u2 represents the particular solution due to q. Enforcement of the boundary

conditions at x 0, L leads to the equations relating the four integration constants.
The function e_2x decays with increasing x, whereas increases with increasing x.
For Ax > 3, 0. If the member length L is greater than 2(3/A) = 2Lb (we interpret
Lb as the width of the boundary layer), we can approximate the solution by the following:
0 x1 < Lb: = + sin Ax1 + C2 cos Ax1)

LB<xl<L—Lb:
L — Lb < x1 L: u2 = + sin Ax1 + C4 cos Ax1)
The constants (C1, C3) are determined from the boundary conditions at x1 = 0 and
(C3, C4) from the conditions at x1 = L. Note that C3 and C4 must be of order since
u2isfiniteatx1 = L.
Application .1
The boundary conditions at x1 = 0 (Fig. E12—3A) are
u2 = 0
M3 = E13u2,11 = 0
Since q is constant, the particular solution follows directly from (11),

= q/k
The complete solution is
U2 = (1 cos Ax1)
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SEC. 12—6. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION 349
Fig. E12—3A
q = const
//////////// ///////////////////////////////////////// X1
x2
Application 2
The boundary conditions at x1 = 0 (Fig. E12—3B) are
U2,1 = 0
F2 = —E13u2,111 = —P12
and the solution is
PA
U2 = Ax1 + sin Ax1)
The four basic functions encountered are

= Ax + sin Ax)
= sin Ax = —
(12—26)
=
e cos Ax = —
Their values over the range from Ax = 0 to Ax = 5 are presented in Table 12—1.
Fig. E12—3B
x1
////////////////////j///
x2
12—6. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION

In the force method, we apply the principle of virtual forces to determine the
displacement at a point and also to establish the equations relating the force
redundants for a statically indeterminate member. We start with the one-
dimensional form of the principle of virtual forces developed in Sec. 12—3 (see
Equation 12—19):
+ = d1 AP1
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Table 12—i
Numerical Values of the Functions
,tX iJi1 AX
0.0 1.000 0.000 1.000 1.000 0

0.2 0.965 0.163 0.640 0.802 0.2
0.4 0.878 0.261 0.356 0.617 0.4
0.6 0.763 0.310 0.143 0.453 0.6
0.8 0.635 0,322 —0.009 0.313 0.8
1.0 0.508 0.310 —0.111 0.199 1.0
1.2 0.390 0.281 —0.172 0.109 1.2
1.4 0.285 0.243 —0.201 0.042 1.4
1.6 0.196 0.202 —0.208 --0.006 1.6
1.8 0.123 0.161 —0.199 —0.038 1.8
2.0 0.067 0.123 —0.179 —0.056 2.0
2.2 0.024 0.090 —0.155 —0.065 2.2
2.4 —0.006 0.061 —0.128 —0.067 2.4
2.6 —0.025 0.038 —0.102 —0.064 2.6
2.8 —0.037 0.020 —0.078 —0.057 2.8
3.0 —0.042 0.007 —0.056 —0.049 3.0
3.2 —0,043 —0.002 —0.038 —0.041 3.2
3.4 —0.041 —0.009 —0.024 —0.032 3.4
3.6 —0.037 —0.012 —0,012 —0.024 3.6
3.8 —0.031 —0.014 —0.004 —0.018 3.8
4.0 ' —0.026 —0.014 0.002 —-0.012 4.0
4.2 —0.020 —0.013 0.006 —0.007 4.2
4.4 —0.016 —0.012 0.008 —0.004 4.4
4.6 —0.011 —0.010 0.009 —0.001 4.6
4.8 —0.008 —0.008 0.009 0.001 4.8
5.0 —0.005 —0.007 0.008 0.002 5.0
where e3, are the actual one-dimensional deformation measures;

d, represents a displacement quantity;
AP, is an external virtual force applied in the direction of
The relations between the deformation measures and the internal forces depend
on the material properties and the assumed stress expansions. The appropriate
relations for the linear elastic engineering theory are given by (12—13). If
a displacement is prescribed, the corresponding force is actually a reaction.
We use AR,. to denote a prescribed displacement and the corresponding
reaction increment, and write (a) as
+ AM3)]dx,, — d,. AR,. d, AP, (12—27)
where d, represents an unknown displacement quantity.
To determine the displacement at some point, say Q, in the direction defined
by the unit vector we apply a virtual force APQIq, and generate the necessary
internal forces and reactions required for equilibrium using the one-dimensional
force-equilibrium equations. We express the required virtual-force system as
= AP0
= MJ,QAPQ (12—28)
ARk==Rk,QAPQ
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Introducing (12—28) in (12—27) and canceling leads to

dQ = — Q + + k3M1, Q)]dxj (12—29)
This expression is applicable for an arbitrary material, but is restricted to the

linear geometric case. Since the only requirement on the virtual force system
is that it be statically permissible, one can always work with a statically deter-
minate virtual force system. The expanded form of (12—29) for the linearly
elastic case follows from (12—21):
dQ = + [(e? + Fj,Q
$
(F2\ +
i'F3\ +
M1.
(12—30)
M3\
+ + + + -JM3,Q 11dx1
El21 J..J3/ J
where
if dA
=7±JJx2s?dA
Finally, we can express (12—29) for the elastic case in terms of V*:
L k
dQ — (12—31)
JxLt'AQ ORQ
This form follows from (12—20) and applies for an arbitrary elastic material.
Example 12—4
We consider the channel member shown in Fig. E12--4A. We suppose that the material
is linearly elastic and that there is no support movement. We will determine the vertical
Fig. E12—4A
x2
I)
Centroid
Q
Shear
center
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displacement of the web at point Q due to—

1. the concentrated force P
2. a temperature increase AT, given by
AT = a1x1 + a2x1x2 + a3x1x3
Force System Due to P

Applying the equilibrium conditions to the segment shown in Fig. E12—4B leads to
.F2 =
= +Pe
M3 = —P(L — x1)
F1 = F3 = M2 0
Fig. E12—4B
. •1
M3 ( P Shear center axis
I I Fe
F2,
System
We take dQ positive when downward, i.e., in the — X, direction. To be consistent,
we must apply a unit downward force at Q. The required internal forces follow from
Fig. E12—4C:
F2,0 = —1
Mr,0 C
2 M3,Q =
/L
— x1)
\ (b)
F5,0 = F3,0 M2,Q 0
(p. =o
0
(j= 1,2,3)
Fig. E12—4C
S
I
/
Shear center axis
F2,Q
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hzitial Deformations
The initial extensional strain due to the temperature increase is
= a = + a2x1x, + a3x1x3) (d)
The equivalent one-dimensional initial deformations are
e? = .1 d,4
JJ
= ±. dA = aa3x1 (e)
Jf
dA = —aa2x,
=
Deter,ninatio,, of (IQ
Substituting for the forces and initial deformations in (12—30), we obtain
('Lii I P Pc2 r P IL
dQJ 1 \)
(f)
L c2L 5 1)) cxa,L2
=
Example 12—5
When the material is nonlinear, we must use (12—29) rather than (12—30). To illus-
trate the nonlinear case, we determine the vertical displacement due to P at the right end
Fig. E12—5
x2
xi
P
"I
Centroid (and
shear center)
of the member shown in Fig. E12—5. We suppose that transverse shear deformation is
negligible, and take the relation between k3 and M3 as
k3 = a1M3 + (a)
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Noting that only F2, and M3,0 are finite, and letting e2 = 0, the general expression for
reduces to
L
d0 k3M30dx1
Now,
M3 = —P(L — x1)
M3,Q = —(L — x1)
Then,
k3 = —Pa1(L — x1) — P3a3(L — x1)3
Substituting for k3 in (b), we obtain
dQ = Pa1 + P3a3
We describe next the application of the principle of virtual forces in the

analysis of a statically indeterminate member. We suppose that the member
is statically indeterminate to the rth degree. The first step involves selecting
r force quantities, Z1, Z2,. , Z.. These quantities may be either internal forces
. .
or reactions, and are generally called force redundwns.

Using the force-equilibrium equations, we express the internal forces and
reactions in terms of the prescribed external forces and the force redundants.
= +
= M3,0 Mf,kZk (12—32)
= + R1, kZk
The member corresponding to = Z2 = ''' = Z,. = 0 is conventionally

called the primary structure. Note that all the force analyses are carried out on
the primary structure. The set (F3, 0, M3, R1, represents the internal forces
and reactions for the primary structure due to the prescribed external forces.
Also, (F1, k, M3, k, R1, k) represents the forces and reactions for the primary
structure due to a unit value of Zk. One must select the force resultants such
that the resulting primary structure is stable,
Once the force redundants are known, we can find the total forces from
(12—32). It remains to establish a system of r equations relating the force
redundants. With this objective, we consider the virtual-force system consisting
of AZ,, and the corresponding internal forces and reactions,
= F3,,,AZ,,
AM3 = MJ,,,AZ,,
AR, =
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This system is statically permissible. Substituting (a) in (12—27), and noting

that = 0, we obtain
k + kJMi.k)] dx1 = k (12—33)
Taking k = 1, 2, ..., r results in a set of r relating the actual de-

formations. One can interpret these equations as compatibility conditions,
since they represent restrictions on the deformations.
To proceed further, we must express the deformations in terms of
In what follows, we suppose that the material is linearly elastic. The com-
patibility conditions for the linearly elastic case are given by
[(eq + + + +
J
(12—34)
+ + + + dx1
A more compact form, which is valid for an arbitrary elastic material, is

C (7R
(k = i,2,.. .,r) (1235)
Ic Ic
The final step involves substituting for M1 using (12—32). We write the
resulting equations as
.fIcJZJ = is,, (k = 1, 2. . . . , r) (12—36)

j= 1
where
rr1 +
1
+
1
= fjk
=J
+ + dx1
[(eq + F1.o)F
=>
— j + +
+ + + + +
The various terms in (12—36) have geometrical significance. Using (12—30),

we see that is the displacement of the primary structure in the direction of
Z1 due to a unit value of ZIc. Since fik = fkJ, it is also equal to the displacement
in the direction of Zk due to a unit value of Z3. Generalizing this result, we can
write
= (12—37)
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where i, j are arbitrary points, and corresponds to i.e., i has the same
direction and sense. Equation (12—37) is called Maxwell's law of reciprocal
deflections, and follows directly from (12—30). The term Ak is the actual dis-
placement of the point of application of Zk. minus the displacement of the
primary structure in the direction of Zk due to support movement, initial strain,
and the prescribed external forces. If we take Zk as an internal force quantity
(stress resultant or stress couple), Ak represents a relative displacement (trans-
lation or rotation) of adjacent cross sections.
One can interpret (12—36) as a superposition of the displacements due
to the various effects. They are generally called superposition equations in
elementary texts.t If the material is physically nonlinear, (12—36) are not
applicable, and one must start with (12—33). The approach is basically the
same as for the linear case. However, the final equations will be nonlinear.
The following examples illustrate some of the details involved in applying the
force method to statically indeterminate prismatic members.
Example 12—6
This loading (Fig. E12—6A) will produce flexure in the plane and twist about
the shear center; i.e., only F2, M3 and are finite. The member is indeterminate to the
first degree. We will take the reaction at B as the force redundant.
Fig. E12—6A
x2
x2
X3
Shear
center
Primary Structure
One can select the positive sense of the reactions arbitrarily. (See Fig. El 2—6B.) We
work with the twisting moment with respect to the shear center. The reactions are related
to the internal forces by
= Z1
R2 —
R3 =
R4 = +[MT]x,=o
t See, for example, Art. 13—2 in Ref. 3.
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E12—68
x2 x2
R3,d3
R2, d2
ZI = 0
Force System Due to Prescribed External Forces R1
Fig. E12—6C
q
—__
lB
Mr,o
F2,0 Shear center axis
-.——p-*' b
I qe
F2,0 = — x1) R1,0 = 0

MTo = qe(L — x1) R2,0 = qL
q qL2 (b)
M3,0 = — x1)2 R3,0 =
F1,0 = F3,0 = M2,0 = 0 R4,0 = qeL
Force System Due to Z1 = +

Fig. E12—60
M3,1
Bt e
F2,1
Shear center axis
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F2,1=+1
MT,j = —e R2,1 = —1
M3,1=+(L—x1)
F1, = F3, 1 = M2, 1 = 0 R4•1 = —e
Equation for Z1
We suppose that the member is linearly elastic. Specializing (12—36) for this problem,
f 11Z1 = A1
1)2 + 1)2 + )2]dX (d)

=
and then substituting for the forces and evaluating the resulting integrals, we obtain
L Le2 L3
fit
(e)
(L — x1)dx1
—
The value of Z1 for no initial strain or support movement is
z1 =
8
Final Forces
The total forces are obtained by superimposing the forces due to the prescribed external
system and the redundants:
F2=F20+Z1F2,1 = —q(L—x1)+Z1
MT qe(L — x1) — eZ1
M3 = — (L —
(g)
= qL — Z1
L2
R3 = LZ1
= e(qL — Z1)
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Example 12—7
This loading (Fig. E12—7A) will produce only flexure in the X1-X2 plane. We suppose
the material is physically nonlinear and take the expression for k3 as
k3 = + a1M3 + (a)
To simplify the analysis, we neglect transverse shear deformation.
Fig. E12—7A
V.
f
///
/
F
Primary Structure
= Z1 R7 = R3 = (b)
Fig. E12—78
x1
R2, d2
z1 =0
R1,2j
Force System Due to Prescribed External Forces (see Example 12—6)

F2,0 = —q(L — x1)
—
M3,0 =
qL2
R1,0 = 0 R2,0 = qL R3,0 =
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Force Due to Z1 = + 1 (see Example 12—6)

F2, +1 M3, = L —
R1,3=+1 R21=—1
R3,1 = —L
Compatibility Equation
Since the material is nonlinear, we must use (12—33). Neglecting the transverse shear
deformation term (e2), the compatibility condition reduces to
dx1 =
J
We substitute for k3 using (a):
— JL
(ajM3 + dx1 =
J
Now,
1W'3 = M3, + Z1M3,
= — x1)2 + Z1(L — xt)
Introducing (g) in (f), we obtain the following cubic equation for Z1:
(asLs) + +
z? +
=
— — — x1)dx1
+ +
For the physically linear case,
030
and (h) reduces to
— fLko(L
= + — — — xi)dxi]
Example 12—8
The member shown (Fig. E12—8A) is fixed at both ends. We consider the case where the
material is linearly elastic, and there are no support movements or initial strains. We take
the end actions at B referred to the shear Center as the force redundants.
=
Z2=
Z3 = MTB
The forces acting on the primary structure are shown in Fig. E12—8B.
Initial Force System

F2,0 = P = P(a — x1)
MT,0
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Fig. E12—8A
tP
x2
Shear
• a b
Fig. E12—8B
z3
x3
Fig. E12—8C
M30
Shear center axis
MTO ( P
A
Px3
F2,0
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_________________
Z = +1
Fig. E12—8D
Al31
'( ti
F2,1 Shear center axis
L—x1
'-I
F2,1=+1 M31=L—x1 (c)

—0
Z2 = +1
Fig. E12—8E
M3,2
M72
(
M3,2 = +1 F22 = MT,2 0
z3 = +1
Fig. E12—8F
Al33
(I ////
I. —x1 Shear center axis
=+ 1 F3, M3, = 0 (e)
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Goinpatibility Equations
The compatibility equations for this problem have the form
JkJZJ = (k = 1,2,3)
+ +
fkj =
i:
= f + +
Substituting for the various forces and evaluating the resulting integrals lead to the fol-
lowing equations:
L I) \ +l—1Z2
/l——+-—-—1Z1 7 V
=
[a I (a3 a2b
\GA2 3E13) [GA2 El3 \ 3 2
(L2\ Z1 /L\ Z2 = Pa2
(g)
+
'\GJJ GJ
Finally, solving (g), we obtain
6E13
=
2b1 PICA
—P 1±
L2GAZ
Z3 Z3__Pox3
Application
Suppose the member is subjected to the distributed loading shown in Fig. E12—8G.
We can determine the force redundants by substituting for P, a, and b in (h),
P = q dx1
a=
b=L — x1
and integrating the resulting expressions. The general solution is

CL ( 2
2 6E13 1)
+ — x1) + —
=
z2
X3
Z3 — x1q dx1
j
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where
12E13
C= 1 +
L2GA2
As an illustration, we consider the case where q is q const in (j),

we obtain
qL
z1 = — —
2
z2 =
12
Fig. E12—80
x2
q(xj)
H L
H
REFERENCES
1. TIMOSHaNKO, S. J. : Advanced Strength of Materials, Van Nostrand, New York, 1941.
2. HETENY!, M.: Beams on Elastic Foundation, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor,
1946.
3. Noiuus, C. H., and J. B. Elementary Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
4. ASPLUND, S. 0.: Structural Mechanics: Classical and Matrix Methods, Prentice-Hall,
1966.
5. DEN HARTOG, J. P.: Advanced Strength of Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.
6. ODEN, J. T.: Mechanics of Elastic Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
7. Geac, J. M. and WEAVER, W.: Analysis of Framed Structures, Van Nostrand, 1965.
8. MARTIN, H. C.: Introduction to Matrix Methods of StructuralAnalysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1966.
PROBLEMS
12-1. The accompanying sketch shows a sandwich beam consisting of a
core and symmetrical face plates. The distribution of normal stress over the
depth is determined by assuming a linear variation for the extensional strain:
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PROBLEMS 365
= —x2k3
We relate k3 to M3 by substituting for in the definition equation for M3:

M3 = x2a11 dA
M3 + Ef13,f)k3
To simplify the notation, we drop the subscript and write (b) as
iVI
where (EI)equiv is the equivalent homogeneous flexural rigidity.
Prob. 12—1
x2
012 A*
f
M3
I
The shearing stress distribution is determined by applying the engineering
theory developed in Sec. 11—7. Integrating the axial force-equilibrium equation
over the area A* and assuming is constant over the width, we obtain
JJ(aii,i + a21,2 + a31, 3)dA = o

(d)
ba12 = cru, dA
Then, substituting for cru,

M
= —(Ek3)x2 (—Ex2) (e)
( I)equiv
and noting that F2 —M3, (d) becomes
a12 = J'J x2E

dA
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(a) Apply Equations (e) and (f) to the given section.

(b) The flange thickness is small with respect to the core depth for a typical
beam. Also, the core material is relatively soft, i.e., and G. are
small with respect to Ef. Specialize part a for 0 and tf/h 1. Also
determine the equivalent shear rigidity which is defined as
1
(17*) dA
= J) 2
(c) The member force-deformation relations are

F
Y2
=
M3
k
= (EI)equjv
Refer to Example 12—1. Specialize Equation (q) for this section and
discuss when transverse shear deformation has to be considered.
12—2. Using the displacement method, determine the complete solution
for the problem presented in the accompanying sketch. Comment on the
influence of transverse shear deformation.
Prob. 12—2
q = const
F b
x1
12—3. For the problem sketched, determine the complete solution by the
displacement method.
12—4. Determine the solution for the cases sketched. Express the solution
in terms of the functions defined by (12—26).
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PROBLEMS 367
Prob. 12—3
x2
q const
Shear
HeH
Prob. 12—4
(0)
/////////////////////////////7///////////////////
Ib)
Jr
(c)
12—5. The formulation for the beam on an elastic foundation is based on

a continuous distribution of stiffness; i.e., we wrote
b2 = —ku2 (a)
Note that k has units of force/(Iength)2,

We can apply it to the system of discrete restraints diagrammed in part a
of the accompanying sketch, provided that restraint spacing c is small in
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comparison to characteristic length (boundary layer) Lb, which we have taken as
3 3
2 (k/4E1)'14
A reasonable upper limit on c is
c<
Letting k4 denote the discrete stiffness, we determine the equivalent distributed

stiffness k from
k= kd/c
Evaluate Lb with (b), and then check c with (c).
Prob. 12—5
1 . (
J J J J
> ...—
r r r r
+ C
+
(a)
IIIC+C
L,E,11
a/2
/7/7 /7/7 7
(b)
Consider the beam of part b, supported by cross members which are fixed
at their ends. Following the approach outlined above, determine the distribu-
tion of force applied to the cross members due to the concentrated load, P.
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PROBLEMS 369
Evaluate this distribution for

a=241t L=64ft c—lit
12—6. Refer to Example 12—3. The governing equation for a prismatic
beam on a linearly elastic foundation with transverse shear deformation in-
cluded is obtained by setting b2 = q — ku2 in (i). For convenience, we drop
the subscripts:
d4u
—
k d2u + k
u=
1 / d2 7
—
q
— +
We let
&112
and (a) takes the form
d4 ,12
4 u—q—
dx dx 2
Note that is dimensionless and A has units of 1/length. The homogeneous
solution is
u cos bx + C2 sin bx) + cos bx + C4 sin bx)
where
a= 2(1 +
—
b = 2(1
To specialize (d) for negligible transverse shear deformation, we set = 0.

(a) Determine the expression for the boundary layer length (e3 0).
(b) Determine the solution for the loading shown. Assume L large with
respect to Lb. The boundary conditions at x 0 are
0) = 0
P
F2
Investigate the variation of Mmax and Umax with Consider to vary

from 0 to 1.
Prob. 12—6
P
/////////)///////////// ////////////)//////// X
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370 ENGINEERING THEORY OF MEMBERS CHAP, 12
12—7. Refer to the sketch for Prob. 12—3. Determine the reaction R and
centroidal displacements at x1 L/2 due to a concentrated force Pi2 applied
to the web at x1 L/2. Employ the force method.
12—8. Refer to Example 12—7. Assuming Equation (h) is solved for Z1,
discuss how you would determine the translation u2 at x1 = L/2.
12—9. Consider the four-span beam shown. Assume linearly elastic be-
havior, the shear center coincides with the centroid, and planar loading.
(a) Compare the following choices for the force redundants with respect
to computational effort:
1. reactions at the interior supports
2. bending moments at the interior supports
(b) Discuss how you would employ Maxwell's law of reciprocal detlections
to generate influence lines for the redundants due to a concentrated
force moving from left to right.
Prob. 12—9
12—10. Consider a linearly elastic member fixed at both ends and subjected
to a temperature increase
Determine the end actions and displacements (translations and rotations) at

mid-span.
12—11. Consider a linearly elastic member fixed at the left end (A) and
subjected to forces acting at the right end (B) and support movement at A.
Determine the expressions for the displacements at B in terms of the support
movement at A and end forces at B with the force method. Compare this
approach with that followed in Example 12—2.
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13
Restrained
of.
a Prismatic Member
13—1. INTRODUCTION
The engineering theory of prismatic members developed in Chapter 12 is
based on the assumption that the effect of variable warping of the cross section
on the normal and shearing stresses is negligible, i.e., the stress distributions
predicted by the St. Venant theory, which is valid only for constant warping
and no warping restraint at the ends, are used. We also assume the cross
section is rigid with respect to in-plane deformation. This leads to the result
that the cross section twists about the shear center, a fixed point in the cross
section. Torsion and flexure are uncoupled when one works with the torsional
moment about the shear center rather than the centroid. The complete set of
governing equations for the engineering theory arc summarized in Sec. 12—4.
Variable warping or warping restraint at the ends of the member leads to
additional normal and shearing stresses. Since the St. Venant normal stress
distribution satisfies the definition equations for F'1, M2, M3 identically, the
additional normal stress, must be statically equivalent to zero, i.e., it must
satisfy
dA = dA = dA = 0 (13—1)
The St. Venant flexural shear flow distribution is obtained by applying the
engineering theory developed in Sec. 11—7. This distribution is statically equiva-
lent to F2, F3 acting at the shear center. It follows that the additional shear
stresses, and due to warping restraint must be statically equivalent
to only a torsional moment:
Sfri2 dA 0
(13—2)
dA = 0
To account for warping restraint, one must modify the torsion relations. We
will still assume the cross section is rigid with respect to in-plane deformation.
371
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372 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
En what follows, we develop the governing equations for restrained torsion.

We start by introducing displacement expansions and apply the principle of
virtual displacements to establish the force parameters and force-equilibrium
equations for the geometrically linear case. We discuss next two procedures
for establishing the force-displacement relations. The first method is a pure-
displacement approach, i.e., it takes the stresses as determined from the strain
(displacement) expansions. The second method is similar to what we employed
for the engineering theory. We introduce expansions for the stresses in terms
of the force parameters and apply the principle of virtual forces. This cor-
responds to a mixed formulation, since we are actually working with expansions
for both displacements and stresses. Solutions of the governing equations for
the linear mixed formulation are obtained and applied to thin-walled open and
closed cross sections. Finally, we derive the governing equations for geomet-
trically nonlinear restrained torsion.
13—2. DISPLACEMENT EXPANSIONS; EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

The principle of virtual displacementst states that
JJJaT ös d(vol.) = SSSbT d(vol.) + JJJJT d(surface area)
is identically satisfied for arbitrary displacement, L\u, when the stresses (r) are
in equilibrium with the applied body (b) and surface (p) forces. We obtain a
system of one-dimensional force-equilibrium equations by introducing expan-
sions for the displacements over the cross section in terms of one-dimensional
displacement parameters. This leads to force quantities consistent with the dis-
placement parameters chosen.
We use the same notation as in Chapters 11, 12. The X1 axis coincides with
the centroid; X2, X3 are principal inertia axes; and x3 are the coordinates
of the shear center. We assume the cross section is rigid with respect to in-plane
deformation, work with the translations of the shear center, and take the dis-
placement expansions (see Fig. 13—1) as
U1 = U1 + W2X3 W3X2 +
U2 — w1(x3 — (13—3)
U3 = + w1(x2 — x2)
where 4 is a prescribed function of x2, x3, and—
1. u1, ;2, u53 are the rigid body translations of the cross section.
2. W2, £03 are the rigid body rotations of the cross section about the
shear center and the X2, X3 axes.
3. f is a parameter definining the warping of the cross section. The
variation over the cross section is defined by
Note that all seven parameters are functions only of x1. For pure torsion
t See Sec. 10—6.
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SEC. 13—2. DISPLACEMENT EXPANSIONS; EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS 373
the St. Venant theory developed in Chapter 11), one sets f = co1, i = const
(i.e.,
and = For unrestrained variable torsion (i.e., the engineering theory
developed in Chapter 12), one sets f = 0. Since there are seven displacement
parameters, application of the principle of virtual displacements will result in
seven equilibrium equations.
x3
Shear center
— —:: — —e U52
I
x2
Centroid
Fig. 13—1. Notation for displacement measures.
The strain expansioust corresponding to (13—3) are

6j u1, 1 + (02. (03, 1x2 +f
Ytz = us2, 1 — C03 — COj, 1(x3 — x3) + 2
(13—4)
= us3, 1 + (02 + cot. 1(x2 — + 3
Using (13—4), the left-hand side of (a) expands to

öe d(voL) Au1, + F2(Au,2, 1 — Aw3)
+ F3(Au33 + Aw2) + M2 Aw2, + M3 Ac)3,1
+ MT Aw5,1 + A1 + MR Af]dxi
where the two additional force parameters are defined by
= dA
(13—5)
MR = +
Note that Mç1, has units of (force) (length)2 and MR has units of moment. The
quantity Mci, is called the biinornent.
t This derivation is restricted to linear geometry. The nonlinear strain expansions are detived
in Sec. 13—9.
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To reduce the right-hand side of (a), we refer the transverse loading to the
shear center, The additional load terms are
m4, = 4picb dS = distributed bimornent
(136)
= $5pjcb dA = external bimoment at an end section (x1 = 0, L)
Then
SJJbT Au d(vol.) + SSPT Au d(surface area)
= Au1 + b2 1xu32 + b3 Au,3 ± mr + rn2 Aw2
+ m3 Aw3 + m# Af]dx1 + JF1 Au1 + F2 Au,2
+ F3Au,3 + MTLXWI + M2Aw2 + M3 Aw3 +
The definitions of mj, mj', F,,, are the same as for the engineering
theory.
Finally, we equate (b), (c) and require the relation to be satisfied for arbitrary
variations of the displacement parameters. This step involves first integrating
(b) by parts to eliminate the derivatives and then equating the coefficients of
the displacement parameters. The resulting equilibrium equations and bound-
ary conditions are as follows:
Equilibrium Equations
F1 + b1 0
F2, + b2 0
F3, 1 + b3 = 0
MTI+m-I-=O
M2, 1 — F3 + rn2 = 0
M3,1 + F2 + m3 = 0
M4, — MR + 0
Boundary Conditions at x1 0 (13—7)
u1 = u1 or F1 = —F1
Us2 or F2 =
US3 or F3 —F3
w1=w1 or Mr=—MT
or M2 =
w3=co3 or
f=J or
Boundary conditions at x1 = L
These are the same as for x1 = 0 with the minus sign replaced with a plus sign.
For example:
f=J or
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SEC. 13—3. DISPLACEMENT MODEL 375
We recognize the first six equations as the governing equations for the
engineering theory. The additional equation,
O<xj<L
f=f or
is due to warping restraint. Also, we see that one specifies either f or the
bimoment at the ends of the member. The condition f = 7' applies when the
end cross section is restrained with respect to warping. If the end cross section
is free to warp, the boundary condition is = ± M4, (+ for x1 = L).
To interpret the equation relating MR and the bimoment, we consider the
definition for MR,
MR = +
Integrating (e) by parts leads to
= SS4(ail,2 + a13, 3)dA
Utilizing the axial stress equilibrium equation,
a12, 2 + c713, 3 + a11, 1 0
we can write
MR = + JJç'au,j dA
We see that (h) corresponds to the axial equilibrium equations weighted with
respect to
$$(a12,2 + a13,3 + + 4(PI — — x,,3a13)çdS = 0
(i)
i + — MR = 0
In most cases, there is no surface loading on S. i.e., Pi = 0 on the cylindrical

boundary. We will discuss the determination of stresses in a later section. We
simply point out here that MR involves only the additional shear stresses due
to warping restraint since the St. Venant shearing correspond to
1 3—3. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS—DISPLACEMENT MODEL
To establish the relation between force parameters and the displacement

parameters, we consider (13-4) to define the actual (as well as virtual) strain
distribution and apply the stress-strain relations. We also consider the material
to be isotropic and suppose there is no initial strain. The stress expansions are
au 1 + i +
a12 = Gy12 = — 0)3 cot, 1(x3 X3) + f4, 2] (13—8)
a13 = Gy13 = G[u,3, 1 + + cot, 1(x2 — + f4, 3]
t M5 = = 0 for St. Venant (pure) torsion. We neglect and for unrestrained variab'e
torsion.
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where denotes the effective modulus. Although our displacement expansions

correspond to plane strain (&2 = = 0), the in-plane stresses vanish on the
boundary. Therefore, it seems more reasonable to use the extensional stress-
strain relations for plane stress. In what follows, we will take = Young's
modulus, F.
Consider the expression for The term involving is due to warping of
the cross section. This additional stress must satisfy (13—1), which, in turn,
requires 4 to satisfy the following orthogonality conditions :t
dA dA = dA = 0 (13—9)
Assuming (13—9) is satisfied, and noting that X2, X3 are principal centroidal
axes, the expressions for F1, M2, M3, and the reduce to:
EAu1,1
M2 E12w2,1
13—10
M3 E13a,3 1
j
where
cIA
We have included the subscript r on E to keep track of the normal stress due
to warping restraint. Inverting (13—10) and then substituting in the expression
for lead to
F1 M2 M3
'Yii + — + (13—Il)
13
The expressions for F2, F3, and MR expand to
F2 1 — (03 + i) + fS2
F3 = A(u33, i + + fS3
1 (13—12)
11c01,1
— + —
= + + +
where
Si =
polar moment of inertia = 12 + 13
— x3q5,2)dA
= + +
t F1 = M2 = = 0 for c11 due to warping restraint.
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SEC. 13—3. DISPLACEMENT MODEL 377
Also, the expressions for the shearing stresses canbe written as
a12
—
+G 1 + f 3
—
The essential step is the selection of which, to this point,must satisfy only
the ortliogonality conditions (13—9). To gain some insight as to a suitable form
for let us reexamine the St. Venant theory of unrestrained torsion. We
suppose the section twists about an arbitrary point instead .of about
the centroid as in Sec. 11—2. The displacement expansions are
u2 = —w1(x3 — U3 coj(x2
=
where i= M1/GJ = const. Operating on (a) leads to
=0
a12 = 2 (x3 — x3)]
7 3 +
The equation and boundary condition for follow from the axial equilibrium
equation and boundary condition,
mA
— — on S
We can express as
= C — + x'2x3 +
where C is also an arbitrary constant. The boundary condition and expressions
for tile stresses become
a12 = — x3)
M1 -
cr13 3 + x2)
Since depends only on the cross section, it follows that the stress distribution
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and torsional constant are independent of the center of twist. Also, one can
showt that
SJcbt,2dA = = 0
3 — 2)dA $S[(4)t. 2) + 3)2]dA
Suppose we take 4' = The constants (C, are evaluated by requiring

4' to satisfy (13—9), and we obtain
C=
= dA
Now, one can shows that the equations for are identical to the equations
for the coordinates of the shear center when the cross section is considered to
be rigid with respect to in-plane deformation. That is, the warping function
for unrestrained torsion about the shear center is orthogonal with respect to
1, x2, x3.
Summarizing, we have shown that
4) C — T3x2 + x2x3 + (13—14)
is a permissible warping function. The cross-sectional properties and force-

displacement relations corresponding to this choice for 4' are listed below:
Properties
S2 = =
14, 14,
'13—15
2) + 3)2]dA
Shear Stresses
F2
a12 = + G(—x3co1,1 +
(13—16)
= + G(x2w1,1 + f4)t,
t See Sec. 11—2 and Prob. 11—2.

See Prob. 13—1.
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SEC. 13—4. RESTRAINED TORSION—DISPLACEMENT MODEL 379
Force-Displacement Relations
MT = G11w1, i — + —
MR = w1, — + .T2F3
us2, j W3 — w1, (13—17)
F3
j + W2 + x2(f Wi,
We introduce the assumption of negligible restraint against warping by

setting Er 0. Then, M4, 0, and thc seventh equilibrium equation reduces
to MR = 0. Specializing (13—17) for this case, we obtain
f — to1, = (x3F2 —
—,
x21'3)
(13—18)
MT = GJW1,1
and
F2(1 F3( x2x3
\J1
(13—19)
F2( F3!'!
us3,1 = to2 +
G\ + -- +
14,
The shearing stress distributions due to F2, F3 do not satisfy the stress boundary
condition
+ 0 on S
However, one can show that they satisfy
+ =0
for arbitrary F2, F3. Equations (13—19) are similar in form to the results
obtained in Chapter 12, which were based on shear stress expansions satisfying
(a) identically on the boundary.
Finally, we point out that torsion and flexure are uncoupled only when
warping restraint is neglected (F. = 0). Equations (13—17) show that restrained
torsion results in translation of the shear center. We will return to this point in
the next section.
13—4. SOLUTION FOR RESTRAINED TORSION—DISPLACEMENT

MODEL
To obtain an indication of the effect of warping restraint, we apply the
theory developed in the previous section to a cantilever member having a
rectangular cross section. (See Fig. 13—2). The left end (x1 = 0) is fixed with
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x3
T2b
/ A
Sect. A-A
Fig. 13—2. Restrained torsion-cantilever with rectangular cross section.
respectto both rotation and warping while the right end (x1 = L) is free to
warp. The boundary conditions are
x1=O
x1=L M1=M (a)
For convenience, we list the governing equations for restrained torsion:
Equilibrium Equations (See (13—7))

M1,1+m1=O (b)
(c)
Force-Displacement Relations (See (13—10) and (13—12). Note that

F2 = F3 = 0)
=
M1 = G11w11 + (d)
= +
Boundary Conditions (for this example)

At xj= 0,
(e)
Atx1
= M
1,1=0
We start with (b). Integrating (b) and enforcing the boundary condition at
Xj = L leads to
M1 = M (13—20)
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SEC. 13—4. RESTRAINED TORSION—DISPLACEMENT MODEL 381
Next, we combine (c) and (d):

G11co11 + =M (f)
i + = t (g)
Solving (f) for w1,
(h)
G111,
and then substituting in (g) lead to
(i)
—
where 2 is defined as
G [i,, 13 - 21
Note that has units of(1/length)2. The solution of(i) and (h) which satisfies
the boundary conditions (e) is (we drop the subscript on x for convenience)
f= {l — cosh + tanh sinh
= x [sinh + (1 — cosh tL]} (13—22)

±
=
I,fr+ '1
The rate of decay of the exponential terms depends on For )L > 2.5,
we can take tanh )L 1, and the solution reduces to
As a point of interest, the St. Venant solution is

dw1 M
(J)
We see that is a measure of the length, Lh, of the interval in which warping
restraint is significant. We refer to Lb as the characteristic length or boundary
layer. By definition,
0 (13—24)
In what follows, we shall take
(13—25)
The results obtained show that is the key parameter. Now, depends on
the ratio G/ET and on terms derived from the assumed warping function. If
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we take 4) the warping functiowt for unrestrained torsion defined by

(13—14), the various coefficients are related by
J — (13—26)
— J
At this point, we restrict the discussion to a rectangular section (see Fig. 13—2)
and 4) = We evaluate the various integrals defined by (13—15) and write
the results as
J=
= K1a3b (13—27)
=
where the K's are dimensionless functions of b/a. With these definitions, the
expression for takes the form
/G'\112 1
2= ---
—
K2-
K
-
The coefficients are tabulated in Table 13—1. We see that is essentially
constant. Assuming E 2.6G and K1 3.2, we find 2/b and Lb 2b.
The influence of warping restraint is confined to a region of the order of the
depth. Although this result was derived for a rectangular cross section, we will
show later that it is typical of solid and also thin-walled closed cross sections.
Table 13—1
b
/<4
1 2.25 .0311 .156 3.36

2 3.66 .165 .450 3.16
3 4.21 .283 .683 3.23
10 4.99 .425 .964 3.32
We consider next the problem of locating the center of twist. We utilize the
solution corresponding to 4) and large
-
(13—29)
M1 ,,
—e
fC = = 0 for a rectangular section and reduces to

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SEC. 13—5. MIXEIJ FORMULATION 383
The translations of the shear center follow from (13—17):

= x3(f —
(13—30)
Us31 = —x2(f —
By definition, the translations are zero at the center of twist. Setting i12 =
0 in (13—3) and letting denote the coordinates of the center of twist
lead to
X2 = gx2
x )
We see that the center of twist approaches the shear center as x increases. The
maximum difference occurs at x = 0 and the minimum at x = L.
1
= =—
1—
2L!1
For unrestrained warping, E, = 0, = oc, and g = 1.
13—5. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS—MIXED FORMULATION

We first review briefly the basic variational principles for the three-dimen-
sional formulation. The principle of virtual displacements requires
5e d(vol.) = JJjbT Au d(vol.) + Au d(surface area)
to be satisfied for arbitrary Au and leads to the stress-equilibrium equations
and stress-boundary force relations. Note that ôg is a function of Au and is
obtained using the strain-displacement relations, The stress-strain relations
can be represented as
since, by definition of the complementary energy density,

av*
= =
By combining (a) and (b), we obtain a variational principle which leads to both
sets of equations. The stationary requirement,
— liT11 — V*)d(vol.) — d(surface area)] = 0 (13—33)
considering i, u as independent quantities, g E(u), and b prescribed, is

called Reissner's principle.t
See Ref. 11 and Prob. 10—28. Reissner's principle applies for arbitrary geometry and elastic
material. This discussion is restricted to linear geometry. The nonlinear case is treated in Sec. 13—9.
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384 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRTSMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
The essential point to recognize is that Reissner's principle allows one to

work with and u as independent quantities. In a displacement formulation
(Sec. 13—3), we take as a function of u, using the stress-displacement relations
= = and — V* reduces to V, the strain-energy density. In a
mixed formulation we start by introducing expansions for the displacements.

The Euler equations for the displacement parameters are obtained by ex-
panding (a). This step leads to the definition of force parameters and force-
equilibrium equations. We then generate expansions for the stresses in terms
of the force-parameters from an equilibrium consideration. The relations
between the force and displacement parameters are obtained from the second
stationary requirement:
Tx1
[f$(CT — öV*)dA]dxj = 0 (13—34)
The first step was carried out in Sec. 13—2 and the expanded form of 5$ dA
is given by (b) of Sec. 13—2. Letting represent the complementary energy
per unit length along X1, and using (13—4), the stationary requirement on the
stresses (Equation 13—34) expands to
+ 1 — W3) + öF3(u,3, i + co2) + i
13—35)
+ + + + — =o
In order to proceed further, we must express in terms of the force parameters
(F1, F2, ..., MR). Equating the coefficients of each force variation to zero
results in the force-displacement relations.
Instead of applying (13—34), one can also obtain (13—35) by applying the
principle of virtual forces to a differential element. We followed this approach
in Chapter 12 and, since it is of interest, we outline the additional steps required
for restrained torsion. One starts with (see Fig. 13—3)
5V* dx1 = op + [$$uT ISp (a)
The boundary forces are the stress components acting on the end faces. Taking
u according to (13—3) and considering only MR. we have
$5
oiiTudA = ±SJISrsTudA
= ±(ISMTWI + ISM4f)
where the plus sign applies for a positive face. The virtual-force system must
be statically permissible, i.e., it must satisfy the one-dimensional equilibrium
equations. This requires
const
=
Then,
= dxi{f,i + w1,1
(d)
= dx1{f 0M4 + .[ISMR + 1 ISMT}
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SEC. 13—5. MIXED FORMULATION 385
The first procedure (based on (13—34)) is more convenient since it avoids

introducing the equilibrium equations. However, one has to have the strain-
displacement relations. In certain cases, e.g., a curved member, it is relatively
—aM,5 6Mg, +
WI o,1+w11dx1
f f + f,1 dxj
Fig. 13—3. Virtual force system.
easy to establish the force-equilibrium equations by applying the equilibrium

conditions to a differential element. We obtain the force-displacement relations
by applying the second procedure (principle of virtual forces) without having
to introduce strain expansions.t
In what follows, we consider the material to be homogeneous, linearly elastic
and isotropic. To simplify the treatment, we also suppose there is no initial
strain. The complementary energy density is
= dA + + (13-36)
if if
It remains to introduce expansions for the stress components in terms of the
force parameters such that the definition equations for the force parameters
are identically satisfied.
Considering first the normal stress, we can
F1 M2 M3
(a)
where satisfies the orthogonality conditions: §
dA = JJx2çb c/A = c/A = 0 (b)
Note that we have imposed a restriction on q5. The complementary energy

due to c11 expands to
—, 1 I
t The approach based on the principle of virtual forces is not applicable for the geometrically
nonlinear case.
See 1). Problem treats the case of a nonhomogeneous material.
§ F1 = = M3 = 0 for due to warping restraint.
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Finally, substituting for in (13—35), we obtain

F1
W3, I
L.13
f, —
These expansions coincide with the corresponding relations obtained with the
displacement model (see (13—10)).
The shearing stress distribution must satisfy thc definition equations for
F2, F3, MT and MR identically. We can obtain suitable expansions by adding
a term due to warping restraint to the results for unrestrained torsion and
fiexure. We write
('If = + + (13—37)
where is the flcxural distribution due to F2, F3; is the unrestrained

torsion distribution; and is the distribution due to restrained torsion.
Since we are assuming no in-plane deformation, the fiexural distribution for
a thin-walled section can he obtained by applying the engineering theory
developed in Sec. 11—7. For a solid section, we utilize the results of Sec. 11—5,
taking v = 0.
The shear stress distribution for unrestrained torsion is treated in Sees. 11—2
through 11—4. Since the restrained-torsion distribution is statically equivalent
to a torsional moment, we have to distinguish between the unrestrained and
restrained torsional moments:
MT = +
= (13—38)
=
It remains to determine We follow the same approach as in the engi-
neering theory of flexural shear stress, i.e., we utilize the axial equilibrium
equations and stress boundary condition:
('12,2 + mA
+ 0 on S
Differentiating the expression for au and noting the equilibrium equations,
we obtain
F2 F3 MR
('11,1 = + +
13 12
Since satisfies (a) for arbitrary F2, F3 and a" corresponds to = 0, it

follows that r is due to MR:
r MR
y
('12.2 + ('13.3 = (mA)
4 —-
+ 0 (on 5)
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SEC. 13—5. MIXED FORMULAflON 387
The orthogonality conditions on and boundary condition on a' ensure thatt

= dA = 0 dA = 0 (13 —40)
We solve (13—39) and then evaluate from

= J$[—(x3 — x3)a12 + (X2 -.- (c)
Noting (13—40), we see that Finally, we write (c1 as

= (13—41)
where is a cross-sectional property which depends on With this definition,

MT = + (13—42)
When the cross section is thin-walled, we neglect and (a) reduces to
= d
= 0 at a free edge
We take and to be constant over the thickness t and work with the shear
flow qr Equation (d) becomes
= 1çô1
(13—43)
qV
= 0 at a free edge
The orthogonality conditions on and boundary condition on ensure that
= (IS — 0
(13—44)
= 0
Finally, we determine by evaluating and equating to (13—41).

We consider next the complementary energy density. We write the expanded
form of the shear contribution as
V*,hear + + + + +
JJ (134)
We have evaluated and in Sec. 11—5. For convenience, these

results are summarized below (See Equation 11—98)
I
I.
/z'2
112 13
Vf = + +
23 3
(a)
LI
2GJ
11* —
V uf
f See Prob. 13—2.
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The coupling term, 1/A23, vanishes when the section has an axis of symmetry.
Also = 0 is a consequence of our assuming the cross section is rigid with
respect to in-plane deformation.
We evaluate using (13—39) ((13—43) for the thin-walled case), and write
the results as
= + (13—46)
if
where Cr is a dimensionless factor which depends on q5.
The coupling between unrestrained and restrained torsion is expressed as
= + (13-47)
if
It is obvious that = 0 for a thin-walled open section since is an odd
function of n whereas a' is constant over the, thickness. We will show later
that it is possible to make vanish for a closed section by specializing the
homogeneous solution of (13—43). Therefore, in what follows, we will take
Cur 0
Finally, we write the coupling bctwcen flex ural and restrained torsion as
= +
(13—48)
1
= + X2rF3Mg)
where Xjr have units of length. if X2 is an axis of symmetry, = 0 since

is symmetrical and a' is antisymmetrical with respect to the X2 axis.
We substitute for in (13—35). replace Mr with + Ccj,MR, and equate
the coefficients of oF2, OF3, and <5MR. The resulting force-displacement
relations are
I "F2 F3 x3,
U521 — 0)3 + —-- + —
Us3,1 + 0)2 +
= GA23 A3 J
(13—49)
Wi.j
=
C, 1
I+I = MR + (x3,F2 + x2,F3)
The corresponding relations for the displacement model are given by (13—12).
Up to this point, we have required to satisfy the orthogonality relations
and also determined a' such that there is no energy coupling between au and
(C,1, = 0). If, in addition, we take
5) — If" — X3X2
— —
-t-- X2X3 -r
ISC
—
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SEC. 13—6. RESTRAINED TORSION—MIXED FORMULATION 389
Cçt, = +1
(13—50
MrT=+MR
Note that is the warping function for unrestrained torsion about the shear
center. We discuss the determination of 4> in Secs. 13—7 and 13—8.
One neglects shear deformations due to flexure by setting
(13-51)
Similarly, we neglect shear deformation due to restrained torsion by setting

Cr = X2r = X3r 0 (13—52)
This assumption leads to the center of twist coinciding with the shear center and
1 = (13—53)
One now has to determine from the equilibrium relation,

+ in4,
If is known, it is more convenient to work with
tsr —
—
AS AK:'
—
In what follows, we outline the solution procedure for restrained torsion and
list results for various loadings. We then discuss the application to open and
closed cross section.
13—6. SOLUTION FOR RESTRAINED TORSION—MIXED FORMULATION

We suppose only torsional loading is applied. The force-displacement rela-
tions are obtained by setting F2, F3, co2, w3 equal to zero and C,1, +1 in
(13—49). For convenience, we summarize the governing equations below.
MT. 1 + 112T = 0
MT— AK
—
Force-Displacement Relations (4>
E,.l4,j 1
= GJw1,1
GJ
+f)
f See Prob. 13—3. We include the minus sign so that C1 will be positive.
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Boundary Conditions
MT or
prescribed at each end
or
Translations of the Shear renter
u52, 1 =
=
We start by integrating (a):
MT C1 — dx1 = C1 + (13—54)
Substituting (c) in (b) and (13—54) leads to the governing equations for w1 and f:
(1 + Cr)O)i,t +
GJ(w1,1 + f) = 0
After some manipulation, (f) becomes
Eric,, C1x1 I C
f —
=
(C1 +
where ,12 is defined ast
cc =
1 + Cr
(1355)
22 C
ErI#
Equation (g) corresponds to (h), (i) of Sec. 13—4.
The general solution for f and has the following form:
f C3 cosh 2x + C4 sinh 2x — +
Wi = + C2 + (13—56)
— sinh 2x + C4 cosh 2x) —
is the particular solution due to We have dropped the subscript

on x1 for convenience.
t The corresponding paramater for the formulation is 2 (see (13—21)).
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The significance of A has been discussed in Sec. 13—4. We should expect,

on the basis of the results obtained there, that AL will be large with respect
to unity for a closed section. We will return to the evaluation of A in the next
section. In the examples below, we list for future reference the solution for
various loading and boundary conditions.
Example 13—1
Cantilever—Concentrated Moment
Fig. E13—1
X1
The boundary conditions (Fig. E13—l) are
x=O cv1=f=O
x=L
f. = 0
Starting with (13—54), we set = 0 and C1 = M. The remaining constants are deter-
mined from
w1—f——0 atx=0
atx=L
and the final solution ist
M[ coshA(L—x)
GJ cosh AL
WI [x — {sinh AL — sinh A(L — x)}
r —c 1 (13—57)
M sinh ).(L — x)
LA cosh ,,L.
[
cosh
M —
t The corresponding solution based on the displacement model is given by (13—22), (13—26).
The expressions for! differ by a minus sign. This is due to our choice of We took
in the displacement model and = in the mixed model.
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_______
Note that C, 1 when the complementary energy term due to the restrained torsion
shear stress (o') is neglected.
The translations of the shear center are obtained by integrating
u,2,, = =
and requiring u,2, 0s3 to vanish at x = 0. We write the result as
U,2 = X3.U = X2,.U
I M (13-58)
M1dx=x—co1
u=j
Let denote the coordinates and translations of the center of twist. By definition,
= u,2 — —x3) = 0
=u,3 + —X2)=0
Substituting for and w1, we obtain t
X2 — — — gx3,
g —1 + (13—59)
c
x — ——f—-— [sinh ).L — sinh — x1]
A. cosh ,.L
The limiting of g occur at x = 0, L.
(13—60)
1
1
+
Note that Xi,. = 0 if X,, (j k) is an axis of symmetry for the cross section. Also, x2. =
x3,.= 0 if we neglect shear deformation due to the restrained shear stress and, in this
case, the center of twist coincides with the shear center throughout the length.
Example 13—2
We consider next the case where warping is restrained at both ends; the left end (x = 0)
is fixed and the right end rotates a specified amount w under the action of a torsional
moment. The boundary conditions are
x=0 co1=f=0
x=L ce1=w [=0
f See (13—31), (13—32) for the displacement model solution.
There is no twist or translation at x = 0. We determine g(O) by applying L'I-IOspital's rule
to (13—59).
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To simplify the analysis, we suppose there is no distributed load. Starting with the
general solution,
MT = C1
f = C3 cosh Ax + C4 sinh —
= + C2 — {C3 sinh Ax + C4 cosh Ax}
and enforcing the boundary conditions leads to the following relations:
C3=— 11—c
GJ
= cosh AL s = sinh AL
= 4
C1L C, [2(1 — c)11

= (0
+
C1( /1—c'\ 1
Ax sinh Ax —
+ (1361)
(01 = + (1. — cosh Ax) — sinh Ax]}
= ci {i — [cosh Ax + sirih Ax]}
= —
Mç1, = ErI#A {sinh Ax + (L__f) cosh Ax}
We write the relation between the end rotation, (0, and the end moment M, as
M
L,5
=
where L,ff denotes the effective length:
=L
r 2C (c— 1'\1
(13-62)
= L(1 — cC3)
The following table shows the variation of with AL. For AL > 4, C2 2/AL. Note
that = 1 if transverse shear deformation due to restrained torsion is neglected.
AL C3
0.5 0.98
1 .924
2 .76
3 .60
4 .48
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Example 13—3
Uniform Distributed Moment-Symmetrical Supports

The general solution for m for convenience) is:
MT = C1 — ?flX
C3 C4. C1 flIX
f= —coshAx + +
—
C1 m /x2 c (a)
x + C2 + (C3 sirth Ax + C4 cosh Ax)
= — —
We consider the boundary conditions to be identical at both ends and measure x from the
midpoint (Fig. E13—3). Symmetry requires
MT=O}
atx=O (b)
and (a) reduces to

MT =
[= sinh Ax + x (13-63)
= C2 — + — cosh xx
We treat first the case where the end section is fixed with respect to both rotation and
warping. Requiring (13—63) to satisfy
f= =0 at x = L/2 (a)
results in
I= {x — sinh Ax}
mL2 fi[ /x"t21

CO1
U— (cosh ,,x — c)
j+
MT = —mx
( x C ) (13—64)
= ,nL1— +
AL
1
AL . AL
c= s=
The solution represents an upper bound. A lower bound is obtained by allowing the
section to wrap, i.e., by taking
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SEC. 13—7. APPLICATION TO THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS 395
Fig. E13—3
—x1
and the result is
f= {x — sinh
xc
mL2 (1 [ C,
— j+ — c)
= —mx
( C (13—65)
—x+fsinhAx
=
IC, I —
cosh Ax
AL
c= cosh
13—7. APPLICATION TO THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS

In what follows, we apply the mixed formulation theory to a wide flange
section and also to a channel section. We first determine the cross-sectional
properties corresponding to = — and then obtain general expressions for
the stresses in terms of dimensionless geometric parameters. Before discussing
the individual sections, we briefly outline the procedure for an arbitrary section.
Consider the arbitrary segment shown in Fig. 13—4. We select a positive
sense for S and an arbitrary origin (point P). The unrestrained torsion warping
function is obtained by applying (11—29) to the centerline curve and requiring
the section to rotate about the shear center.t
is positive when translation in the + S direction rotates the position

vector about the + X1 direction. The unrestrained torsional shear flow is zero
By definition, Ic1 = We work with q" rather than to facilitate treatment of closed
and mixed sections where one generates q" in terms of
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396 RESTRAfNED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
—
for an open section. Then, taking = and integrating leads to
pscclS (13—67)
sP
Note that one can select the sense of S arbitrarily. Also, varies linearly with
S when the segment is straight. The constant is evaluated by enforcing the
orthogonality condition —* F1 = 0),
dS =0
If the section has an axis of symmetry, = 0, if we take P on the symmetry
axis. The remaining orthogonality conditions (a'j1 ?v.t2 = M3 0),
$4x2tdS = 0
are identically satisfied by definition of the shear center. t
x3
Shear center
IPsc
x2
Fig. 13—4. Notation for determination of the warping function.
When the section has branches, we apply (13—67) to each branch. One has
only to require continuity of 4) at the junction point. As an illustration, consider
the section shown in Fig. 13—5. The distribution of 4) for the three branches is
given by
A— B 4) 4)p+$gpscdS
B—C
B—D b4)B+JopscdS
We are taking the origin at B for branches B — C and B — D.
tSeeProb. 13—1.
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The shear flow due to is obtained by integrating (13—43) and noting

(13—50). Forconvenience, we let
qr = (13—68)
145
With this notation, the resulting expression simplifies to

S
+ J q5tdS = + (13—69)
We start at a free edge and work inward. A +q points in the +S direction

(see Fig. 13—5). Then, a + corresponds to _qr, i.e. qr acting in the —S
direction, If the section has an axis of symmetry, is an odd function with
respect to the axis and is an even function.
x3
S.q
S,q
Fig. 13—5. Example of a section with branches.
Once and are known, we can evaluate 1w,, and with (13—10), (13—46):
= JJqYdA = 542tdS
Cr = +
if
In order to evaluate XZr, X3r, we need the fiexural shear stress distributions.
We let q(J) be the distribution due to and write
qU) (13—71)
j=2 '(=3
j=3 k= 2
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The coupling terms are defined by (13—-48), which reduces to
I q q X3r + X21.
j —
for a thin-walled section with 4) = — Substituting for qr and qf results in

J I 3dS
(13-72)
Y —
X3r = t
If X2 is an axis of symmetry, is an even function of x3, qt2t is an odd function,

and X3r = 0. By analogy, x2, = 0 if X3 is an axis of symmetry.
The definition equations for Cr, Ia,, x2r, and apply for an arbitrary thin-
walled section. When the section is closed, we have only to modify the equa-
tions for 4) and We will discuss this further in the next section.
Example 13—4
Symmetrical I Section
The I section shown (Fig. El 3—4A) has two axes of symmetry; it follows that the shear
center coincides with the centroid and the warping function is odd with respect to K2, X3.
Fig. E13—4A
x3
1,
Applying (13—67), we obtain
q5=O forweb
q5 = S for flange
Note that the sense of S is reversed for the bottom flange.

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The shear flow vanishes at S = ± b/2. Applying (13—69) and starting from pt. A, we find
(25)2]
=
= S-b/2
The distributions of and q' are shown in Fig. E13—4B, where the arrows indicate the
sense of q' for + Ms-.
Fig. E13—48
b2ht
Plot Plot of qr
We express the cross-sectional properties in terms of Ii, t, and a shape factor
= b/h
ht3
3 = +
= th5
(t)2
=
8(1 +
=
The dimensionless parameters occurring in the solution of the differential equations
for the mixed formulations are and AL (see (13—55)). Using (c) and assuming a value
of 1/3 for Poisson's ratio, we write
[3(1 +
=
AL =
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400 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PR!SMATtC MEMBER CHAP. 13
The coefficients are tabulated below:
2.4 3
0.75 2.66 4.22
0.50 3.2 6.93
Since (t/h)2 << 1 and 0(1), we see that 1. The warping parameter, ),L, depends
on t//i as well as L/h. This is the essential difference between open and closed cross sections.
For the solid section, we found that AL = 0(L/h) and, since L/h is generally large in com-
parison to unity, the influence of restrained warping is Iocalized.f The value of AL for an
open section is O(L//,) 00/1,) and the effect of warping restraint is no longer confined to a
region on the order of the depth at the end but extends further into the interior.
We consider next the determination of the stresses due to restrained warping. The
general expressions are
M4,
r q
dTts
= 7
Using the distribution for çb and qr shown above, the maximum values of normal and shear
stress are
6
=
The shearing stress due to unrestrained torsion is obtained from
To gain some insight as to the relative magnitude of the various strcsses, we consider
a member fully restrained at one end and subjected to a torsional moment M at the other
end. This problem is solved in Example 13—1. The maximum values of the moments are
tanh
AL atx = 0
= C5M J
We substitute for the moments in (f), (g) and write the results in terms the maximum
t We defined the boundary layer length, (sec (13—24). (13—25)) as
Lh 4
0
L ;.L
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SEC. 13—7. APPLICATION TO THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS
shear stress for unrestrained torsion:

,,, = tanh
(f))
Mt
The variation of these coefficients with b/h is shown below:
b
1?
1 2 1.5
0.75 2.11 1.67
0.50 2.31 2
Since and are of 0(1), it follows that
= 0(d)
The additional shearing stress (at) is small in comparison to the unrestrained valu
Therefore, it is reasonable to neglect the terms in the complementary energy density due
to ic., to take C, 0 and = 1 for an open section. We will show in the next section
that this assumption is not valid for a closed section.
Example 13—5
Channel Section
We consider next the channel section shown in Fig. El3—SA. Since X2 is an axis of
symmetry, = x3, = 0. The expressions for the location of the centroid, shear center,
Fig. E13—5A
S
Shear
center
x2
H°
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and 12 are
= b
I+
e=b =be
I+
th3
b
h
The dimensionless coefficient? is essentially constant, as the following table shows:
b
?
h
1.00 0.429
0.75 0.409
0.50 0.375
We determine by applying (13—67) to the three segments. Taking S as indicated above,

and noting that is odd with respect to X2, we obtain:
Segment 1—2
6
Psc =
hh(
= - -S
Segment 2—3
bh( 2S\
The distribution is plotted in Fig. E13—5B. Since? < 1/2, the maximum value of q5 occurs
at point I (and 4).
We generate next the distribution of starting at point 1 (since q = 0 at that point)
and using (b):
Segment 1—2
S
bin 152
Segment 2—3
/ '\
+ +
s2
=
The distribution of is plotted in Fig. El3--5C.

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Fig. E13—5B
—(1— e)
—e
Distribution of
Fig. E13—SC
D2®
D1
)+Mi
I
D2
D2 0
0
Distribution of qr/1242t
The expressions lbr J, and AL are written in the same form as for the previous
example:
(1 ±
I= =
-
I —h5
+
c
(t'\2 ± + + + (t\2
= f=
Cs =
AL = (t) =
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The following table shows the variation and with b/h for G/E. = 3/8. i.e., Poisson's
ratio equal to 1/3. Note that the comments made for the wide-flange section also apply
to the channel section.
b
c =—
h
1 2.33 2.55
0.75 2.65 3.39
0.50 3.4 5.24
In order to evaluate X2r, we need the flexural shear stress distribution due to F3. Applying
(11—106) leads to
Segment 1—2
4(3)
Segment 2—3
4(3) = — — S)
The distribution is plotted in Fig. E13—SD; the arrows indicate the sense of q for a +F3.
Fig. E13—5D
+
I
I t÷F3
—1
Distribution of lb/it
/2
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Substituting for and the cross-sectional constants in (13—72) leads to
(t\2
=
=
(1 + + +
The coefficient is of order unity, as the following table shows:
1 0.926
0.5 1.03
In Example 13—1, we determined expressions for the coordinates of the center of twist
in terms of .'c,, and It is of interest to evaluate these expressions for this cross section.
The coordinates at x 0(sec (13—59), (13—60)) are
= 0
= X2
——i-
—1 +
Substituting for and evaluating
we obtain
X2 = —
1 0.476 0.836
0.5 0.625 0.485
13—8. APPLICATION TO THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS

We treat first a single closed cell and then generalize the procedure for multi-
cell sections. Consider the section shown in Fig. 13—6. The +S direction is
from X2 toward X3 (corresponding to a rotation about the +X1 direction).
Using the results developed in Sec. 11—4, the shear flow for unrestrained tor-
sion is
2A
q =-1-C
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where A is the area enclosed by the centerline curve. The shearing stress varies
linearly over the thickness,
C'\
= + +
—) =
but the open-section term has a zero resultant.
x3
q
x2
Fig. 13—6. Notation for single closed cell.
—
Substituting for qU in (13—66), taking 4 and integrating from point
P lead to
CS
= + dS — C (13—73)
We determine by enforcing
= 0
The two additional orthogonality conditions

4x2gbtdS = 0
are identically satisfied by definition of the shear center. t

The shear flow due to is defined by (13—69),
q=—-7--q
14
+ Q4
t Noting that x2t = dQs/ds, we can write
#x24.t =
We merely have to identify this term as the moment of the flexural shear stress about the shear
center. See Prob. 11-12.
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where is indeterminate. Our formulation is based on no energy coupling

between qU and i.e., we require (see (13 --47))
= (13—74)
Noting that is constant for a single cell, and using (e), we obtain
f dS
= (13—75)
——
The flexural shear flow distributions for F2, F3 are generated with (11—110).
We merely point out here that there is no energy coupling between qU and
quqf 0 (f)
One can interpret (13—74) and (f) as requiring qr to lead to no twist deforma-
tion, i.e., w1 0. We have expressed the fiexural shear flows as (see (13—71)):
ft — (J) — FJ_0) = 2 k
qjij=q j=3 k=2
Finally, the definition equations for the cross-sectional properties have the
same form as for the open-section:
Eq. 13—70 Cr
Eq. 13—72
X2 is an axis of symmetry. Then, is an odd function of x3. If we
take the origin for S (point p) on the X2 axis, = 0. Also, is an even func-
tion of x3 and = 0. In what follows, we illustrate the application of the
procedure to a rectangular cross section.
Example 13—6
Rectangular Section—C'onsta,,t Thickness

Applying (13—73) and taking q5 = 0 at point shown in (Fig. E13—6A) leads to
ci + b
fa — b\
The distribution is plotted in Fig. E13—6B. Note that = 0 when a = b, i.e., a square
section of constant thickness does not warp.
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Fig. E13-.6A
T - x2
Centroid
2a—
Fig. E13—6B
(a—b
+ b
Distribution of
We determine Q4, by integrating (a),

— b'\ S2
= at for segment 1—2
(
+ bJ —
2
/
(a — b\
= (Q4 + for segment 2—3
a+b1\
and evaluate with (13—75):
dS
a—b
-
.11
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The distribution of follows from (b), (c),

2
j( 2a\)
2a(S 1(S\2\ j/ 2a
2 \a+b
and is plotted in Fig. E13—6C. Note that corresponds to q' acting in the clockwise
(— S) direction for + Ms-. Also, D is negative for b > a.
Fig. E13—6C
x3
T
2a
b
q'/D
qr(+ D- 2
We introduce a shape factor (,

depth b
width a
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and express the various coefficients in terms of a, t, and The resulting relations are
J= 16a3t (neglecting the contribution oft)

4a5t [2(1 —
=
LATh
4 + + +
5(1
9(1
I (G'\ / \) 1/2 L L
=
x2, = x3,. 0
The variation of C,, and with b/a is shown in the table below;
= --
b
C,
.'
L;f for
G 3
a \ E 8
cc 0 0.98
2 10.43 0.0877 1.27
3 4.41 0.185 1.39
We found
(g)
=0
T)
for an open section. Our results for the single cell indicate that
IL
=0
C,>> 1
C, 1
for a closed section. We obtained a similar result for using the displacement-model
formulation for a solid section. Since is due to the restrained shearing stress (q'), we
see that shear deformation due to q' cannot be neglected for a closed cross section.
We discuss next the determination of the normal and shearing stresses due to warping.
The general expressions are
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°isq q'
t tie
The maximum normal stress occurs at point 2 while the maximum shear stress can occur
at either points I or 3.
We consider the same problem as was treated in Example 13—4, i.e., a member fully
restrained at one end and subjected to a torsional moment M at the other end. We ex-
press the stresses in terms of ag,, the maximum shear stress for unrestrained torsion,
M( C
+
= J
which reduces to
MC M
= 7 =
since we are considering the section to be thin-walled. The maximum stresses are
2 = i tanh 2.L
0$ ,nax,I =
[3C,1112
— S.C
The variation of and 2 with height/width is shown below. We are taking Poisson's
ratio equal to 1/3.
= h/a c, (point 2) (point 1) (point 3)
1 0 0 0
2 1.04 —0.35 +0.44
3 —1.51 —0.46 +0.65
For large tanh I and we see that both the normal and shear stress are of the
order of the unrestrained-torsion stress. In the open section case, we found the restrained-
torsion shear stress to be of the order of (thickness/depth) times the unrestrained shear
stress.
To illustrate the procedure for a multicell section. we consider the section

shown in Fig. 13—7. The unrestrained-torsion analysis for this section is treated
in Sec. 11—4 (see Fig. 11—11). For convenience, we summarize the essential
results here.
We nttmber the cells consecutively and take the +S sense from X2 to X3
for the closed segments and inward for the open segments. The total shear
flow is obtained by superimposing the individual ccli flows
q' = 0 for an exterior (open) segment
qU = constant for an interior segment
We let
(U
— WIT
—
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"2
+
q,S
q1 ,S1
Fig. 13—7. Notation for mixed cross section.
The constants C1, C2 are determined by requiring each cell to have the same
twist deformation, w1, Enforcing (11—67),t
= =
for each cell leads to

2A
where a, A are defined as
f dS
—
,Jsj t
dS
= a21
=
A = {A1, A2}
The warping function is generated by applying (13—6):
4' =
(13—76)
a
= Psc —
7
We start at point P1 in cell 1 and integrate around the centerline, enforcing
continuity of 4, at the junction points b, c, and d. For example, at b, we require
t See also (11—32).

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which leads to a relation between and 4),,,:

Jb
dS = + dS
= 4)e +
j Psc
—
Repeating for points C and d results in the distribution of 4) expressed in

terms of One can easily verify that 4) is continuous, i.e., & determined
from segment ca is equal to determined from segment cdcL. Finally, we
evaluate by enforcing
JJ4)dA=J4)tdS=O
where the integral extends over the total centerline. Note that 0 if P1
is taken on an axis of symmetry.
The shear flow for restrained torsion is obtained with (13—69):
a
=
as
The steps are the same as for the flexural shear determination discussed in
Sec. 11—7. We take the shear flow at points P1. P2 as the redundants,
= J = 1, 2 (13—77)
and express the shear flow as

+ ii. (13—78)
where Zj0 is the open section distribution and is due to The dis-
tribution, has the same form as We just have to replace C with
C'S. We generate by integrating (i) around the centerline, and enforcing
equilibrium at the junction points. For example, at point b (see Fig. 13—7),
= +
Note that = 0 at points P1, P2. e andf
The redundant shear flows are evaluated by requiring no energy coupling
between qU and qr which is equivalent to requiring qr to lead to no twist de-
formation, j. Noting (c), we can write
= 0 j = 1,2 (13—79)
Finally, substituting for we obtain

aCr = B
(13—80)
1' — dS
f See footnote on page 385.
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Once 4) and zir are known, the cross-sectional properties (1 , Ci., X2r, xar)
can be evaluated. Also we can readily generalize the above approach for an
n-cell section.
1 3—9. GOVERNING EQUATIONS—GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR

RESTRAINED TORSION
In this section, we establish the governing equations for geometrically non-
linear restrained torsion by applying Reissner's principle. This approach is a
mixed formulation, i.e., one introduces expansions for both stresses and dis-
placements. The linear case was treated in Sec. 13—5. To extend the formulation
into the geometrically nonlinear realm is straightforward. One has only to
introduce the appropriate nonlinear strain-displacement relations.
Our starting point is the stationary requirement t
— V*)d(vol.) — d(surface area)] 0
where a, are independent variables, C e(u), and b are= V*(o.),
prescribed.
We take the displacement expansions according to (13—3) and use the strain-
displacement relations for small strain and small finite rotations4
U1 = U1 + C02X3 W3X2 + /4)
112 — cn1(x3 x3)
U3 = + w1(x2 —
(13—81
= + +
Yiz = + U2,1 + U3,3U3,2
Y13 l.1j3 + U31 + 1)2
The in-plane strain measures (62, 63, Y23) are of 0(w2), which is negligible
according to the assumption of sinai! finite rotations. Actually we assume
O'22 = 1723 0, i.e., plane Stress. Substituting for the displacements and
noting the definition equations for the force parameters, the first term in (a)
expands to
d(vol.) = 1 1 1)]
+ F2[u,2. i W3 + —
+ F3[u53 S + — t+
+ M2{w2, 1 — co1, 1(u52 i + x3w1,
+ M3[w3, i — w1, i — T2w1. 1)]
+ M0f1 + MRf
1
+ i+ MQW1W1, 1}dxj
f See Eqs. 13—33 and corresponding footnote. We are working with Kirchhoff Stress and
Lagrangian strain here.
See Sec. 10—3. Eq. 10—28. Tile displacement expansions assume small-finite rotation, i.e.,
sin w and cos w 1. To be consistent, we must use (10—28).
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SEC. 13—9. GOVERNING EQUATIONS 415
where the two additional force parameters are

= ÷
MQ = $J(x2c12 + x3a13)dA
The terms involving the external forces have the same form as for the linear
case, but we list them again here for convenience (see (13—6)):
JJcbTu d(vol.) + jJpTu d(surface area)
(13—83)
+ + + mrwi + in2w2 + m3oj3 + rn4f)dxi
+ F1u1 + + F3u33 + MTO1 + M2(02 + M3co3 +
where the end forces (the barred quantities) are defined as previously, for
example,
= (5Jp1 etc.
It remains to introduce expansions for the stresses in terms of the independent
force parameters and to expand V*. In the linear case, there are 8 force
measures. F1 M3, and M4, MR. Two additional force measures (Me, MQ)
are present for the nonlinear case but they can be related to the previous force
measures. We proceed as follows. We use the stress expansions employed for
the linear case with = They are summarized below for convenience
(see Sec. 13--5):
F1 M2 M3
a11 ± —1—-x3 — -T—X2 +
A 13
± + &ij
=
—
+
MT +
Il _.-
where 4,, f, q, h2 and h3 are functions of x2, x3. Introducing (a) in the definition
equations for and MQ leads to
= f11F1 + fl2M2 + fl3M3 +

= + =
if
+
$2 =
if (13-84)
$3 = +
if
/34,
4,
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andt
MQ — + + +
$J(x2h2k +xlh3k)dA (k = 2, 3)
(13—85)
=
= +
Certain coefficients vanish if the cross section has an axis of symmetry4 One
can readily verify that
fi1F1
(13—86)
MQ 0
when the section is doubly symmetric. For generality, we will retain all the
terms here.
The complementary energy density function has the same form as for the
linear case:
— 1 1
= —----' + + —-—— + ——'
2Ek.,A '2 13)
+ + ((Mw +
+ +
+ + X2rF3)
We have shown that it is quite reasonable to neglect transverse shear deforma-

tion due to warping (C. X2r X3r = 0) for a thin-walled open section.
Substituting Equations (13—82)—(13—87) in Reissner's functional and re-
quiring it to be stationary with respect to the seven displacement and eight
force measures leads to the following governing equations:
F1,1 + b1 = 0
j+ + — w1F3 — w1 1M2} + b2 0
— + F3 + w1F2 — wi,1M3} + b3 = 0
(1 + + (1 + 1
1 +
1 — 1 + 2J32w1,
+ + + = 0
M2, 1 — F3+ m2 = 0
M3,1 + F2 + m3 = 0
— +
t See Prob. 13—il.
See Prob. 13—12.
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where
Relations
= 1+ 1+ 1 + Wj, i — x2uS3, + i)
1FF2 X3r 1 —
+ + = — w3 + wi[u53, 1 — Wj, 1/33]
1FF2 F3 1
MrTJ =
+ + (02 + 1+
= +
G
(13—88)
M
= (02,1 + (0l,j(—US2,j + /32(01,1)
= + + /33(01,1)
= 1. + j
[CrM?+ X3rF2 + = I' + +
Boundarp Conditions (+ for x1 = L, — for x1 = 0)

u1 prescribed or F1 =
prescribed or + T3w1,1) + F2 — wjF3 (01,1M2 = ±F2
prescribed or — x2w1, + F3 + w1F2 — 1M3 ±F3
wi prescribed or 1 1 + 7J1w1,
+ (0j(172F2 + + (1 + + (I +
+ M2(—u52,j + + 1+ + = ±MT
(02 prescribed or M2 = ±M2
(03 prescribed or M3 = ± M3
f prescribed or = ±
These equations simplify considerably when the cross section is symmetric
and transverse shear deformation is neglected.1' We discuss the general solution
of (13—88) in Chapter 18. The following example treats one of the
cases, a member subjected to an axial force and torsional moment.

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Example 13—7
We consider a prismatic member (see Fig. E13—7A) having a doubly symmetric cross
section, fully restrained at one end and loaded by an axial force P and torsional moment
M. We are interested here in evaluating the influence of axial force on the torsional
behavior. The linear solution (with no axial force) was derived in Example 13—i.
Fig. E13—7A
x2
P M
L
F
Equilibrium Equations (symmetrical cross section and no distributed load)

=
F1. 0
d
(M1 + i) = 0
dx1
= GJw11
= ErI,ji
F1 = i +
Boundary conditions
.xi=O
xj = L F1 P = 0 M1 + J3tF1w1,1 = Al
Integrating the last two equations in (a) and noting the boundary conditions, lead to
F1 = const =P
M1 + /31F1w1, = corlst =M
The first equilibrium equation takes the form
2
1,11
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where
P11
7;:ij GJA
2GJ i±P
I+ + F)
This expression reduces to Equation (g) of Sec. 13—6 when P = 0. Once f is known,
we can determine the rotation by integrating (d), which expands to
+ F
+
M— f
when we substitute for M1 using (b).
The general solution is,
M
f= C1 cosli ,ux + C2 smh
[GJ (i +
+
= C3 + Mx {i + — {C1 sinh px + C2 cosh
(We drop the subscript on x1 for convenience.) Finally, specializing (g) for these particular
boundary conditions result in
f= { —1 + cosh — tanh sinh
wi = — {sinh jtx + (1 — cosh

—
These equations reduce to (13-57) when P = 0.

A tensile force (P > 0) increases the torsional stiffness whereas a compressive force
(P < 0) decreases the stiffness. Equation (h) shows that the limiting value of P is 1. We
let F, represent the critical axial force and the corresponding axial stress
11
(;J
In order for to be less than the yield stress, (J/11) must be small with respect to unity.
As an illustration, consider the section shown in Fig. E13—7B. The various coefficients
(see Example 13—4) are
J= +
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Fig. E13—78
x3
X2
and
r,, (t'\2(
G
REFERENCES
1. VON T., and N. B. CHRISTENSEN: "Methods of Analysis of Torsion with
Variable Twist," J. Aero. Sci., pp. 110—124, April 1944.
2. TIMOSHENKO, S. J:: "Theory of Bending, Torsion and Buckling of Thin-Walled
Members of Open Cross Section," J. Franklin Inst., pp.559—609, 1945.
3. VON KARMAN, T.. and W. C. CHIEN: "Torsion with Variable Twist," J. Aero. Sci.,
Vol. 13, No. 10, pp. 503—510, October 1946.
4. BENSCOTER, S. U.: "Secondary Stresses in Thin-Walled Beams with Closed Cross
Sections," NACA—TN 2529, Washington, D. C., 1951.
5. BENSCOTER, S. U.: "A Theory of Torsion Bending for Multiceil Beams," J. Appi.
Mech., Vol 21, No. 1, 1954.
6. VLASOV, V. Z.: Thin Walled Elastic Brains, israel Program for Scientific Translations,
Office of Technical Services, IJ.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington. D.C. 1961.
7. HEILIG, R.: "Der Schuberverformungseinfiuss auf die Wölbkrafttorsion Von Stilben
mit offenern Profil," Der Stahlbau, April 1961.
8. HEILIG, R,: "l3eitrag zur Theorie der Kastentrhger beliehiger
Der Stahlbau, December 1961.
9. J. T.: Mechanics of Elastic Structures, McGraw-Hill. New York, 1967.
10. KOLLORUNNER, C. F., and K. BASLER: Torsion in Structures, Springer-Verlag. Berlin,
1969.
Ii. K.: Variational Methods in and Plasticity, Pergarnon Press.
1968.
12, MAISEL, B. I.: "Review of Literature Related to the Analysis and Design of Thin-
Walled Beams," Technical Report 440, Cement and Concrete Association, London,
July 1970.
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PROBLEMS 421
13. DABROWSKi, R.: "Gekrüinmte dUnnwandige Trager," Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1968.

14. GALAMBOS, T. V.: Structural Members and Fiames, Prentice-Hall, 1968.
15. BLEICH, F.: Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.
16. BURGERMEISTER, G., and H. STEin': Srabilitar Theorie, Part 1. Akademie Verlag,
Berlin, 1957.
17. CHILVER, A. H.: Thin- Walled Structures, Chatto and Windus, London, 1967.
18. REISSER, E.: "Note on Torsion with Variable Twist." .J. AppI. Mech., Vol. 23, No. 2,
pp. 315—316, June 1956,
PROBLEMS
13—1. The shear stress distribution due to is given by (see (11—95))
F2 F2
= 13
2 (733
13
' 3
where are fiexural warping functions which satisfy

= — x2 (in A)
(onS)
This result applies when the cross section is assumed to be rigid with respect
to in-plane deformation. The coordinate of the shear center is defined by
= X3
if 3
X3
where is the St. Venant torsional warping function. Hint: See Prob. 11—11
and Equation (11—97).
13—2. Verify (13—40) and (13—44).
13—3. This problem reviews the subject of the chapter in two aspects.
(a) No coupling between the unrestrained and restrained torsional dis-
tribution requires
+ 0
The unrestrained torsional shear stress distribution for twist about
the shear center (see Sec. 13—3, Equation (b)) is given by
,f U
IVIT —
O'12 — X3 + X3]
=
—
= + x2 — x2]
The restrained torsional shear stress distribution is determined from

(13—39). Verify that = MR when ç& = and (a) is enforced.
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(b) When the cross section is thin-walled, (a) and (b) take the form
•fquqr_ = o
where is the perpendicular distance from the shear center to the

tangent at the centerline, Equation (d) follows from (11—29) and
Prob. 11—4. We determine qf from (13—43). Finally, the force param-
eters for the thin-walled case are defined as
= dS
MR = Jqrc& dS
Verify that = MR when = Consider the following cases:

1. Open section
2. Closed section
3. Mixed section
13—4. I and compare
Specialize (13—57) for .L > vs. Mu. Also evaluate
at x L and compare with the unrestrained value.
13—5. Refer to Examples 12—2 and 13—2. Discuss how you would modify
the member force-displacement relations developed in Example 12—2 to account
for restrained torsion. Consider 1, X3r = 0, and——
(a) warping restrained at both ends
(b) warping restrained only at x L
13—6. Refer to Example 13—2. Determine the translations of the shear
center. Consider the cross section fixed at x 0. Discuss how the solution
has to be modified when the cross section at x = L is restrained against
translation.
13—7. Starting with the force-deformation relations based on the mixed
formulation (13—49), derive the member force-displacement relations (see
Example 12—2). Consider no warping at the end sections and take = + 1.
Specialize for—
(a) symmetrical cross section
(b) no shear deformation due to restrained torsion and flexure—arbitrary
cross section,
13—S. Consider a thin-walled section comprising discrete elements of
material properties (F, G). Discuss how the displacement and mixed
formulations haveto be modified to account for variable material properties.
Note: The unrestrained torsion and flexural stress distributions are treated in
Prob. 11—14 and 12—1.
13—9. Determine the distribution of qr, and expressions for Cr,
for the cross sections shown in parts a and b and part e—d of the accom-
panying sketch (four different sets of data).
13—10. Determine and qr for the section shown.
13—11. Using the fiexural shear distributions listed in Prob. 13—1, show
that -
'12 =
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PROBLEMS 423
Prob. 13—9
Ii
F— 0.75k
(b)
I I
I See part c.
(d)
/z 2k + 'i—H
(c)
Prob. 13-10
t
0 0
t ç1s2
I I
a
H
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424 RESTRAINED TOIRSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
Hint: One can write

22
(x2 V q52r +
13 •JJ
Also show that
113 —
13—12. Specialize Equations (13—84) and (13—85) for the case where the
cross section is symmetrical with respect to the X2 axis. Utilize
x3)H0(x2, x3)dA = 0
where He is an even function and H,, an odd function of x3. Evaluate the co-
efficients for the channel section of Example 13—5. Finally, specialize the
equations for a doubly symmetric section.
13—13. Specialize (13—88) for a doubly symmetrical cross Section. Then
specialize further for negligible transverse shear deformation due to flexure and
warping. The symmetry reductions are
X2 = =0 X2r X3r = 0
i/A23=O
= !72 'li 0
13—14. Consider the two following problems involving doubly symmetric
cross section.
(a) Establish "linearized" incremental equations by operating on (13—88)
and retaining only linear terms in the displacement increments.
Specialize for a doubly symmetric cross section (see Prob. 13—12).
(b) Consider the case where the cross section is doubly symmetric and the
initial state is pure compression (F1 —P). Determine the critical
load with respect to torsional buckling for the following boundary
conditions:
1. co1 = f 0 at x = 0, L (restrained warping)
2. == =0 at x 0, L (unrestrained warping)
Neutral equilibrium (buckling) is defined as the existence of a nontrivial

solution of the linearized incremental equations for the same external
load. One sets
F1 = —P
U2 U3 = W1 = (02 = (03 = f 0
and determines the value of P for which a nontrivial solution which

satisfies the boundary conditions is possible. Employ the notation
introduced in Example 13—7.
13—15. Determine the form of V, the strain energy density function (strain
energy per unit length along the centroidal axis), expressed in terms of displace-
ments. Assume no initial strain but allow for geometric nonlinearity. Note
that V = V* when there is no initial strain.
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14
Planar Deformation of a
Planar Member
14—i. INTRODUCTION: GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS
A member is said to be planar if—
1. The centroidal axis is a plane curve.
2. The plane containing the centroidal axis also contains one of the
principal inertia axes for the cross section.
3. The shear center axis coincides with or is parallel to the axis.
However, the present discussion will be limited to the case where the
shear center axis lies in the plane containing the centroidal axis.
We consider the centroidal axis to he defined with respect to a global reference
frame having directions X1 and K2. '[his is shown in Fig. 14—i. The orthogonal
unit vectors defining the orientation of the local frame (Y1, Y2) at a point are
denoted by where points in the positive tangent direction and x 12 =
13. Item 2 requires Y2 to be a principal inertia axis for the cross section.
x2
Yl
n
r2 tl
S
A B
n
i2
x1
ii
Fig. 14—i. notation for planecurve.
425
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426 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
By definition, t
dx1 dx2
= = + (14-1)
Since we are taking t2 according to 11 x t2 = 13, it follows that

- dx2 dx5
t2 = + (142)
The differentiation formulas for the unit vectors are
dt1 1
(14-3)
where
1 dt1 — d2x1 dx2 d2x2 dx1
According to this definition, R is negative when d11/dS points in the negative

t2 direction, e.g., for segment AB in Fig. 14—1. One could take t2 = ii, the unit
normal vector defined by
- 1 d11
(14-4)
ciS
rather than according to x 12 = 13 but this choice is inconvenient when

there is a reversal in curvature. Also, this definition degenerates at an inflection
point, i.e., when dt/dS = O. If the sense of the curvature is constant, one can
always orient the X1-X2 frame so that coincides with ñ, to avoid working
with a negative R.
To complete the geometrical treatment, we consider the general parametric
representation for the curve defining the centroidal axis,
x1 = x1(y) (j45
x2 = x2(y)
where y is a parameter. The differential arc length is related to dy by
d. - 2 2 1/2
dS + + (p)] dv = dy (14—6)
According to this definition, the +S sense coincides with the direction of
t We summarize here for convenience the essential geometric relations for a plane curve which
are developed in Chapter 4.
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increasing y. Using (14—6), the expressions for and 1/R in terms of y are
- I 7dx1 dx2
t1 = — ( 1j +—
dy
-
t2 = — (
if dx2..
——-—-- +
dx1
dy dy (14_
1
—-
if._ (It1
R
= -( t2 dy
—
—
1
( d2x1 dx2
+
d2x2 dx1
k\ dv2 dy dy2 dy
A planar member subjected to in-plane forces plane for our notation)
will experience oniy in-plane deformation. In what follows, we develop the
governing equations for planar deformation of an arbitrary planar member.
This formulation is restricted to the linear geometric case. The two basic
solution procedures, namely, the displacement and force methods, are described
and applied to a circular member.
We also present a simplified formulation (Marguerre's equations) which is
valid for a shallow member. Finally, we include a discussion of numerical
integration techniques, since one must resort to numerical integration when
the cross section is not constant.
14—2. FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

The notation associated with a positive normal cross section, i.e., a cross
section whose outward normal points in the + S direction, is shown in Fig. 14—2.
We use the same notation as for the prismatic case, except that now the vector
- I'3
dA
012
Centroidal axis
Fig. 14—2. Force and moment components acting on a positive cross section.
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components are with respect to the local frame (Y1, Y2, Y3) rather than the
basic frame (X1, X2, X3). The cross-sectional properties are defined by
A = if dy2 dy2 = if dii (14—8)
13 = JJ(y2)2 dii '2 = .iJ(Y3)2
Since Y2, Y3 pass through the centroid and are principal directions, it follows
that
dA = flY3 dA = SSY2Y3 dii = 0 (14—9)
When the member is planar (X1-X2 plane) and is subjected to a planar

loading,
F3 M1 M2 0 (14—10)
in this case, we work with reduced expressions for F÷ and M÷ (see Fig. 14—3)
and drop the subscript on M3:
= + F212'
(14-11)
M+ = M3t3 = Mt3
Note that 13 is constant for a planar member.
x2
= t1 x t2
x1
Fig. 14—3. Force and moment components in planar behavior,
To establish the force-equilibrium equations, we consider the differential

volume element shown in Fig. 14—4. We define b and as the statically equiva-
lent external force and moment vectors per unit arc length acting at the centroid.
For equilibrium, the resultant force and moment vectors must vanish. These
conditions lead to the following vector differential equilibrium equations:
+ = o
— dS
(14—12)
dM÷ ,_. — -
+ in + r1 x F+ =
0
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We expand b and in terms of the unit vectors for the local frame:
b= + b212
(14—13)
= mt3
Introducing the component expansions in (14—12), and using the differentiation
formulas for the unit vectors (14—3), lead to the following scalar differential
equilibrium equations:
dF1 F2
— + b1 = 0
(14-14)
dM
+ +m 0
that the force-equilibrium equations are coupled due to the curvature.

The moment equilibrium equation has the same form as for the prismatic case.
dS
r(S)
The positive sense of the end forces is shown in Fig. 14—5. We work with
components referred to the local frame at each end. The end forces are related
to the stress resultants and stress couples by
=
= Mj52 (14-15)
=
MA= —MISA j=1,2
14—3. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS; PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL

FORCES
We establish the force-displacement relations by applying the principal of

virtual forces to a differential element. The procedure is the same as for the
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prismatic case described in Sec. 12—3, except that now we work with displace-
ment components referred to the local frame at each point. We define ü and as
= = rigid-body translation vector at the
centroid. (14—16)
= = equivalent rigid-body rotation vector
For planar deformation, only u1, u2 and 0J3 are finite, and the terms involving
u3, co1, and w2 can be deleted:
u1t1 + U2T2
(14—17)
— C03t3 Wt3
The positive sense of the displacement components is shown in Fig. 14—6.
F41
Fig. 14—5. Convention for end forces.
x2
x1
FIg. 14—6. Definition of displacement measures.
t "Equivalence" refers to work. See (12—8).
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We define as the complementary energy per unit arc length. For planar
deformation, = (F1, F2, M). One determines by taking expansions
for the stresses in terms of F1, F2, M, substituting in the complementary energy
density, and integrating with respect to the cross-sectional coordinates Y2, y3.
We will discuss the determination of later.
Specializing the three-dimensional principle of virtual forces for the one-
dimensional elastic case, and writing
= AF1 + AF2 + AM
cF1 0F2 cM
(14—18)
= e1 AF1 + e2 AF2 + k AM
lead to the one-dimensional form
Ss(ei AF1 + e2 AF2 + k AM)dS AP1 (14—19)
where is a displacement measure and is the force measure corresponding

to d1. The virtual-force system (AF1, AF2, AM, AP1) must be statically permis-
sible, i.e., it must satisfy the one-dimensional equilibrium equations.
Fig. 14—7. Virtual force system
We apply (14—19) to the differential element shown in Fig. 14—7. The virtual
force system must satisfy the force-equilibrium equations (14—17),
AF÷ = 0
dS
(a)
Evaluating AP1,
= +AM÷ +
(b)
= {AF1 + AF2 + — + dS
—
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and then substituting in (14-49) results in the following relations between the
force and displacement parameters:
du1 U2
cj
du2 u1
(14-20)
eV* dw
k
dS
We interpret e1 as an average extension, e, as an average transverse shear
deformation, and k as a bending deformation. Actually, k is the relative rotation
of adjacent cross sections. In what follows, we discuss the determination of
Consider the differential volume element shown in Fig. 14—8. The vector
defining the arc QQ1 is
ar2
dy =
di2 dt-\
QQ1 = + + dv
Noting that
—
dy
(112
—7k-ti
= o
dv
for a planar member, (a) can be written as
dS2 = = —
= —
By definition, is the complementary energy per unit length along the

centroidal axis. Substituting for dS2 in the general definition, we obtain
dS dS2 dv2 dv
Y2,Y3
(14—2 1)
.-
if
In general, V* = V" (ô11, We select suitable expansions for the
stress components in terms of F1, F2, M, expand V*, and integrate over the
cross section. The only restriction on the stress expansions is that they satisfy
the definition equations for the stress resultants and couples identically:
dA = $5c12 dA F2 SSa13 dA = 0
JJy3aii dA = 0 —ify2ci1 dA = M
J$(y2a13 — y3a12)dA = 0
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SEC. 14—3. PRINCIPLE OF VURTUAL FORCES 433
The most convenient choice for iH is the linear expansion,t

M
— (14—22)
where I 13. A logical choice for (when the cross section is thin-walled)
is the distribution predicted by the engineering theory of flexural shear stress
distribution described in Sec. 11—7:
a11 = 1q(F2) q= F2t/i (14—23)
where t denotes the local thickness, and q is the flexural shear flow due to F2.
Both expansions satisfy (a).
x2
r +1)212 +Y33 r2
r1ty +dy)
Y2
it
Fig. 14—8. Differential volume element.
In what follows, we consider the material to be linearly elastic. The comple-

mentary energy density is given by
11*..... 0 2
a12 2
—
where c? is the initial extensional strain. Substituting (a) in (14—21) and taking
the stresses according to (14—22), (14—23) results in the following expression
f This applies for a homogeneous beam. Composite beams are more conveniently treated with
the approach described in the next section.
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for V*:
= e?Fi + k°M + + + + (14-24)
2GA2*
where
= (i dA
if -
55
I —
\\
—
R}
If the section is symmetrical with respect to the 1'3 axis, 1* 1 and = A2.
The deformation-force relations correspoiiding to this choice for are
F1 M dr,1 u2
—ei
F2 du2 U1
e, + -w (14-25)
= =
F1 M dw
Note that the axial force and moment are coupled, due to the curvature.
Inverting (14—25) leads to expressions for the forces in terms of the deformations:
LA
F1 = — e1)
— R(l
k )
EI*
M— Ô)(el — + / k°
— R(1 (14-26)
F2
We observe that
I
—
where p is the radius of gyration and d is the depth of the cross section, For
example,
1 d2
AR2 = i2R2
for a rectangular cross section. Then, is of the order of (d/R2) and can be
neglected when (dIR)2 1.
A curved member is said to be thin when O(d/R) 1 and thick when O(d/R)2
1. We set ö = 0 for a thick member. The thinness assumption is introduced
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by neglecting y2/R with respect to unity in the expression for the differential
arc length, i.e., by taking
dS
14 27
-
Assuming a curved member to be thin is equivalent to using the expression
for V* developed for a prismatic member. The approximate form of (14—25)
for a thin member is
F1 dii1 Li2
(14—28)
i—k°
To complete the treatment of the linear elastic case, we list the expanded
forms of the principle of virtual forces for thick and thin members. Note that
these expressions are based on a linear variation in normal stress over the cross
section.
Thick Member
Cit0 +
F1 M'\ AF1 +
F2
/XF2
+
(14—29)
+ (ko + + AM} dS —
Thin
+
J +
/ M'\ 1 (14—30)
+ (\kO + h-i) dS = d1 AP1
14—4. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS—DISPLACEMENT

EXPANSION APPROACH; PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL
DISPLACEMENTS
In the variational procedure for establishing one-dimensional force-displace-
ment relations, it is not necessary to analyze the deformation, i.e., to determine
the strains at a point. One has only to introduce suitable expansions for the
stress components in terms of the one-dimensional force parameters. Ndw, we•
can also establish force-displacement relations by starting with expansions for
the displacement components in terms of one-dimensional displacement pa-
rameters and determining the corresponding strain distribution. We express the
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436 PLANAR OEFORMA11ON OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
stresses in
terms of the displacement parameters using the stress-strain relations,
and then substitute the stress expansions in the definition equations for F1, F2,
and M. The effect of transverse shear deformation is usually neglected in this
approach. To determine the strain distribution, we must first analyze the
deformation at a point. This step is described in detail below.
Figure 14—9 shows the initial position of two orthogonal line elements, QQ1
and QQ2, at a point (y, Y2' y3). The vectors defining these elements are
QQ1
QQ2 = dy2 dy2 t2 (14—31)
a2 = I a
—
We use a prime superscript to denote qua Iltities associated with the deformed
position of the member, which is shown in Fig. 14—10; for example:
?'= = position vector to point P(y) in the deformed position (point P').
tangent vector to the deformed centroidal axis.
= position vector to Q(y, Y2, y3) in the deformed position (point Q').
x2
Q2
Q1
Pj(y +dy)
P(y)
axis
x1
Fig. 14—9. Initial geometry for orthogonal curvihnear line elements.

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From Fig. 14—10, and noting (14—3 1):
—
P'P'1 = =
/ + =
dy (14—32)
0)) C))J
or2 / — c,u2
dy2
&Y2 \.
The analysis of strain consists of determining the extensions and change in

angle between the line elements. We denote the extensional strains by
(j = 1, 2) and the shearing strain by Y12 The general expressions are
'—12
3—
(1-3)
Sin Y12
Now, we restrict this discussion to small strain, Substituting for the deformed
vectors and neglecting strains with respect to unity, (14—33) expands to
Istj, au2
+ —.
c'y 2(a2)" ô,V
1 ('U2
2
"
Y12 tj
-'
t2 -±
a2 cc2
The nonlinear terms arc associated with the rotation of the tangent vector.
Neglecting these terms corresponds to neglecting the difference between the
deformed and undeformed geometry, i.e.. to assuming linear geometry.
The next step involves introducing an expansion for in terms of y2. We
express ü2 as a linear function of
ü wv211 (14—35)
where co = w(y) and
U U1t1 + U2t2 = 1kv) (14—36)
is the displacement vector for a point on the centroidal axis. Equation (14—35)
implies that a normal cross section remains a plane after deformation. One can
interpret co as the rotation of the cross section in the direction from toward
t2. This notation is illustrated in Fig. 14—1 1.
In what follows, we consider only linear geometry. Substituting for ü2, taking
y = S, and evaluating the derivatives lead to the following strain expansions:
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— y2k) = du, u2
= I61IY20
= 1 —
e2 = + 0) (14—37)
doi
The vanishing of c2 is due to our choice for ü2. One could include an addi-
tional linear term, This would give = $ and, additional terms in the
x2
Q2
x1
Fig. 14—10. Deformed geometry for orthogonal curvilinear line elements.
u2t2
(u1 —Wy2)tl
Centroidal axis
UI tl
Fig. 14—11. Displacement expansion.

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expressions for and Y12• Note that the assumption that a normal cross
section remains plane does not lead to a linear variation in extensional strain
over the depth when the member is curved.
We introduce the assumption of negligible transverse deformation by setting
e2 = 0. The resulting expressions for (0 and k in terms of u1 and u2 are
e2 = 0
du2 u1
+
dS R (14—38)
dIui
— dS — dS2
When transverse shear deformation is neglected, one must determine F2 using

the moment-equilibrium equation.
The next step involves expressing F1, F,, and M in terms of the one-dimen-
sional deformation parameters e1e2 and k. In what follows, we consider the
material to be linearly elastic and take the stress-strain relations for c12
as:
= E(c1 = Gy12
Substituting for r1, Y12, using (14—37),
F
= ———--—-(e1 — y,k) — Fe1
1 —y2/R
(14—39)
and then evaluating F1, F2, and M, we obtain
d
F2 = Ge2 if (14-40)
= —Fe1 + Ekjj +
The various integrals can be expressed in terms of only one integral by using
the identity
1 y2/R
1-F
1 — y2/R — 1
and noting that Y is a axis:

$5Y2 dA = 0
f The relation for is exact only when = (733 11 We generally neglect for a
member.
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One can easily show that

ri c/A I'
dA = L (14—41)
JJ 1 - y2/R
For completeness, we list the inverted form of (14—40),
M
= + +
F2
F1 lvi
k = k° + +
where
= +
= A(1
4—42
e? = (i c/A
if —
k° =
if -
dA
The expressions for e1 are identical with the result (see (14—25)) obtained with
the variational approach. However, the result for k differs in the coefficient
for M. This difference (1' or F') is due to the nonlinear expansion used for
Example 14—1
We determine I' for the rectangular cross section shown in Fig. F.14—1.
I' = 11 =h
1 y2/R J—a;2 1 — y2/R
=—R2bd+R3bln
To obtain a more tractable form, we expand the log terms, using

(1+x'\ I
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This series converges for xI < 1. Then
d d3 I 3(d\2 3(d\4
In = + ii + + +
and
2
3 d 3 d
I' = +
{ + + ..
Fig. E14—1
I H
Y3
The relations listed above involve exactintegrals. Now, when the member
is thick, we neglect (y2/R)2 with respect to unity. This assumption is introduced
by taking
1 —y2/R
= 1 + + + ... +
in the expansions for and I':
Co
Y2
—.--..e2
dA
- yJR JJ +
=i{i
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442 PLANAR DEFORMATiON OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
To be consistent, we must also neglect 1'/AR2 with respect to unity in the

expression for A'2 and I". When the member is thin, we neglect y2/R with
respect to unity.
1—y2/R
— y2k — (14—44)
at2
It is of interest to establish the one-dimensional form of the principle of virtual

displacements corresponding to the linear displacement expansion used in this
development. The general three-dimensional form for an orthogonal coordinate
system is (see Sec. 10—6):
SJJ(aii + + a12 öy12 )d(vol.) =

where represents an external force quantity and d1 is the displacement quantity
corresponding to We consider only and Viz to be finitc, and express the
differential volume in terms of the cross-sectional coordinates Y2' Y3 and arc
length along the ccntroidal axes (see Fig. 14—9):
d(vol.) = dS2 dy2 dv3 (i dS d7 dy3

—
Then (a) reduces to
(a11 + a12 (i dA] dS = (14—45)

—
We take (14—45) as the form of the principle of virtual displacements for planar
deformation.
The strains corresponding to a linear expansion for displacements and linear
geometry are defined by (14—37), which are listed below for convenience:
ci —
Y12 e2
— y2/R
du1 U2
du2 u1
= + — U)
do
k
dS
Substituting for e1, Y12 and using the definition equations for F1, F2, and M,
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we obtain
Js[Fi + F2 + M ök]dS = Ad1 (14—46)
This result depends only on the strain expansions, i.e., (c). One can apply it
for the geometrically nonlinear case, provided that (cS) are taken as defining
the strain distribution over the cross section.
We use the principle of virtual displacements to establish consistent force-
equilibrium equations. One starts with one-dimensional deformation-displace-
ment relations, substitutes in (14—46), and integrates the left-hand side by parts.
Equating coefficients of the displacement parameters leads to a set of force
equilibrium equations and boundary conditions that are consistent with the geo-
metrical assumptions introduced in establishing the deformation-displacement
relations. The following example illustrates this application.
Example 14—2
The assumption of negligible transverse shear deformation is introduced by setting e2
equal to zero. This leads to an expression for the rotation. w, in terms of the translation
components,
(In2
= +
and the relations for negligible transverse shear deformation reduce to

hEFt ôe1 + M ök]dS
d (du2 u1
1< =
= +
Substituting for Aw and the strain variations,
d
= Au1
—i- Au2
d 1
Aui AU2
—
d2 I d
(5k = Au2 +
and integrating by parts, the left- and right-hand sides of (b) expand to
[F1 + M (5k]dS
j 54
=
/ F1 dM
+M
d
+ Au1 — Au2 An2
Rj dS uS
/ M\ dM
+M—
d
— F1 + Au1 — —-- Au2
I
\ Rj J
dS dS
I r dF1 1 dM1
+ Au2
[ F1
dS
1Aui
+j [— —
[— +
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and
Ad, (b1 + + (b2 dS

=
+ (PB! + + (p22 + ma) Au32 + A
MA)
+ (p41 + A + (r42 014) AUA2 + M4 A
The consistent equilibrium equations and boundary conditions for negligible transverse
shear deformation follow by equating corresponding coefficients of the displacement
variations in (e) and (f):
S4<S<S3
dF1 1dM 01
+ + + b1 + 0
F1 d2M drn
+- — + — =0
s—sn
u1 prescribed or F1 —
u2 prescribed or p42 — m
do2
prescribed or M= —MA
S=
UI prescribed or F1 = F21
U2 prescribed or = —F32 — in
du2
prescribed or M
One can obtain (g) by solving the last equation in (14—14) for F2 and substituting in the
first two equations.
Suppose we neglect u1/R in the expression for w:
do2
CD
d2u2
k
This assumptiont is generally referred to as Mush tori's approximation. The equilibrium

equations for the tangential direction reduce to
dF1
t See Ref. 5.
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SEC. 14—5. CARTESIAN FORMULATION 445
The other equilibrium equation and the boundary conditions are not changed. Using
(h) instead of (a) eliminates the shear term, F2/R, in the tangential force-equilibrium
equation.
14—5. CARTESIAN FORMULATION

We consider the case where the equation defining the centroidal axis has the
form x2 = f(x1). The geometrical relations for this parametric representation
are obtained by taking y x1 in (14—7). They are summarized belowt for
convenience and the notation is shown in Fig. 14—12:
dS =
dx1
r 7df\21112 1
[ ylx1jj. cos0
= i[ I
f'df'\
+ I—)
1
j
- I [ / df \ - - (14—47)
t2 + '2
= t1 X t2 = 13
d2f
ci:
I
In the previous formulation, we worked with displacement components and
external force components referred to the local frame. An alternate approach,
originally suggested by involves working with components re-
ferred to the basic frame rather than the local frame. The resulting expressions
differ, and it is therefore of interest to describe this approach in detail. We
start with the determination of the force-equilibrium equations.
Consider the differential clement shown in Fig. 14—13. The vector, equilibrium
equations are
dF+ - -
- ax1
(14—48)
+ x + = 0
dx1 dx1
See Prob. 14—1.

See Ref. 6.
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x2
Y2
YI
X2
dx1
x1
'I
Fig. 14—12. Notation for Cartesian formulation.
dx1 2
p-
N2 12
F1t1
lj
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SEC. 14—5. CARTESIAN FORMULATION 447
where fl, h are the external applied force and moment vectors per unit projected
length, i.e., per unit x1. They are related to b and (see Fig. 14—4) by
dx1 = b dS = (cth)dx1
(1449)
hdx1 = iñdS = (cthi)dx1
Substituting for the force and moment vectors,
= F1t1 + F2t2 = N171 + N212
it—hi3
P = + (14—50)
N1 = F1 cos 0 — F2 sin 0
N2 = F1 sin 0 + F2 cos 0
the equilibrium equations expand to
dN1 d
—- = ——(F1 cosP — sin 0) =
dx1 dx1
= (F1 sin0 + F2 cos 0) P2 (14-51)

dx1 dx1
—1(dM '\
——-(—-- + hJ=' F2 —N1 sm0 + N2cosO
\dx1 ,i
We restrict this treatment to an elastic material and establish the force-

displacement relations, using the principle of virtual forces,
dx1 = [e1 AF1 + e2 AF2 + k dx1 = d1 (a)
where V* V* (F1, F2 M) is the complementary energy per unit arc length.
Consider the differential element shown in Fig. 14—14. The virtual-force sys-
tem is statically permissible, i.e., it satisfies the force-equilibrium equations
identically:
= o
dx1
dx1
+ J1 x =
Expanding d1
and then substituting for the displacement and rotation vectors,

O= v111 + 1)212
(14—52)
(0 (013 = (0t3
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we obtain
= + + (d)
dx1 dx1 dx1;
Finally, substituting for N1, N2, in terms of F1, F2 and equating coefficients of
the force increments result in
oV do1 do2
cos2 0-— + sinOcosO—-
. dx1
a v* do1 , do2
e2 = —sin 0 COS U +cosO——w
dx1
(14—53)
--
dw
k= = ——— cos 0
dx1
The member is said to be shallow when 02 << 1. One introduces this assump-
tion by setting
4f
cos U 1 Sm 0 tan 0 = (14—54)
in (14—50), which relate the cartesian and local forces.
1)2
2
V1
Marguerre's equations are obtained by assuming the member is shallow

and, in addition, neglecting the contribution of F2 in the expression for N1.
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Marguerre starts with

N, F1
N2 F2 +
and the resulting equations are

dF,
—— + Pi = 0
dx,
dF2 d 7
(F1
df\ + P2 =
+ 0
dx, dx, dx,j J
dM
F2 —— — in
dx1 (14—55)
dv' df dv2
e, = + ——
d.x, dx, dx,
dv2
e2 = = —- — co
0F2 dx,
dw
k
OM dx,
One step remains, namely, to establish the boundary conditions. The general
conditions are
v1 or N,
v2 or N2 prescribed at each end (14—56)
M or w
We obtain the appropriate boundary conditions for the various cases considered
above by substituting for N,, N2 and ox For example, the boundary conditions
for the Marguerre formulation are
or F2 + F, prescribed at each end (14-57)
w or M
14—6. DISPLACEMENT METHOD OF SOLUTION—CIRCULAR MEMBER

The displacement method involves solving the system of governing dif-
ferential equations which, for the planar case, consist of three force-equilibrium
equations and three force-displacement equations. If the applied loads are
independent of the displacements, we can first solve the force equilibrium
equations and then integrate the force-displacement relations. This method
is quite straightforward for the prismatic case since stretching and flexure are
uncoupled. However, it is usually quite difficult to apply when the member is
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curved (except when it is circular) or the cross section varies. In what follows,
we illustrate the application of the displacement method to a circular member
having a constant cross section, starting with—
1. the exact equations (based on stress expansions) for a thick member
2. Marguerre's equations for a thin member
The results obtained for this simple geometry provide us with some insight as to
the relative importance of transverse shear deformation and stretching deforma-
tion versus bending deformation.
When the centroidal axis is a circular segment, R = const, and the equations
simplify somewhat. It is convenient to take the polar angle 8 as the independent
variable in this case. We list the governing equations below for convenience
and summarize the notation in Fig. 14—15:
dF1 dM / m
— RF1 = R2b2 — (14—58)
1dM
F1 M 1 f'du1
= ej + + = —
Eq. (14—25) e2 + ui) — 0) (14—59)

=
k=
F1 M Idw
k° + + =
Solution of the Force-Equilibrium Equations

We consider the external forces to be independent of the displacements.
Integrating the first equilibrium equation, we have
RF1 = —M (b1 + +
— R2
j
where C1 is an integration constant. Substituting for F1 in the second equation
results in a second-order differential equation for M:
+ M C1 + R2[b2 — +
The general solution of (b) is

M= C1 + C2cosO + C3sinO + (14—60)
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where denotes the particular solution due to the external distributed loading
and C2, C3 are constants. Once M is known, we find F1 using (a) and F2 from
the moment equilibrium equation. The resulting expressions are
F1 = cosO + C3 sinO + Mr)— R j(b1 ± ;)dU

(14—61)
F2 = sine + c3 cos 9 + — in
dS RdO
F
F1
Fig. 14—15. Notation for circular member.
Integration of the Force-Displacement Relations

We start with (14—59) written in a slightly rearrangcd form:
du1
— u2 Re? + + RF1)
du2 RF2
+ u1 + Rco
= Rk° + [M + (RF1)]
To determine u1 and u2, transform the first two equations to
= u2 + Re? + (M + RF1) (14—62)
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and
d2u2
+ = 1/1
+ Re? — + RF1)
=
+ a1R2 (14—63)
± R2k° — Re?
I
a1 = —
We have previously shownt that is of the order of (d/R)2. It is reasonable

to neglect with respect to 1 but we will retain it in order to keep track of the
influence of extensional deformation. We solve (14—63) for u2, determine u1
from (14—62), and w from the second equation in (a),
F2 1 (du, '\
W (14-64)
This leads to three additional integration constants. The six constants are
determined by enforcing the three boundary conditions at each end. Various
loading conditions are treated in the following examples.
Example 14—3
Consider a member (Fig. El4—3) fixed at the negative end (A) and subjected only
to at the right end (B). The boundary conditions for this case are
F1=Fa1; F2=M=O atO=011
u1 =u2=w=O atO=O
Specializing the force solution for no external distributed loading and enforcing the
boundary conditions at B, we obtain
F1 = F81 cos(08 — 0)
F2 = FRI Sifl(08 8)
M RF51(l — cos(08 — 0))
To simplify the analysis, we suppose there is no initial deformation. Using (b). takes
the form —
F81 R'
'I' [a1 — 02 COS(08 0)1
where
EI* (d\'
=
f See Sec. 14—3, Eq. (14—26).
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Note that is associated with transverse shear deformation. Substituting for tJ' in (14—63)
and integrating, we obtain
c4 cos 0 + c5 sin o + [ai + 0 — 0)]
The solution for u1 follows from (14—62):
= sin 0 — C5 cos 0 + C6
+ {o + [o — 0) + sin(66 — 0)]}
Next, we determine w using (14—64),
C6
U) = + {O + sm(OB — O)}
Finally, the constants are found by enforcing the displacement boundary conditions
at 0 = 0:
F R3
C4 =
(05
C5 = — sin
C6 =
To determine the relative importance of stretching and shear deformation versus bending
deformation, we evaluate the displacements at 0 and write the resulting expressions
Fig. E14—3
FBI
Constant cross section
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in the following form:
WE = — sin + b1 Oe)
UBI = —2 sin 63 + 4sin 03 COS ± b2 + b3 &)
— COS 0B 4Sin —
sin
(I)
— Slfl 63
— —4 03 + 2 sin 03 — 4 sin 03 COS 013
b2
63 + sin 03 Co
4(03 — sin_03 cos 03)
b
T
4sin2 63 I + COS 63
b— -
—
The coefficients (b1,..., b4) are of order unity or less when is not small with respect
to unity, i.e., when the segment is not shallow. Also, öe and ó, are of order (d/R)2. It follows
that the displacements due to stretching and shear deformation are of order (dIR)2 times
the displacement due to bending deformation for a nonshallow member.
To investigate the shallow case, we replace the trigometric terms in (i) by their Taylor
series expansions,
sin 0 =
/ —
02
+ —
02
cos 6 = I — + —
sin0cos6 0(1 — +
—
and neglect with respect to unity. The resulting expressions are
P8152 1
1 1*
U3j
P31S3 fOfl [1 EI*

032
= +
Now,
1*
El" (d'12
=
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For example,
1 (d\2
AS2
EI* E (d\2 (d'\2
= 0,26
= lOG
for a rectangular section and v = 0.3. Since (cl/S)2 << I for a member, we can neglect the
transverse shcar terms in UBL, UB2 and the stretching term in co8. However, we must retain
the stretching term in u51 since it is of the same order as the bending term. The appropriate
expression for is
PatS3
In sum, we have shown that the percentage of error due to neglecting stretching and
transverse shear deformation is of the order of (d/R)2 for a nonshallow circular member.
If the member is shallow < I 5°), we catnwt neglect stretching deformation. Actually,
the stretching term dominates when the member is quite shallow. The error due to ne-
glecting transverse shear deformation for the shallow case is still only of the order of
(d/R)2.
Example 14—4
The internal force distributions due to acting on the cantilever member shown
in Fig. E14—4 are given by
F1 sin(011 — 0)
F2 = F52 cos(05 0)
M R sin(02 0)
We suppose the member is not shallow and neglect stretching and shear deformation.
The force-displacement relations reduce to (we set A = = in (14—59))
du1
— = Re?
dO
du2
+ u1 = Rw
dw RM
= Rk° +
dO EJ*
Eliminating u1 from the first two equations, we obtain

12u R2
+ u2 = R2k° — Re? + M
du1
= u2 + Re?
I (du2
We determine u2, then u1, and finally oi. Note that (c) corresponds to (14—62), (14—63)
and (14—64) with A = A2 = cc. The final expressions (for no initial deformation or support
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movement) are
=
02 {(O COS(OB — 0) — sin 0 cos
= cos 0 0 Sjfl(OB — 0) + COS(OB 0)}
F52R
0) = { COS(OB — 0) — cos
Example 14—5
We analyze the shallow parabolic member shown in Fig. E14—5 using Marguerre's
equations. We consider the member to be thin and neglect transverse shear deformation.
Taking f = and = rn = 0, the governing equations (see (14—55) and (14—57))
reduce to
dx1
d2M
al'1 — P2 = 0
dx1
dM
F2
F1 dv1
= e? + = -— + ax1
AL dx1 dx1
dv2
Cl)
dx1
M d2v2
k= k + =
v1, v2, w prescribed at x1 0
N2 = — + ax1F1 = 0 at x1 = I.
dx1
M =0
Integrating (a) and using the boundary conditions at x1 = L, we obtain
M= — xi)2 — — x?)
F2 = p2(L — x1) — ax1N51
We suppose e? = k° = 0 to simplify the discussion. Integrating the moment-curvature

relation,
CINBI(L2
=M = x1)2 4)
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Fig. E14—4
l.A const
Fig. E14—5
Al
—,.- F1
a=
L2
(h/L)2<(1
j
t
P2 = COflSt
B
NB!
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458 PLANAR DEFORMATfON OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
and noting that v2 dv2/dxj = 0 at x1 = 0 lead to the solution for v2,
Ely2 = — + — —
The axial displacement is determined by integrating the extensional strain displacement

relation,
dv1 F1 dv2
= —
= - - + + ÷ -
We express the last term in (g) as
NB1X1 1
+
AE 6 ) 1) [VT)
Now,
a 2h,/L2
Then
a2L4(A'\ — 2(h'\2
6
and we see that this term dominatcs when h is larger with respect to the cross-sectional
depth.
14—7. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION

Our starting point is the principle of virtual forces restricted to planar
deformation,
Js(ei AF1 + e2 AF2 + k AM)dS — AR1 = d1 (14—65)
represents a support
where the virtual-force system is statically permissible,
movement, and AR1 is the corresponding reaction increment. The relations
between the deformation measures (e1, e2, k) and the internal forces (F1, F2, M)
depend on the material properties and on whether one employs stress or dis-
placement expansions. This discussion is limited to a linearly elastic material
but one should note that (14--65) is valid for arbitrary material. For con-
venience, we list the force-deformation relations below. The notation for
internal force quantities is shown in Fig. 14—3.
Arbitrary Linearly Elastic Menther

F1 M
— e1 + +
F2
e2 = (14—66)
k= F1 M
+ -= +
AER. El
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k°, A2, and] are defined by(14—24) for the stress-expansion approach
and (14—42) for the displacement-expansion approach.
Thin Linearly Elastic Member

F1
e1 = e? +
(14-67)
where A2, a?, k° are the same as for a prismatic member.

When the member is nor shallow, it is reasonable to neglect stretching and
transverse shear deformation. As shown in ExampLe 14—3, this approximation
introduces a percentage error of O(cl/R)2. Formally, one sets A = A2 =
If the member is shallow, we can still neglect transverse shear deformation
but we must include stretching deformation.
The basic steps involved in applying the force method to a curved member
arc the same as for the prismatic case. However, the algebra is usually more
complicated, due to the geometry. We will discuss first the determination of
the displacement at a point.
To determine the displacement at Q in the direction defined by tQ, we apply
an external virtual force, APQ7Q, generate a statically determinate system of
internal forces and reactions corresponding to
= FJ,QAPQ (j = 1,2)
AM = M AP0 (14-68)
ARk = Rk. Q
APQ
and substitute in (14—65):

dQ = SS(eIFI,Q + e2F2Q + kM,Q)dS — (14—69)
This expression is valid for an arbitrary material. We set e2 = 0 if transverse

shear deformation is negligible and a1 = a? if stretching deformation is
negligible.
Example 14—6
We consider the thin linearly elastic circular segment shown in Fig. E14—6A. We
suppose the member is not shallow and neglect stretching and franslerse shear deformation.
The reactions are the end forces at A for this example, and (14—69) expands to
= + (k0 + + OA1FAIQ + UA2FA2.Q + WAMA,Q (a)
In what follows, we illustrate tile application of (a)

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Fig. E14—6A
U2L
Expressions Displacements at B
To determine u81, we take = AF51. The internal virtual-force system corresponds
to F81 = ±1. It is convenient to work with = 0 as tlie independent variable
rather than 0.
The force-influence coefficients (F10, F2,Q, M.Q) follow directly from Fig. E14—6B:
F10 = = COSq
F20 = (b)
= R(1 cos
Substituting (b) in (a) results in the following general expression for um
= R {e? cos + R (ko + (1 — cos

Jo3
cos + sin + — cos
Once the loading is specified, we can evaluate the integral. Terms involving the support
displacements define the rigid body displacement at B.
Taking = SF82, leads to expression for u82 and We list them below
for future reference:
"
u82 = R (d)
j
Jo (. Elj
COB = W.4 + R (ko +

f3
Solution for a Concentrated Loading at an Arbitrary Interior Point
We consider an arbitrary force vector, and moment, Mc, applied at point C as shown
in Fig. E14—6C.
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Fig. E14—6B
ill
Ffi2 ,t482
— eQS
RI
Fig. El 4—SC
A.
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_______________
= +
=
The expressions for the displacements at B due to an external loading are obtained by
specializing (c) and (d) for no initial deformation or support movement and noting that
M=O
M= RPc1[1 — iic)] + sin(1i — ilc) + ivIc
The solution for constant I is
Pc1R3( . . .
Sifl 0c — sin + Sill 1k + 1k + Sill 0c cos
=
PC2R( Or . I
+ — cos + sin — sin sin
MCR2
+ (Oc + Sin Sin
PciR3I 1 1
= OR + cos — Oc sin — sm Oc sin
PC2R3 /1 1
+ —--h-— cos 1k — sin 9c cos
+ —-—- (ens 1k — cos
. R2Pc2
Sin Oc) + cos Oc) +
If we take point C to coincide with B, = 0 and = OR. The resulting equations

relate the displacement at B due to forces applied at B in the directions of the local frame
at B and can be interpreted as member force-deformation relations. It is convenient to
express these relations in matrix form:
=
— 2 sin R2[l — cos OR — sin OR] F81
+ 4sin 08 cos 08] OR]
= Symmetrical — sin °B cos OR] R[l — cos 98] F82
We call the member flexibility matrix.
We describe next the application of the principle of virtual forces in the

analysis of a statically indeterminate planar member. Let the member be in-
determinate to the rth degree and let Z1, . , Z, represent the force redundants.
.
Using the equilibrium equations, we express the internal forces and reactions in
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terms of the applied loads and the force redundants:

F1 = F10 +
k-= 1
F2 = F2,0 +
(14—70)
M = M0 +
k= 1
R1 = R10 + R1.kZk
k1
Substituting the virtual force system corresponding to (which is statically
permissible and in (14—65) and letting j range from 1 to r
lead to the compatibility equations relating the actual deformations:
+ + kM,1)dS = 0
(a)
1= l,...,r
When the material is linearly elastic, the compatibility equations take the
form
(j = ...,r) (14—71)
k1
where
=fkj = f + + Fl.kM,f)
+ +
= —
+ +
+ + Fl,OM.J) + ±
Wesetl = I,A2 = ,42,and 1/AR Oforathinmember.

Note that fik is the displacement of the primary structure in the direction of
Z1 due to a unit value of Zk. Also, is the actual displacement of the point of
application of minUs the displacement of the primary structure in the direc-
tion of Z, due to support movement, initial deformation, and the prescribed
external forces.
Example 14—7
Consider the symmetrical closed ring shown in Fig. E14—7. From symmetry,
at6r=0 (a)
F2 =
j 0
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We take the moment at 0 = 0 as the force redundant. To simplify the algebra, we suppose
the member is thin and neglect stretching and shear deformation. The compatibility equa-
tions reduces to
f11Z1 =
fii =
&=
Note that is the relative rotation due to a unit value of Z1 and is the relative
rotation (X) due to the applied load. Equation (h) states that the net relative rotation
must vanish.
E14—7
fm/F
M F1
1'
Now,
M = R(t — cos 0)
We consider I to be constant. Then, (b) reduces to
(1 — cos 8)dO
1 dS — —J /PR\
JM21 cIS
PR1 2\
= TI\1 ——)
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Because of symmetry, we need to integrate over only a quarter of the ring. Finally, the
total moment is
The axial and shear force variations are given by
F1
F2 =
When the equation defining the centroidal axis is expressed in the form
x2 = f(x1), it is more convenient to work with force and displacement
tities referred to the basic frame rather than to the local frame, i.e., to use the
cartesian formulation developed in Sec. (14—5). The cartesian notation is sum-
marized in Fig. 14—16.
xl
N2,
F2
——--'-
i2
it
Ag. 14—16. Notation for Cartesian formulation.
The geometrical quantities and relations between the internal force com-
ponents are
tan 6 =
dx1
dS =
cos 6
(14—72)
F1 = N1cos 6 + N2 sin U
F2 = —N1 sin (9 + N2 cos 0
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PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
We first find N1, N2 and then determine F1, F2. To obtain the equations for
the Cartesian case, we just have to replace dS by dx1/cos U in the general ex-
pressions ((14—69) and (14—71)). In what follows, we suppose the member is
thin and linearly elastic.
When the member is not shallow, we can neglect the stretching and transverse
shear deformation terms. The equations for this case reduce to:
Displacement at Point Q
dQ + (ke + (14-73)
= L
C'oinpatibility Equations
\dx1
= j (14—74)
= — 5[e?Fi,i + (ko +
We can the terms involving F1 in terms of N1 and N2 since

Plo = cos 0 N10j + sin 0
Then,
+ ,f'N2, ( (14—75)
j'
One must generally resort to numerical integration in order to evaluate the
integrals, due to the presence of the term 1/cos 9.
When the member is shallow, 02 1, and we can approximate (14—72) with
cos 0 1
sm 0 tan 0 =
cls dx1 (14—76)
F1 N1 +f'N2
F2 —f'N1 + N2
We cannot neglect the stretching deformation term in this case. However, it is
reasonable to take F1 N1. We also introduced this assumption in the devel-
opment of Marguerre's equations. The equations for the shallow case with
negligible transverse shear deformation and F1 N1 have the forms listed
below:
dQ [(ei° + N1, + (ko + M, dx1 — R1, (14—77)

=J
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>j1k4 =
fjk + dx1 (14—78)

= Jx,
= + + (k0 +
— f
Example 14—8
Consider the two-hinged arch shown in Fig. E14—8A. We work with reaction com-
ponents referred to the basic frame and take the horizontal reaction at B as the force
redundant.
x2, Fig. E14—8A
Primary
We must carry out two force analyses on the primary structure (Fig. E14—SB), one for
the external forces (condition Z1 = 0) and the other for Z1 1. The results are displayed
in Figs. E14—8C and D, respectively.
Fig. E14—8B
V2
= Z1
zI
R242
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Fig. E14—8C
N2
KM
0
Fig. E14—8D
H
(+)
'VI,'
ii
(+)
N2,,
M,1
We suppose the member is not shallow. The compatibility equations for Z1 follow
from (14—74):
I dx t
J11—I El cosO
= + f'N2,1) + +
Jo L (ko
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Using the results listed above, the various terms in (a) expand to
— h
f = .ft0E1 L cost?
= ± +
+ f'N2 + k° dx1
s:
JL[(
JLIJLI(h)(h) + + k0(f_
+ LIcosO
!L
L
(+P(xi - a))dxi
Once the integrals are evaluated, we can determine Z1 from
(c)
Finally, the total forces are obtained by superposition of the two loadings:
M = M•0 + Z1M1 (d)

R. = + Z1R, = 1, 2, 3
R4 =
To evaluate the vertical displacement at point Q, we apply a unit vertical load at Q on

the prinwry structure and determine the required internal forces and reactions plotted in
Fig. E14—8E.
Fig.
F—
XQ 1/L
(i_IL)
FQ=+l
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Applying (14—73), we obtain
VQ2 = VA2 + (13B2 — VA2)
+ —
('XQ I' M\ dx1 CL / dx1

— I x1Ik°+—1—---—---—x1 I (k°+—'l—-—
Jo El)cosO \ El) cosO
1L
XQ1 ( M'\ dx1
+—L jof
x1(k°+-—J-——
\ EljcosO
A numerical procedure for evaluating these integrals is described in the next section.
Example 14—9
The symmetrical nonshallow two-hinged parabolic arch shown in Fig. E14—9A is sub-
jected to a uniform load per unit horizontal length, that is, per unit x1. The equation for
the centroidal axis is
4h(
where h is the elevation at mid-span = L/2). We take the horizontal reaction at the
right end as the force redundant and consider only bending deformation. Figures E14—9B
and C carry through an analysis parallel to that of the preceding example,
Deternzination of Z1 and Total Forces

The equation for Z1 follows from (14—74):
1L
Jo EJcosO pL2
ElcosO
Note that this result is valid for an arbitrary variation of El. Finally, the total forces are
N1 — N10 + Z1N1 =
N2 = N20 + Z1N21 =
—
M=M,0+Z1M,1 =0
Since M = 0, the deformed shape of the arch coincides with the initial shape when axial
deformation is neglected. It follows that (c) also apply for the fixed nonshollolv case.
When the arch is shallow, the effect of axial deformation cannot be neglected. The
expression for Z1 follows from (14—78):
— +
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Fig. E14—9A
p = Coflst
B
xi
Pnmary structure
R2,d2
Fig. E14—9B
N2
xI
N5,00 pL( Xj\ pL

M0 )
Force System Due to p
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If E is constant, (d) reduces to

JL
dx1
pL2 — pL2 1
— 8h 1L1 — 8h I +
+
jL1
-
The parameter ö is a measure of the influence of axial deformation. As an illustration, we
consider A and I to be constant and evaluate ö for this geometry. The result is
I 15(p'\2
— 8 Ah2 — 8
where p is the radius of gyration for the cross section.
A'2 Fig.
N11 = +1 N2,1 = 0 M,1 = +f

Force System Due to Z1 = + I
One should note that (e) applies only for the shallow case, in, for (f')2 K< 1. Now,
4/1 / 2x1
For the assumption of shallowness to be valid, 16(h/L)2 must he small with respect to
unity. The total forces for the shallow case are
pL2 1
N1 = =
\= PL(
M=
p1?
f( ô
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SEC. 14—8. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION PROCEDURES 473
It is of interest to determine the rotation at B. The "Q" loading consists of a unit moment
applied at B to the primary structure (see Fig. E14—9D). Applying (14—77) (note that
Fig. E14—9D
PQ +l
the stretching terms vanish since Nj,Q = 0), we obtain

1L
M x1 P/ \ / ,
j
When El is constant, (i) reduces to
pL3( (5
Since 0, the results for the fixed end shallow case will differ slightly from (h).
14—8. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION PROCEDURES
One of the steps in the force method involves evaluating certain integrals
which depend on the member geometry and the cross-sectional properties.
Closed-form solutions can be obtained for only simple geometries, and one
usually must resort to a numerical integration procedure. In what follows, we
describe two proceduresi which can be conveniently automated and illustrate
their application in deflection computations.
We consider the problem of evaluating
J (14—79)
t See Ref. 8 for a more detailed treatment of numerical integration schemes.
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__________________
where f(x) is a reasonably smooth function in the interval XA x We

divide the total interval into n equal segments, of length h:
h= — XA
(14—80)
If f(x) is discontinuous, we work with subintervals and use a different spacing

for each subinterval. For convenience, we let x0, x1, x,, represent the . . ,
coordinates of the equally spaced points on the x axis, and f0, the
corresponding values of the function. This notation is shown in Figure 14—17.
12 1;,
a 11 B
XO X1 X2 X,,
Fig. 14—17. Coordinate discretization for numerical integration.
The simplest approach consists in approximating the actual curve by a set

of straight lines connecting etc., as shown in Fig. 14—18. With this
approximation,
('xk h
EXJk1,k = f(x)dx + (14—81)
= dx = +
If only the total integral is desired, we use,
f(x)dx + L) (14—82)
J = +
which is called the trapezoidal rule.
A more accurate formula is obtained by approximating the curve connecting
three consecutive points with a second-degree polynomial, as shown in Fig.
14—19. This leads to
h
AJk,k+2 fdx + 4fk+1 + (14—83)
= J
Jk÷2= Jk +
To apply (14—83), we must take an even number of segments, that is, n must
be an even integer. If the values of J at odd points are also desired, they can
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be determined using
h
= {Sfk + — Jk+2] (14—84)

Jo 12
Finally, one can express as
in = + + 4(11 + .13 + +
(14—85)
+ 2(f2 +f4 +
Equation (14—85) is called Simpson's rule.
N
fk—1 fk fk+1
h S
x
Xk_1 Xk
Fig. 14—18. Linear approximation.
fk fk+1 fk÷2
S S
Xk Xkf.1
Fig. 14—19. Parabolic approximation.

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________________M
Example 14—10
Consider the problem of determining the vertical displacement at Q for the straight
member of Fig. E14—lO. We suppose shear deformation is negligible. The deflection due
Fig. E14—10
XQ
PQ +1
XQ(1t)
to bending deformation (we consider the material to be linear elastic) is given by
dQ MQ dx
J
where M is the actual moment and M0 is due to the "Q" loading. Substituting for M,
expands to
(a)
=
/ 1L M CXQ M '\
+
M M
— J J —
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To evaluate (b), we divide the total length into ii equal segments of length h, number
the points from 0 to n, and let
M
I —dx
J0 El
Cx M
I x—dx
Jo El
With this notation, (b) takes the form
= Xk — + "k Xkjk
If, in determining we also evaluate the integrals the interior points, then we can
readily determine the displacement distribution using cd).
Example 14—11
Consider the simply supported nonshallow arch shown. We suppose there is some
distribution of It'! and we want to determine the vertical deflection at Q. Considering
Fig. E14—11
ill
El
only bending deformation, dQ is given by

1W
dQ
= M, ds 1W, dx
J
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Now, the distribution of M

is the same as for the straight member, Then, the procedure
followed in Example 14—10 is also applicable here. We just have to replace M/EI with
M/EI cos 0 in Equation (c) of Example 14—10.
REFERENCES
1. TIMOSHENKO, S. 1.: Advanced Strength of Materials, Van Nostrand, New York, 1941.
2. Boan, S. F., and J. J. GENNARO: Advanced Structural Analysis, Van Nostrand,
New York, 1959.
3. REISSNER, E.: "Variational Considerations for Elastic Beams and Shells," J. Lag.
Mech. Div., A.S.C.E, Vol. 88, No. EM 1, February 1962.
4. MARTIN, H. C.: introduction to Matrix lvi etliods of Structural Analysis, McGraw—Hill,
New York, 1966.
5. MUSRTARI, K, M., and K. Z. (IALIMOV: "Nonlinear Theory of Thin Elastic Shells,"
Israel Program for Scientific Translations. Jerusalem, 1962
6. MARGUERRE, K.: "Zur Theoric der gekriimmten Platte grosser Formanderung,"
Proc. 5th mt. Congress App!. Mccli. pp. 93—101. 1938.
7. Onai'i, J. 1.: Mechanics of Elastic Structures. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
8. HILDEBRAND, F. J.: introduction to Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1956.
PROBLEMS
14—1. Specialize (14—7) for the case where Yi = x1. Let x2 = f(x1) and
let 9 be the angle from X1 to Y1 as shown below. Evaluate the various terms
for a parabola
f= +
Finally, specialize the relations for a shallow curve, i.e., where
Prob.14—1
32
14—2. Evaluate 1* and (see Equation 14-24) for the section defined by
the sketch.
14—3. Verify (14—34).
14—4. Verify (14—41) and (14—42).
14—5. Discuss the difference between the deformation-force relations based
on stress and displacement expansions (Equations (14—25) and (14—42)).
Illustrate for the rectangular section treated in Example 14—i. Which set of
relations would you employ?
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PROBLEMS 479
Prob. 14—2
2t
I d
T
b=O.75d
I
14—6. Evaluate I' and 1" for the symmetrical section shown.
Prob. 14—6
h=O.75d
t=d120
14—7. Consider a circular sandwich member comprised of three layers,

as shown. The core layer is soft (E 0). and the face thickness is small in
comparison to the depth d). Establish force-deformation relations based
on strain expansions (see (14—37)).
Prob. 14—i
I II
I
14—8. Starting with (14—34) and (14—35), derive a set of nonlinear strain
displacement relations for a thin member. Assume small finite rotation, and
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linearize the expressions with respect to Yz' i.e., take

= e1 —
Y12
Determine the corresponding force-equilibrium equations with the principle of
virtual displacements.
14—9. Refer to Fig. 14—10 and Equation (14—31). If we neglect transverse
shear deformation, is orthogonal to t'1 and we can write
(1 + =
—
ldF'
tj = fl1t1 + fl2t2
-
= —/32t1 + f31t2
dt'1 1 + e1 .-, di'2 I + e1
= R'
= + = (1 +
(a) Verify that can be expressed as
Cl
1 c (i+e1 I
- y,k}
Also determine e1 and R' for small strain. Express ü in terms of th
initial tangent vectors,
ü= U1t1 + U2t2
and take y S (i.e., 1).
(b) Derive the force-equilibrium equations, starting with the vector equa-
tions (see (14—12) and Fig. 14—4),
+ = 0
dS
dM÷ —
+m + x F÷ = 0
and expanding the force vectors in terms of components referred to

the deformed frame:
= F11'I + h= b11'1 +
= Mi3
Assume small strain.
(c) Derive the force-equilibrium equations with the principle of virtual
displacements. Take the strain distribution according to Equation (b).
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________
PROBLEMS 481
(d) Derive the nonlinear deformation-displacement and equilibrium equa-

tions for the cartesian formulation. Refer the translations and loading
to the basic frame, i.e., take
= + V212
P Pi'i + P2t2
Specialize the equations for the case of a shallow member.
14—10. The accompanying sketch applies to both phases of this problem.
Prob. 14—10
h2 = const
(a) Determine the complete solution for the circular member shown.
Utilize symmetry at point A = co = F2 = 0) and work with (14—58),
(14—59). Discuss the effect of neglecting extensional and shear de-
formation, i.e., setting (1/A) (1/42) = 0.
(b) Repeat (a), using Mushtari's equations for a thin member with no
transverse shear deformation, which are developed in Example 14—2.
Show that Mushtari's approximation (u1 << du2/dO) is valid when the
segment is shallow.
14—11. The sketch presents the information relevant to the problem:
Prob. 14—11
P2 = cOnSt
L L 'j L2
x2
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(a) Apply the Cartesian formulation to the symmetrical parabolic arch

shown. Consider the member to be thin and neglect transverse shear
deformation.
(b) Specialize (a) for negligible extensional deformation (set 1/A = 0).
(c) Specialize (a) for the shallow case and investigate the validity of
Marquerre's approximation.
14-42. Refer to Example 14—6. Determine UB2 due to a uniform distributed
loading, b2 constant.
14—13. Determine the displacement measures at B (see sketch). Consider
only bending deformation. Note: It may be more convenient to integrate the
governing equations rather than apply (14—69).
Prob. 14—13
14—14. Solve two problems with the information sketched:
Prob. 14—14
(a) Determine the fixed end forces and radial displacement at point B
with the force method. Consider only bending deformation and utilize
symmetry at B.
(b) Generalize for an arbitrarily located radial force.
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PROBLEMS 483
14—15. Refer to Example 14—7.

(a) Determine the radial displacement at B defined in Fig. E14—7.
(b) Determine the force solution for the loading shown.
Prob. 14—15
P
14—16. The sketch defines a thin parabolic two-hinged arch.
Prob. 14—16
x2
(a) Determine the horizontal reaction at B due to the concentrated load.

Consider the arch to be nonshallow.
(h) Utilize the results of(a) to obtain the solution for a distributed loading
p2(x) per unit x1.
(c) Determine the reactions resulting from a uniform temperature increase,
T.
(d) Suppose the horizontal support at B is replaced by a prismatic member
extending from A to B. Assume the connections are frictionless hinges.
Repeat parts a and c.
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14—17. Consider the arbitrary two-hinged arch shown. Discuss how you
Prob. 14—17
would generate the influence line for the horizontal reaction. Utilize the results
contained in Examples 14—10 and 14—11.
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15
Engineering Theory of
an Arbitrary Member
15—i. INTRODUCTION; GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS
In the first part of this chapter, we establish the governing equations for a
member whose centroidal axis is an arbitrary space curve. The formulation is
restricted to linear geometry and negligible warping and is referred to as the
theory. Examples illustrating the application of the displacement
and force methods are presented. Next, we outline a restrained warping for-
mulation and apply it to a planar circular member. Lastly, we cast the force
method for the engineering theory in matrix form and develop the member
force-displacement relations which are required for the analysis of a system
of member elements.
The geometrical relations for a member are derived in Chapter 4. For
convenience, we summarize the differentiation formulas here. Figure 15—1
shows the natural and local frames. They are related by
—
cos çbñ + sin çt'b

= —sin4iii +
where = Differentiating (a) and using the Frenet equations (4—20),
we obtain
dt
= at
0 t (15-1)
0
1t3
Note that a is skew-symmetric.

485
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486 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Local reference directions
Fig. 15-i. Natural and local reference frames for a member element.
The curvilinear of a point, say Q, are taken as S and Y2, y3.

Letting K be the position vector to Q (see Fig. 15—2),
R= + y2t2(S) + (15—2)
and differentiating, we find
13R -
= (t — y2a12 — y3a23t2 + y2a23t3
3K
— = t2
—
(15—3)
3K
3y3
The differential volume at Q is

d(vol.) (1 Y2a12 — y3a13)dS dy2 dy3
(15—4)
= (i
E dS dy2 dy3
where is the coordinate of Q in the normal (11) direction and = 1/K is

the radius of curvature. Also,
3R .. (1
Y3 +
(15—5)
3R /1 dcb
y2a23 = Y2 +
f See Sec. 4—8.
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SEC. INTRODUCTION; GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS 487
and the local vectors at Q are orthogonal when a23 0, which requires
a23 =0
(15—6)
d/
It is reasonable to neglect y/R terms with respect to unity when the member
is thin, i.e., when the cross-sectional dimensions are small in comparison to
ay2
Fig. 15—2. Curvilinear directions.
and We express d4,/dS as

dq5
(15—7)
dS
where L is the total arc length and is the total increment in The non-
orthogonality due to can be neglected when the member is only slightly
twisted, i.e., when
<< 1 (15—8)
where b is a typical cross-sectional dimension. In what follows, we will assume

the member is thin, (15—8) is satisfied, and defines the orientation of the
principal inertia directions.
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Example 15—i
The curvature and torsion for a circular helix are derived in Example 4—5:
1
R, R (H'\2
1
where R is the radius of the base circle and H is the rise in one full revolution. The helix
is thin when b/R c< 1, where b is a typical cross-sectional dimension.
Example 15—2
By definition, a member is planar if r = 0 and the normal direction (Il) is an axis of
symmetry for the cross section. We take the centroidal axis to be in the X1-X2 plane
and define the sense oft2 according tot2 x 13 = Theangle is constant and equal to
either 0° (12 or 180° (12 = —ii). Only a12 is finite for a planar member:
a13=a23=0
Example 15—3
Consider the case where the centroidal axis is straight and varies linearly with S.
The member is said to he naturally twisted. Only 023 is finite for this case:
= a13 = 0
(Ic!)
T= const IC
If bk < 1, we can assume aR/aS is orthogonal to F2,
15—2. FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

To establish the force-equilibrium equations, we consider the differential
element shown in Fig. 15—3. We use the same notation as for the planar case.
The vector equilibrium equations follow from the requirement that the resultant
force and moment vectors must vanish:
dS
_. — -
+ rn + t1 x F÷ = 0
We express the force and moment vectors in terms of components referred

to the local frame,
= = FTt
(15—10)
=
m't
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bc/S
+ dS2
+ c/S 2
inc/S
+ c/S 2
where F= F2, F3} etc. The vector derivatives are

dF÷ dFT
= -------t + 'Tat
tIS dS
(a)
— +
dS dS
Also,
x = FJ3 — = {O, _F3,F2}Tt (b)
Substituting in (15—9), and noting that = —-a, lead to the following equi-
librium equations:
aF + b = 0
dM
+F0J
— a12F2 —a33F3 + b1 = 0
+ a12F1 — a23F3 + b2 = 0. (15—11)
dF3
+ a13F1 + a23F2 + b3 = 0
dM1
a12M2 — a13M3 + m1 = 0
+ a12M1 — a23M3 + m2 — F3 0
When the member is planar, a13 = a23 = 0 and the equations uncouple
naturally into two systems, one associated with in-plane loading (b1, b2, rn3,
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F1,F2, M3) and the other with out-of-plane loading (b3, in1, m2, F3, M1, M2).
The in-plane equations coincide with (14—14) when we set a12 = 1/R and the
out-of-plane equations take the form
dF3
dM1 1.
+ in1 = 0 (15—12)
dM2 1
+ + m2 — F3 = 0
15—3. RELATIONS—NEGLIGIBLE WARPING

RESTRAINT; PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES
We consider the material to be elastic and define V" as the complementary

energy per unit arc length. Since we are neglecting warping restraint, is a
function only of F and M. We let
Iav*
. -
(15 13)
— 1, 2, 3
k = {kJ
and write the one-dimensional principle of virtual forces as
dS = Js(eT AF + kT AM)dS (15—14)
dS
It
(0

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SEC. 15—3. NEGLIGIBLE WARPING RESTRAINT 491
Now, we apply the principle of virtual forces to the element shown in

Fig. 15—4. We define ü and ii5 as
= = uTt = equivalent rigid body translation

vector at the centroid (15—15)
= = equivalent rigid body rotation vector
The virtual system satisfies the equilibrium equations (15—5) identically and
therefore is statically permissible. Evaluating APi,
AFT an + + AMT - aw) dS
and substituting in (15—14) lead to the following force-displacement relations:
du
10
e — an +
(15—16)
dO)
k
=
aY* du1
e1 = = — —
du2
C2 = + a12u1 — —
Cj2
a v* du3
e3 = = + + 023u2 +
(113
aV* dw1
k1 — 0120)2 — (1130)3
= =
DV" dw2
k2 + 0120)1 — 023C03
= =
(* d0)3
k3 = = + + 0230)2
Once is specified, the left-hand terms can be expanded. The form. of

depends on the material properties, the particular stress expansions selected,
and the member geometry. In what follows, we consider the material to be
linearly elastic and approximation with the complementary energy function
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492 ENGINEERiNG THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
for the prismatic case, which is developed in Sec. 1 2—3:
= + + + +
(15-17)
+ + + +
where
MT = M1 + — = torsional moment with respect to
F3y2
the shear center
Y2, coordinates of the shear center with respect to
the centroid
= dA
if
= dA
—j-'- if
Note that (lST-i7) is based on a linear expansion for the normal stress,
F1 M-, M3
=7+ 13
and using the shear stress distribution predicted by the engineering theory,
= +
where is the unrestrained torsional distribution due to MT and is the
flexural distribution due to F2, In addition to these approximations, we
are also neglecting the effect of curvature, i.e., we are considering the member
to be thin. The approximate force -displacement relations for a linearly elastic
thin curve member are
F1 du1
+ = — —
F2 du2
+ = + a12u1 — C21U3 — -
=
F3 MT du3
e3 = + a13u1 + a21tc2 + (03
15 18
MT dü1
k1 = = a12co2 — a13w3
M2 dw2
—a23co3
M3 dw3
k3 = + + a13co1 + 1223(02
UI3 U,)
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SEC. 15—4. CIRCULAR PLANAR MEMBER 493
When the member is planar, the shear center is on the Y2 axist and there is
no coupling between in-plane (u1, U2, and out-of-plane (u3, (02) dis-
placements. That is, an out-of-plane loading will produce only out-of-plane
displacements. The approximate force-displacement relations for out-of-plane
deformation for a thin planar member are
F3 MT — du3
e3 = = +
MT dw1 I
(15-19)
M2 1
k2 = k2 +
where = M1 — y2F3. Note that flexure and twist are coupled, due to the
curvature, even when the shear center coincides with the centroid.
15—4. DiSPLACEMENT METHOD—CIRCULAR PLANAR MEMBER

Since the displacement method involves integrating the governing differential
equations, its application is restricted to simple geometries. In what follows,
we apply the displacement method to a circular planar member subjected to
out-of-plane loading. We suppose the cross section is constant and the shear
center coincides with the centroid. It is convenient to take the polar angle e
as the independent variable. The governing equations are summarized below
and the notation is defined in Fig. 15—5.
Equilibrium Equations (sec (15—12))
+ Rh3 0
— M2 + R,n1 =0
dM2
+Rrn2—RF3=O
Force-Displacement Relations (see (15—19))

F3 ldu3
e3 +
= =
M1 I /dw1
k1
M2 l/dw2
k2 = k2o + = +
t The shear center axis lies in the plane containing the centroidal axis, which, by definition, is
a plane of symmetry for the cross Section.
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494 ENGiNEERING THEORY OF AN ARBiTRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Boundary Conditions
F3 or u3
M1 or prescribed at each end (pts. A, B)
M2 or
The solution of the equilibrium equations is quite straightforward. We

integrate the first equation directly:
F3=C1—RJ0b3d0 (15—20)
The remaining two equations can be transformed to
(d)
dM1
= + Rin1 (e)
We solve (d) for M1 and determine M2 from (e). The resulting expressions are
M1 = C2cosO + C3 sinG +
M2 = —C2sinO + C3cosO + + Rm1
where M1 ,,
is the particular solution of (d).
P3
x2
i313
F3
B
the X1 —X2 plane.

are axes of symmetry.
Fig. 15—5. Notation for circular member.

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The solution of the force-displacement relations is also straightforward.

First, we transform (b) to
d2co1 R2 R
+ w1 = Rk2 — in1 + (1 +
RM5
(f)
- Rw2
=
where is a dimensionless parameter,
(15—22)
=
which is an indicator for torsional deformation. Solving the first equation for
and then determining W2 and u3 from the second and third equations lead
to
= C4cosO + C5 sin fJ + wi,,
d RM1
= —C4 sin U + C5cosU +
C6 —
+j +
dO
where is the particular solution for wi.

The complete solution involves six integration constants which are deter-
mined by enforcing the boundary conditions. The following examples illustrate
the application of the above equations.
Example 15—4
The member shown is Sxed at A and subjected to a uniform distributed loading. Taking
Fig. E15—4
b3 = const
h3 = coast in (15—20), we obtain
F3 = C1 — Rb30 (a)
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The equation for M3 reduces to
+ M1 = RF3 = RC1 — R250

Then,
= RF3 = — R2b30
and the solution for M3 and M2 follows from (15—21),

= C2 cos 0 + C3 sin 0 + RF3
M2 —C2.sinO + C3cosO — R2b3
The boundary conditions at B require

F3=M1=M2=O at 0=08
= R5308
C2 = —R2h3 sin
C3 R2b3 cos
Replacing — 0 by the final solution is
F3 = Rb30
= R2b3[q — sin ?q]
M2 .—R2h3[1 — cos
Example 15-5
The force system due to the end action, can be determined by applying the
librium conditions directly to the segment shown in Fig. E15—SA. This leads to
F3 =
= FB3R(l — cos F83R[l •— — 0)] (a)
M2 = — sin =— sin(Oa 9)
We suppose there is no initial deformation. Using (a), the equation for w3 becomes
+ w1 = (1 + — 0) (b)
The particular solution of (b) is
(1 + [0 cos(OB 9)]
—
Using the above results and specializing (15—23) for this support condition lead to the
following expressions for the displacements:
WAI COS 0 + sin 0
+ C05 + sin 0 — 9 cos(08 —
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I
SlflO + cosO + + cosO]
. . . 1
Sm 0 Osln(Oa — (d)
— —
133 UA3 + RthAI(l — cos £1) — Rö5A2 Sifl 0
RFB3 IF I
+ COS C1j sin P SW
1L
0 cos(05 — 0) + c, + + sln(OR —
Terms involving and define the rigid body displacements due to support
movement. Also, terms involving c1 are due to twist deformation. The rotations and
Fig. E15—5A
F3
M2
I?
translation at B are listed below:

COS + sin 0a
R2P83 f 1
+ COS ± c1] sin
sin + cos
1—c,
+ —h--— 033 -. 1] — —--—- sin 2
13)33 + Roi41(l — cos Rw42 Sm 0)3

1—c3
+ C05 sin — 2c1 sin
3 El2 Th
+ +
+
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To investigate the relative importance of the various deformation terms, we consider

the rectangular cross section shown in Fig. El 5—5)3. The properties aret
1 61 _6 I
A3 5A — 5d2d3
J = (for d3)
Then,
(d3\2
El2 — E [1 (di'\21
GA3R2 — G [io k,i2) J
The values of 4k and for d3/d2 = 1, 2, 3 and v = 0.3 are tabulated below:
= E12/GJ
d3/d2 4k (Ibr v 0.3)
1 1,69 1.54
2 2.75 3.8
3 3.16 7.4
Fig. E15—5B
1(3
t The torsional constant for a rectangular cross Section is developed in Sec. 11—3.
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SEC. 15—5. FORCE METHOD—EXAMPLES 499
Since (d2/R)2 << 1, we see that it is reasonable to neglect transverse shear deformation. In
general, we cannot neglect twist deformation when the member is not shallow. For the
shallow case, we can neglect in the expressions for UB3.
Example 15—6
Consider a closed circular ring (Fig. El 5—6) subjected to a uniformly distributed twisting
moment. From symmetry, F3 0 and M1, M2 are constant. Then, using (15—16), we find
M1 = 0
1142 Rm1
The displacements follow from (15—18)
U3 = (13; — 0
RM2 R2m1
WI
= =
x2 Fig. E15—6
b3 = m2 0
const
15—5. FORCE METHOD—EXAMPLES

In this section, we illustrate the application of the principle of virtual forces
to curved members. The steps involved are the same as for the prismatic or
planar case and therefore we will not reiterate them here. We restrict this
discussion to the case where the material is linearly elastic, the member is thin
and slightly twisted, and warping is neglected. The general form of the
expression for the displacement at an arbitrary point and the compatibility
equations corresponding to these restrictions (see (15—14), (15—17)) follow.
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ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
= —i + j [(ei° + Fj,Q + (a-)

+ + (15—24)
+ (k20 + + +
Compatibility Equations
Z1, Z2 Zr = force redundants
= F30 +
= M3,0 + kA
R1 = R1,0 + kZk
.fkJZJ (k = 1, 2 r) (15—25)
3= 1
where
+ JMT.JMT.k + + ETM31M3,kldS
= — + + +
+ + +
+
= M1 + y3F2 — v2F3
The reduced form for out-of-plane deformation is obtained by setting F1 =

F2 + = 0.
Example 15—7
Consider the nonprisinatic member shown below. The centroidal axis is straight but the
orientations of the principal inertia axes vary. We take X1 to coincide with the ceniroidal
axis and X2, X3 to coincide with the principal inertia directions at the left end (point A).
The principal inertia directions are defined by the unit vectors t2, t3.
= cos + sin çbt3
= —sin + cos
at x1=O
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SEC. 15—5. FORCE METHOD—EXAMPLES
Now, we consider the problem of determining the translations of the centroid at B due
to the loadingshown in Fig. E15—7A. It is convenient to work with translationcomponents
(v52, v53) referred to the basic frame, i.e., the X2, X3 directions. We suppose that the shear
Fig. E15—7A
x2
x1
axts
center coincides with the centroid and shear deformation is negligible. Spe-
cializing (15—24), and noting that M1 = 0 for a transverse load applied at the centroid,
the displacement expression reduces to
dQ =
11L(i
+ (b)
Force Systems
The moment vectors acting on a positive cross section due to P2, P3 applied at B (Fig.
E15—7B) are —
P2(L —
= — P3(L — x1)12
To find M2, M3, we must the components of It,! with respect to the local frame.
These follow from Fig. E15—7C:
For P3.
M2 = P2(L —
M3 == P2(L — x1)cos q5
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Fig. E15—7B
L-x,
/B
1'2(L—x1)i3
'I
—P3(L
P3
Fig. E15—7C
M2r2
——P2(L—x1)z1
M3t3
For
M2 = — 1)cos 4)
(C )
M3 = +P3(L — x1)sin4)
Determination of Due to P2
The virtual-force system for corresponds to P2 = + 1. Introducing (d) in (b),
we obtain
(f)
Determination of CR3 Due to P2

The virtual-force system for corresponds to P3 = + 1. Using (e) leads to
VB3
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Example 15—8
We rework Example 15—6 with the force method. Using symmetry, we see that
M1 = 0
=
Suppose the rotation w1 in the direction of in1 is desired. The virtual loading for this
displacement is rn1 = + 1. Starting with
and substituting for M2, we obtain

TO R2
COl
=
Example 15—9
Consider the closed ring shown. Only M1 and M2 arc finite for this loading. Also, the
behavior is symmetrical with respect to X1 and we have to analyze only one half the ring.
Fig. E15—9
x2
42
44
12,J are constant
We take the torsional moment at 0 = 0 as the force redundant. The moment distributions
M1
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Specializing (l5—25) for this problem,

f11Z1 = A1
[M1 0M1 0M2,
A1 = —2R + dO
El2
,,/2
1
f11 = 2R dO
J +
and then substituting for M1, M2,
A1 cos 0
'
12 E12) sin
=
[sin2 0
= -
and it follows that Z1 = 0. We could have arrived at this result by noting that the behavior
is also symmetrical with respect to X2. This requires M2 to be an even function of 0.
The virtual-force system for WAI is T = + 1. Using (15—24) and (a) leads to
2wAi = 2RJ
r/T sin 0\sin 0 fT cos O'\ cos 01
+
RTa[l I
COAl
Example 15-10
We analyze the planar circular mcmber shown in Fig. El 5— bA. The loading is out-of-
plane, and only F3, M1, and M2 are finite. To simplify the algebra, we consider the shear
center to coincide with the centroid and neglect transverse shear deformation. It is con-
venient to take the reaction at B as the force redundant.
Fig. E15—1OA
P13 (Displacement restraint

C iriX1 direction at B)
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Primary Structure
The primary structure is defined in Fig. El 5—lOB:
B1 = R2 —MA2 = —MAI
d1 — UA3 d2 = =
R4 = Z1 = F53 d4 =
E15—1OB
M1 ,
xl
Force Analyses
The force solutions for the loadings shown in Fig. El 5— [OC are:
For F:
F'3,0 = +P
M1, = PR[l COS(ii — llc)]
M2,0 = —PR sin(lJ — 'Ic) (b)
'Ic
ForZ1 = +1:
F3,1 = +1
= R(1 — cos ii) (c)
M21 —Rsini1
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Fig. E15—1OC
C
=+i
B
Compatibility Equation (15—25)
IL,j =
fit
!ii =
R + + M2
Substituting for the internal force and reactions, we obtain the following expressions
for and
R3 [(1 + (1 —
— Sin Sill COS
—
— UA3 + RrOA2 sin — — cos
+ R2 sin(05 — O)dG
{o. [i + cos(05 — Or)] — sin — sin Oc

—
sin
El2
=
GJ
Note that we could have determined A1 and using the results of Example 15—5.
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SEC. 15—6. RESTRAINED WARPING FORMULATION 507
15-6. RESTRAINED WARPING FORMULATION

In what follows, we consider the member to be thin and slightly twisted.
Referring to Fig. 15—2, these restrictions lead to
dR -
tl (15—26)
d(vol.) dS dr2 dy3
Therefore, in analyzing the strain at Q (S, y3), we can treat the differential
line elements as if they were orthogonal. Thc approach followed for the pris-
matic case is also applicable here. One has only to work with stress and strain
measures referred to the local frame 12, 13) rather than the global frame.
Our formulation is based on Reissner's principle (13—33):
bTIi V*)d(vol.)
— d(surface area)] = 0
r, ü = independent quantities
= e(iI)
p, b = prescribed forces
= = complementary energy density
We introduce expansions for fl, in terms of one-dimensional displacement
and force measures (functions of S) and integrate over the cross section. The
force-equilibrium equations follow from the stationary requirement with respect
to displacement measures.
We start with the strain measures, = Y12. One can show thatt
S1
au -. (3U
ti + t2 (15—27)
-
tj + (3
where is the displacement vector for Q (S, Yi' Y2). We use the same displace-
ment expansion as for the prismatic case:
+ u212 + 113(3
U1 U1 + W2y3 — WIY2 ± f4i
IA2 lAsZ — — y3) (15—28)
= + co1(y2 — Y2)
Y3)
Expanding
= + + cr13y13)dy2dy3
t See Prob. 15—5.

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leads to
dy2 = F1e1 + F2e2 + F3e3 + MTkI
+ M3k3 + MRf + Mj,.
e1, e2,. .
, k3 (defined by (15—16))
. (i5—29)
= SSai14) dy2 dy3
MR = JJ[ci2(4),2 + a12çb) + + a134))]dy2dy3
The equilibrium equations consist of(15—11) and the equation due to warping
restraint,
MR (15—30)
which can be interpreted as the stress equilibrium equation for the direction
weighted with respect to 4).
Now, we use the stress expansion developed for the prismatic case. The
derivation is discussed in Sec. 13—5, so we only list the essential results here.
The normal stress is expressed as
F1 M2 M3
= +
'2
Y3 —
'3
+ -r '1) (15—31)
where4) = — the St. Venant warping function referred to the shear center.
We write the transverse shear stress distribution as
+ ±
(15—32)
=
are functions of The corresponding complementary energy function
+ M32) +
= $SV* dy2 dy3 =
+
+ 2F2F3
+ + (15—33)
+ +
+ +
Also, (15—32) satisfies (see(13—50))

JS(a124),2 + cr134),3)dy2dy3
Finally, noting (b), we express MR as
MR = (1 + + b2F2 + b3F3 (15—34)
where the b's involve the curvature (a32, a1 3). If the cross section is symmetrical,
A23 Y3r = Y2r br = 0
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SEC. 15—6. RESTRAINED WARPING FORMULATION 509
and b2, b3 are due to self-equilibrating stress distributions.tIt is reasonable,

in this case, to take b2 0 and compute the shear coefficients (A2, A3)
based on the primary fiexural shear stress distributions.
Expanding the stationary requirement with respect to force measures yields
the force-displacement relations,
a av* av*
ej k2 k3
= = =
e2 + b2f = e3 + b3f = (15—35)
aF2
aV* i3V*
where e1, e2, , k3 are defined by (15—16). The corresponding unrestrained

.
warping relations arc (15—18).

Example 15—11
To investigate the influence of warping restraint, we consider a planar circular member

having a doubly svrnnietricai cross section (Fig. his—il), clampedat one end and subjected
Fig. E15—11
NM
to a torsional moment at the other end. We neglect transverse shear deformation due
to restrained torsion. The governing equations for this loading (See Sec. 15—4) follow.
dM1
=
dM2
=
dO
R dO
M1 + M'j
t See Prob. 15—6.
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El2
M2 = E12k2 = +
El4, f
R (10
(b)
1 (dco1
f=
= GJk1
Boundary ('onditions
0—U (01C02J0
1v11 =M
M2 = 0
One can write the equilibrium solution directly from the sketch:
M1 M — 0) M2 = Al sin(05 — 0)
We substitute for the moments in the force-displacement relations.
—
M1 = GJk1 = — 0)
1
k1 —
I (dco2 '\ lvi

+ Wi) — 0)
=
and solve for k1, and then Wi. The resulting expressions are
G.J .,. El2

2 2 =———
GJ
= ME — 0) — cos — siiih tanh

1
GJ +
= {o cos(05 — 0) sin 0 cos
+ 0 cos(05 — 0) + — sin 0 cos
—
{sinh — tanh cosh + cos ü tanli
Warping restraint is neglected by setting Er = 0 and =

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SEC. 15—7. COMPLETE END RESTRAINT
The rotation at B is
= — COS 0B) +
(RM\
l\ El2)
K= 1
+ Sin 0B
1 —
cos2 tanh 704
[ —
If we set
On On
and let (g) reduces to (13—57), the prismatic solution. The influence of warping
restraint depends on 2 and Values of K vs. 2 for = ir/4, it/2 are tabulated below:
for
= +
for = it/4 = ir/2

1 0.179 0.51)0
5 0.786 0.96
10 0.907 0.99
We showed in Chapter 13 that
2 0 (open section)
(j)
2 =0 (closed section)
where t is the wall thickness and h is a depth measure. Since 2 = RA and R/li for 1
a thin curved member, the influence of warping restraint is not as significant as for the
prismatic case.
15—7. MEMBER FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS—COMPLETE

END RESTRAINT -
In the analysis of a member system, one needs the relations between the for
and displacements at the ends of the member. For a truss, these equations
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reduce to a single relation between the bar force and the elongation. Matrix
notation is particularly convenient for this derivation so we start by expressing
the principle of virtual forces and the complementary energy density in terms
of generalized force and deformation matrices.
Referring back to Sec. 15—3, we define
a v*
(1536)
aM1
and write the principle of virtual forces as

dS dS dT (15—37)
Ss J
Note that we are working with M1, not MT. We use the complementary energy
function for a thin slightly twisted member with negligible warping restraint
(i.e., (15—17)). With the above notation,
Eq. (15—17) +
where
g= (15-38)
gfm
1 Y2Y3
gf +
A2G (7 GJ
I
Sym +
o ojo
J'3 1
El2
0 0 Sym
The force-deformation relation implied by (15—38) Is

+ (15—39)
We will use these general expressions for planar and out-of-plane deformation
as well as for the arbitrary case. One has only to delete the rows and columns
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SEC. 15—7. COMPLETE END RESTRMNT 513
of g corresponding to the zero force measures. For example,

{F1F2M3}
= 0
(15—40)
El
for planar loading applied to a planar member.
Finally, we substitute fort in (15 —37) and distinguish between prescribed and
unknown displacements. The principle of virtual forces expands to
J5(t° + dS — dT dT (15—41)
where contains prescribed displacements and R are the corresponding re-

actions; d contains unknown displacements and are forces corresponding
to d. The virtual-force system must satisfy the force-equilibrium
equations, (15—11). It is more convenient to generate and R with the equili-
brium equations for a finite segment rather than attempt to solve (15—il).
Consider the arbitrary member shown in Fig. 15—6. Each end is completely
restrained against displacement. The positive sense of S is from A toward B.
13
Basic member frame
Fig. 15—6. Arbitrary curved member.
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We suppose the geometry of the member is defined with respect to a basic

frame which we refer to as frame ii, and take the end forces at B as the force
redundants. Then, the primary structure consists of the member cantilevered
from A.
Throughout the remaining portion of the chapter, we will employ the notation
for force and displacement transformations that is developed in Chapter 5. A
superscript n is used to denote a quantity referred to (lie basic frame. When
no frame superscript is used, it is understood the quantity is referred to the
local frame. For example, represents the internal force matrix at point Q
referred to the local frame at Q. Note that acts on the positive face. The
force matrix for the negative face is — The end forces at A, B are denoted
by and are related to the internal force matrices by
= = 15 42
— =—
Also, the displacement matrix at point Q is written as
{u}
0//Q = {u1, U2, U3 (Oj, W2, c03}Q (15—43)
For this system, and are prescribed.

We determine for the primary structure, i.e. the member cantilevered
from A, due to displacement of A, temperature, loads applied along the member,
and the end forces at B and then equate it to the actual The virtual-force
system is
Lw =
AR = =
= =
Also,
d=
d
Introducing (a), (b) in (15—41), we obtain
+
+
Il
+ +
Next, we express as
+ (15—44)
where is the internal force matrix at Q due to the prescribed external

loading applied to the member cantilevered from A. Finally, substituting for
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SEC. 15—7. COMPLETE END RESTRAINT 515
leads to
[SB
= + .
T(18 + 0)dS
(15—45)
[JB
+
The first term is due to rigid body motion of the member about A whereas
the second and third terms are due to deformation of the member. We define
as the member deformation matrix:
= — to rigid body (1546)
notion aI,out .4
By definition, is equal to the sum of the second and third terms in (15—45).
We also define
JSB
+ 0)dS = initial deformation matrix
S-4 (15—47)
fll member flexibility matrix

—
= + (15—48)
Equation is the force-displacement relation for an arbitrary member

with complete end restraint. It is analogous to the force-elongation relation
for the ideal truss element that we developed in Chapter 6.
The member flexibility matrix, f", is a natural property of the member since
it depends only on the geometry and material properties. For simple members
such as a prismatic member or a planar circular member with constant cross
section, one can obtain the explicit form off. When the geometry is complex,
one must generally resort to numerical integration such as described in Sec.
14—8 in order to determine f and This problem is discussed in the next
section. Finally, we point out that the general definitions off, are also valid
for in-plane or out-of-plane deformation of a planar member. One simply has
to use the appropriate forms for the various matrices.
Up to this point, we have considered only a simple member. Now suppose
the actual member consists of a set of members rigidly connected to each other
and the flexibility matrix for each member is known. We can obtain the total
flexibility matrix by compounding the flexibility matrices for the individual
elements. To illustrate the procedure, we consider two members, AA1 and
A1B, shown in Fig. 15—7.
The matrix, f", contains the displacements at B due to the end forces at B
with A fixed:
Now, suppose point A1 is fixed. Then, the displacement at B due to the

tion of member A1B is
A1B
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where is the flexibility matrix for member A1B referred to frame n. The
additional displacement at B due to movement of A1 is
—
• B,' displaccment at 4 — ' BA, 'Ai
It remains to determine
Fig. 15—7. Segmented member.
The force system at A1 due to the end forces at B is given by

— CF-n
A, B
and the resulting deformation of member AA1 is

— ffl — ffl (TI?
A, mernberAA, — A, AA,' It
Finally, we have
+ = ffl (15—49)
=
The end forces at B are found by inverting (15—48):
= (fn)_ 1 member stiffness matrix
— 1 •,J/'fl
—
1550
= — + —
The first term is due to external load applied along the member and represents
the initial (or fixed-end) forces at B. For convenience, let
(15—51)
The second and third terms are the end forces at B due to end displacement at
B, A. Once is known, we can evaluate the interior force matrix at a point
using (15—44),
= 0
+ (a)
Thus, the analysis of a completely restrained member reduces to a set of matrix

multiplications once the member stiffness and initial deformation matrices are
established.
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SEC. 15—8. GENERATION OF MEMBER MATRICES 517
When analyzing a system of members by the displacement method, expres-

sions for the end forces in terms of the end displacements are required. In
addition to (15—50), we need an expression for Now,
= — 0
Substituting for leads to

i + —
—— — ( )
A,0 BA B.i
where represents the initial end forces. In order to express the equations
in a more compact form, we let
in
KBB
ii
in inwn.T
—
k AB — n — jn —
L BA
BA BA BA
With this notation, the force-displacement relations simplify to

= + +
(15—54)
= + +
Note that only and are required in order to evaluate and
15-8. GENERATION OF MEMBER MATRICES

The member flexibility matrix is defined by
= g014)dS
A
Noting that
=
and letting
= (15—55)
we can write
ffl
(15—56)
If numerical integration is used, the values of the integral at intermediate points

along the centroidal axis as well as the total integral can he determined in the
same operation. This is desirable since, as we shall show later, the intermediate
values can be utilized to evaluate the initial deformation matrix.
We consider next the initial deformation matrix:
+ 0)dS
=
We transform 4',g, and from the local frame to the basic frame, using (15—55)
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and
=
=
The contributions of temperature and external load are

T,O)dS (15—57)
0)dS (15—58)
Suppose there is an external force system applied at an intermediate point,

say C. Let denote the force and moment matrices and the total
force matrix:
(15—59)
=
Normally, the external force quantities are referred to the basic frame for the
member, i.e., frame n. The initial force matrix at Q due to this loading is
given by
0 SA Sc (15—60)
07fl _IIU
Q.0 —
c <C. <C
Writing
— or" or"
CD
and introducing the above relations in (15—59) result in

(
=
The bracketed term is an intermediate value of the integral defining Finally,
we let
(15—61)
=
With this notation, (f) simplifies to
(15—62)
Also,
(15—63)
The determination of the member flexibility matrix reduces to evaluating

J defined by (15—61). One can work with unpartitioned matrices, i.e., g,
but it is more convenient to express the integrand in partitioned form. The
partitioning is consistent with the partitioning of into F, M. Since the
formulation is applicable for arbitrary deformation, it is desirable to maintain
this generality when expanding in partitioned form. Therefore, we define
a as the row order of F and /3 as the row order of M.
(15—64)
Continuing, we partition and g symmetrically, consistent with (15—64),

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SEC. 15—8. GENERATION OF MEMBER MATRICES 519
and simplify the notation somewhat:
0
=
(15—65)
=
(fixfj)
() ()
— g11 g12
gQ— E
g12 i g22
The translation and rotation transformation matrices are developed in Secs.

5—1, 5—2 and the form of g for a thin curved member is given by (15—38).
The local ilexihility matrix is defined by (15—55). Using the above notation,
the expressions for the submatrices are
=
(15—66)
g22 —
Note that g12 = 0 and g22 are diagonal matrices when the shear center
coincides with the centroid. If, in addition, axial and shear deformation are
neglected, g11 = 0.
We let
= = (15—67)
The submatrices follow from (15—65):

+ + + XHQgZ2XBQ
'1112 = -F-
(15—68)
'1122 =
Next, we partition J consistent with'1':
j— 'I' dS —
I
— — Jp22j (15—69)
x
JP = F" is
Finally, we partition f":

-
ffl ffl
r =
(15-70)
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The initial deformation matrix due to an arbitrary loading at point C can be

determined with (15—62). Its partitioned form is
=
1V01 —
r cli — C,12
n
BC
I
C.12 Ii C
rT —
lYe) L"c. 12 —- 2V'BC 22J 'C
(flxfl)
where denote the initial translation and rotation matrices.

The member stiffness matrix, is obtained by inverting We write
= (r)' =I (15—72)
[ku k22j I
(11 )< /1)
One can easily show that (we drop the frame superscript on for convenience)
—(
k,'11 — k ii — 12 22
\1
12)
(15—73)
1n —If çT i
22k $ —
Once is known, the stiffness matriccs and can be generated.

Expanding (15—53) leads to the following partitioned forms:
knB — —I
in I
rinIi I nvn,T
llJtB,! T
ml12
rnii I
(15—74
I
1n.!T I
I
KBA I= I
L 12
— A ] [k';1 I A
AA
—
15—9. MEMBER MATRICES—PRISMATIC MEMBER

In Chapter 12, we developed the governing equations for a prismatic member
and presented a number of examples which illustrate the displacement and
force methods of solution. Actually, we obtained the complete set of force-
displacement relations and also the initial end forces for concentrated and
uniform loading. Now, in this section, we generate the member flexibility
matrix using the matrix formulation. We also list for future reference the
various member stiffness matrices.
The notation is summarized in Fig. 15—8. For convenience, we drop the
frame reference superscript n, since the basic frame coincides with the local
frame, i.e., = I. The positive sense of a displacement, external force, or
end forces coincides with the positive sense of the corresponding coordinate
axis.
Starting with (15—66), we have = since R$ are identity matrices.
Once XBQ is assembled we can determine the submatriees of from (15—68).
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_________ ______
SEC. 15—9. MEMBER MATRICES—PRISMATIC MEMBER 521
i2 MB!, WB i
UB!
I. /
X1 is centroiclal axis.
X2, X3 are principal inertia directions.
Fig. 15—8. Summary of notation for a prismatic member.
Now,
o o 0
X5Q= 0 0 —(L—.xQ1) (a)
o (L—xQt) 0
Then, using g defined by (15—38), we obtain
L/AE 0 0
L
/1 1) L
\-2x3
+ +
Sym
I)
+ +
0 0 0
V
0
f12= GJ . -— +
2E13 (15—75)
LT2 L2
0
GJ 2E12
=
L/GJ 10 0
Sym LIEu
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The submatrices of k are generated with (1 5—73), (1 5— 74) and are listed below
for reference. Transverse shear deformation is neglected by setting a2 = 03 0:
12E12 12E11
a2 = a3
=
'2 = —I'---
2
1 + a2 - 1+03
GJ 12E
b1 = + +
AE
0 0
L
k11=
L3
Sym
0 0 0
6E1
0
k12 = L2
(15—76)
0
L2 L2
k22 (4 + 0
Fl*
Sym (4 +
0 0 0
—
0
L
L3 L2
10
(change sign of(2, 3) and (3, 2) in k12)
—
b1
L2 L2
B= 1!
0
0
L2
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SEC. 15—9. MEMBER MEMBER 523
—6E!!Ye2
b
V L2
FI*
=
(4 + a3)_L_
(change sign of(1, 2), (1, 3) in k22)
Finally, the fixed end forces due to a concentrated transverse force and a
uniform transverse loading are summarized below.
concentrated Force
12E13
a3 =
MB3 —
(15—77)
FB2 —
MBI = +
MA1 =
— F112
MA3 = —L + FB2 +
Force
12E12
a2
— GA1L2
—
÷
FB3 +
(15—78)
+ FB3)
MAI —MB1
— _PC3 — FR3
MA2 L + — MB2)
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Concentrated Torque
= —
(15—79
MA1 = Tc1(1 —
Uniformly Distributed Load, b2

- - b2L
F82 = FA2
— h2L2 (15—80)
M83 = —MA3 =
M81 MAI = 0
Uniformly Distributed Load, b3

— b3L.
F83 = 1q43 =
— — b3L2 (15—81)
M82 =
= ——u—
= =0
Uniformly Distributed Torque, rn
M81 MAI = (15—82)
15—10. MEMBER MATRICES—THIN PLANAR CIRCULAR MEMBER

In this section, we generate the flexibility and initial deformation matrices
for a thin planar circular member, of constant cross section, using matrix
operations. We include extensional and transverse shear deformation for the
sake of generality. Some of the relations have already been obtained as illustra-
tive examples of the force and displacement methods. In particular, the reader
should review Example 14—6, which treats planar deformation, and Examples
15—4, 15—5, 15—10 for out-of-plane deformation.
The notation is summarized in Fig. 15—9. By definition, Y2 and Y3 are
principal inertia axes and p3 = 0, i.e., the shear center lies in the plane con-
taining the centroidal axis. It is convenient to take the basic frame (frame n)
to be parallel to the local frame at B. The three-dimensional forms of
and are
cos — sin 01
= rRbq 0
I
= = sin cos 0
° 1
17]
= = (15—83)
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SEC. 15—ID. THIN PLANAR CIRCULAR MEMBER 525
=
0
jO
I
0
R sin
R sin ,fl
for planar deformation and

R0=1
— [—R(1 — cos
SQ
for out-of-plane deformation. Since the complete flexibility matrix is desired,

it is just as convenient to work with subinatrices of order 3 as to consider
separately the planar and out-of-plane cases.
x;
Centroidal axis
b
B2
F;3,U;,
Mw
Fig. 15—9. Summary of notation for a planar circular member.
We consider the member to be thin and use the local flexibility matrix
defined by (15—38). Expanding (15—66), (15—68) leads to the member flexibility
matrix.
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526 ENGINEERiNG THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
13 El3
ae as =
El2 El7
Ct Cs =
=
a1 = ae + a7
a2 = ae —
c1 = +
(15—84)
= —
( Y2\
—
—\2
Y2 \
Symmetrica'
- sin ± + az)i}
R3
I - cosO5 +r!j)
— sin2 05(1
+ a2)} a2)sin cos
2
0 0 + c41
— 2c3 05 — C2 Sifl COS
R2
0 0 — sin
1,12
— T— 0 0 —cos05)
t212t) —
+
0
+ c2 sin cos f15}
Ib22
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SEC. 15-10. THIN PLANAR CIRCULAR MEMBER 527
We consider next the determination of the initial deformation matrix due to

an arbitrary concentrltted load at an interior point, C. Now, the flexibility
matrix for the segment AC referred to the local frame at C, which we denote
by is known. We just have to change to and superscript b to c in
When the external load is referred to the local frame at C, the displace-
ment at C is given by
('IC
The displacement at B due to rigid body motion about C is

— TrI & T011hc.
"B — BC BC 3
Finally, we can write

= =
U
1, — b
V0 — UB —.. j T c v-I,. T Tçc. T c
c AC,11 /1.4C.i21 C
+ + (15—85)
1' r T ( Tcc \
— Ii 4C,121 C C
The uncoupled expressions follow.
Planar Loading
/ 1+a1
= = M3 + cos + 'Ic —
I' 1+02 Cos

+ Slfl 1 +
R3 I 1+a1
+ -'-'--— — cog 0c ± -—-— sin ic
— o4
+ + Sifl 5jfl
1:13
(15—86)
I I R ç
2 = — —s-—-- Sill 'Ic
L
1+02. . 1
2
+
+ j —
+ {cos 'Ic — cos OB}Tc3
RO
00,3 WB3 — sin + (1 COS +
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Out-of-Plane Loading
R3 (
V0. = = COS 'ic + c4) — C2 Sifl 0c cos 0B
+ c3(— sin — sin °B + sin

R21
+ —- cos 'ic + C2 6c COS 0J3 + C3 Sifl
)
R21
+ — CZS1flGCS1flOB — c3(1
£12 ( j
R2
1= COS 'ic + c3(sin 0B — sin 'ic)
+ c2 sin cos
+
RI Cos 'ic — (15—87)
+ 5jfl + C2 Sifl °c o5}Tc2
2= = Sjfl 'ic + c3(cos — COS 'ic)

£12
)
— C2 SIfl Oc Sin
+ )[CIOC sin 'ic + c2 sin sin

i-i—
+ cos 'ic + c2 sin 0c cos

E12
When the loading is symmetrical, one can utilize symmetry to determine the
fixed end forces. The most convenient choice of unknowns is the internal forces
at the midpoint, i.e., 6 = OB/2; F1 and M3 are unknown for the planar case and
only M2 is unknown for the out-of-plane case. Explicit expressions for the
fixed end forces due to various loading conditions arc listed below.
Planar Loading
Fig. 15—10 defines the notation for the planar case.
We consider two loadings: a concentrated radial force P applied at C, and
a uniform distributed radial load b2 applied per unit arc length over the entire
segment. The basic frame is chosen to utilize symmetry. We determine the
axial force and moment at C from the symmetry conditions u1 = w3 = 0.
CASE 1—CONCENTRATED RADIAL FORCE P
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SEC. 15—10. THIN PLANAR CIRCULAR MEMBER 529
1;.fl
B!
MA
Fig. 15—10. Notation for planar loading.
SiflO! 1+Q2
— cos cc) + —--—— SIfl 2 CL
CL 2
(1 + a1\ sin2 cc (1 + a2\
CL I I — + sin cos
cc
=
RP ci — COS
+
( (15—88)
—-i- —
— 7771 — 77
' 131 — Al — Cl
— 1'
—
'A2
— PR I 1 — co.s (sin
= MA SIfl + 1,/I COS
CASE 2—UNIFORM DISTRIBUTED RADIAL LOAD b2
= 0
—Rb2(1
sin
(1 + ai) sin2 cc (1 + a2'\
+ sin cc cos cc
2 — cc
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(15—89)
Mc=R2b2aecb(_1
= — a4)
= = —Rb2 Sill C(
= —MA = R2b2aecb — cos
Out-of-Plane Loading
Figure 15—11 defines the notation for the out-of-plane case.
We consider four loadings: a concentrated force P, and a couple T—both
applied at C; a uniform distributed force h3; and a uniform distributed couple
in1. Tile bending moment at C is obtained using the symmetry condition
CD2 = 0.
F3
Mt
Fig. 15—li. Notation for out-of-plane loading.
CASE 1—CONCENTRATED FORCE P

P
=
=0
PR + c3(l — cosa)
2
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SEC. 15—11. FLEXIBILITY MATRIX—CIRCULAR HELIX 531
PR
MB1 = MA1 --i-- (1 — cos cx)
- =
- PR.
— = — ----- sin cx
FB = =
CASE 2—CONCENTRATED TORQUE T
= 0
T c2sin2cx
= 2 cxc1 + c2 sin cx cos cx (15—91)
=
FB=FA=0 -
CASE 3—UNIFORM DISTRIBUTED LOAD h3
0
c1(sincx — cx)+ c2 sin cx(i — coscx)+ — cxcoscx)
— R 2 b3
+ C2 COS
(15—92)
= = R2b3(sin cx — cx cos cx)
= = — R2b3(cx sin cx — 1 + cos cx)
=FA=—PRcx
CASE 4—UNIFORM DISTRIBUTED COUPLE m1
= 0
cj(a — sin cx) + c2 sin cx(cos cx —1)
= m1R——--——-—--
cxc1 + C2 SJfl cx cos cx (15—93)
—m1R sin cx
MA2 = — rn1R(1 — cos cx)
15—11. FLEXIBILITY MATRIX—CIRCULAR HELIX

In this section, we develop the flexibility matrix for a member whose centroidal
axis is a circular helix. The notation is shown in Fig. 15—12. The principal
inertia direction, Y2, is considered to coincide with the normal direction, i.e.,
the inward radial direction, at each point. We also suppose the
properties are constant. For convenience, we summarize the geometrical
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relations:
x3 = R cos 0
x2 R sin 0
x3=C8
dS a dO
a= [R2 + C2)112 = constant
= + Rcos 012 + Cl3)

fl t2 = -—COS — sin 012
b= t3 = — Ccos 072 + R13)
R.
—---sinO —cosO
IC
a a
Rc, = R,3 = =
C.
—sin 0
C
——-cos 0
R
a a
0 — C(OB — 0) R(sin — sin 0)
= C(OB — 0) 0 — R(cos — cos 0)
— R(sin — sin 0) R(cos 0
The steps involve only algebraic operations and integration. We first deter-
mine using (15—66), then from (15—68), and finally with (15—70). In
what follows, we assume the shear center coincides with the centroid and neglect
extensional and transverse shear deformation. With these restrictions,
= g12 = () =
GJ
g2=
El3
and the expressions for reduce to
=
'I'12 'V22
The flexibility matrix for a constant cross section is given below.

t See Examples 4—6 and 5—3.
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SEC. 15—li. FLEXIBILITY MATRIX—CIRCULAR HELIX 533
Centroidal axis
Yi
Xi", X', X31 —directions of basic frame
Y2, Y3—principal inertia directions
Fig. 15—12. Notation for circular helix.
Notation—-Din,ensionless Para,neters
R2E12 C2l2
= +
R2 C2 (E12\ 13
= +
C12
ij T
RC[12 El2
a3
Ra3 R2 [12 El2
1+a1 1—a1
a5 = a6 =
a4+a6
a7= a8=
2 2
a6+3a4 a6—3a4
a9 a10
2 2
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Elements of f71
[fit Sym 1
f22 I
f33j
= C2a( +
a
+ 2a4 sin 08 + a10 sin OB}
R2a2cz 1 (1
+ + Sin208) — 2sinO8 +
El3
f a6
02B a8 0B + a4(OB 0B — COS 05 + COS OB)}
0B(08 sin 1 + cos —

— El3
RCr1
f31 = + (a1 — a4)(i — cos0,1) a4 sin2 05 + a9OssinOn}
C2x
+ — a10 sin 08 Cos — 2a4OB cos
=
R2a2cc 1 /1
+El + COS
2
sin + sin 08) + a1005 COS

= El2
+ a8 0B + a4 sin COS
R2a
f33 = {(ai + a5)05 — 2a1 sin a6 sin cos (15—94)
Elements of
[114 1161
f261
Lf34 f35 f36j
f14 = sin 08 + a705 + a8 sin COS
02
8 + a8 sin2
(
f16 = — — <08 sin 1 + cosoB}
El2 ( 08} El3
f24 — + a8 sin2 0B a4(1 — cos
= f
<p8(08 Sffi 0B C05
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SEC. 15—12. PARTIAL END RESTRAINT 535
Ca3cJ .
f26=
= sin OB a1(1 — COS
— 0B cos
=
f36 =
—
Elements of
{a508 + a6 sin COS 013j Sym
a
= sin 2 {a508 — a6 sin 08 cos OB}
aa3 . aa2
— cos08)
El2 112
15—12. MEMBER FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS—PARTIAL END

RESTRAINT
In Sec. 15—7, we considered an arbitrary member which is completely re-

strained at both ends. This led to the definition of the member flexibility matrix
and a set of equations relating the end forces and the end displacements. Now,
when the member is only partially restrained, there is a reduction in the number
of member force unknowns. For example, if there is no restraint against rotation
at B, M8 = 0, and there are only a unknowns (where a is the order of F8), the
rotation at B has no effect on the end forces. To handle the case of partial
restraint, we first determine the compatibility equations corresponding to the
reduced set of force unknowns. Inverting these equations and using the equi-
librium relations for the end forces results in force-displacement relations which
are consistent with the displacement releases.
Let Z denote the force redundants. Normally, one would work with the
primary structure corresponding to Z = 0. However, suppose we first express
the force at a point, say Q, in terms of the end forces at B, using, as a primary
structure, the member cantilevered from A:
B
(a
Next, using the primary system corresponding to Z = 0, we express in terms

of the applied external load and the force redundants:
= EZ + G (15-95)
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The elements of G are the end forces at B (for Z 0) due to the applied external
loads. Note that G = if Z contains only end forces at B.
0
Now, the principle of virtual forces requires
+ = + TO/fl
for any self-equilibrating virtual-force system. Taking the system due to AZ

results in the compatibility equations for Z. It is convenient to work first with
the virtual force system due to Equation (b) reduces to
T(,fçfl + T(O//,l
where ffl are the initial deformation and flexibility matrices for thefull end
restraint case. Substituting for using (15—95), and requiring the resulting
expression to he satisfied for arbitrary AZ, we obtain
(ETIftE)Z + ET( + = = (15—96)
It should be noted that are the displacements of the supports at B, A.

We suppose Z is of order q x 1, i.e., there are q force redundants. Also, we
let t be the row order of (and 0?t).
(F
(15—97)
=
([3 x 1)
With this notation,

E is i x q
Gisi x 1
and (15—96) represents q equations. For convenience, we let
(q x q)
(15—98 )
= + rG (1 1)
and the member force-deformation relations take the form
trZ = — z)
n Tcjjgn ( — )
— ETJc) 'A — ' O,Z
We refer to 1. as the reduced flexibility matrix since, in general, q < i. Actually,

is the flexibility matrix for Z and it is positive definite since E must be of rank
q, i.e., the force systems corresponding to the redundants must be linearly
independent. Note that one can determine directly by working with the
primary system corresponding to Z = 0. This is the normal approach. The
approach that we have followed is convenient when the member flexibility
matrix is known.
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SEC. 15—12. PARTIAL END RESTRAINT 537
At this point, we summarize the force-displacement relations for partial end

restraint:
Z = member force matrix
= EZ + G
= 0 —
f,. = reduced flexibility matrix (q x q) ETrE

— 'I/''
0,z — p
f.Z ,) (15—100)
= —
Note that, for complete end restraint,

'7 —. 14'
B
15—101
G=0 =
We will use (15—100) in Chapter 17 when we develop the formulation for a
member system.
Continuing, we let
kr = (15—102)
The force redundants are obtained by inverting (15—99):

Z= — — (15-103)
Substituting for Z, the end forces at B are given by
= — — +G (e)
We defined as the effective member stiffness matrix:

= EkYET
LET ( 15—104)
In general, k is singular when q < i, since E is only of rank q. Equation (e)

takes the form
= + —
= +G (15—105)
= + (I, —
The end forces at A are determined from (a):
= — +
— — ar" (
A,0 'BA iLl
Finally, we write the relations in the generalized form
B,i
I I n'
RB
L
BA 'A
= + +
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538 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN MEMBER CHAP. 15
where
(15—107)
=
k"AA —
— ar" n — T
BA BA BA e BA
Comparing (15—107) with (15—53), the corresponding expressions for the com-
plete restraint case, we see that one has only to replace by in the partitioned
forms for and The equation for is different, however, due
to the presence of the G term.
Example 15—12
Suppose there is no restraint against rotation at B. Then, 0. We take Z

and generate E, G with (15—95).
- Fl +G
—
For this case, G = 0. The reduced flexibility and stiffness matrices follow from (15—98),
(15—102),
=
and the effective stiffness matrix follows from (15—104):

rc". — 1 I
Finally, the force-displacement relations are (see (15—99)):

rt, — ,i vn, T
ii it it
Note that premultiplication of by Er eliminates 9", the relative rotation at B. There is

no compatibility requirement for the end rotations in this case; i.e., the support rotation
at B, which we have defined as does not introduce any member deformation.
REFERENCES
I. REISSNER, F.: "Variational Considerations for Elastic Beams and Shells." J. Eng.
Mech. Div. A.S.C.E., Vol. 88, No. EMI, February 1962.
2. HALL, A. S. and R. W. W000HEAD: Frame Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1967.
3. GEaR, J. M. and W. WEAVER: Analysis of Framed Structures, Van Nostrand, New
York, 1965.
4. RUEINSTRJN, M. F.: Matrix Computer Analysis of Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1966.
5. LIVESLEY, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pcrgamon Press, London,
1964.
6. DAEROWSKJ, R.: Gekriimmte dünnwandige Trüger (Curved thin-walled beams),
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PROBLEMS 539
7. V. Z.: Thin Walled Elastic Beams, Israel Program for Scientific Transla-
tions, OfiIce of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C., 1961.
8. BAZANT, Z. P.: "Nonuniform Torsion of Thin-walled Bars of Variable Section,"
International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering Publications, Zurich,
Vol. 25, 1965, pp. 17—39.
PROBLEMS
15—1. Refer to Example 15—5. Determine c, for a typical wide-flange section
and a square single cell. Comment on the relative importance of torsional
deformation vs. bending deformation (i.e., terms involving in Equation (e)).
Distinguish between deep and shallow members.
15—2. Refer to Example 15—7. Consider a rectangular cross section and
I/p j3\
varying linearly with x1, as shown in the sketch. Evaluate VB2 /( and
/ \3E12J
vB3/ for a range of 4 and a/b.
3E12
Prob. 15—2
x2
'2
b
x3
13
y3
15—3. Determine the reaction at B and translation (in the direction of F)

at C for the member sketched. Neglect transverse shear deformation.
Prob. 15—3
P
/
Shear center
I— Vertical restraint at B
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15—4. Repeat Prob. 15—3, considering complete fixity at B. Utilize sym-

metry with respect to point C.
15—5. Derive (15—27). Start with the definitions for the strain measures
(see Fig. 1 5—2),
DR
(1 + r,) =
D15 Df)
DS Dy2
S[fl Y12 =
E3f)
DS Dy2
neglect second-order terms, and note (15—26).

15—6. Summarize the governing equations for restrained torsion. Evaluate
b2 and b3 (see (15—34)) for a symmetrical wide-flange section and a symmetrical
rectangular closed cell. Comment on whether one can neglect these terms.
— 15—7. Refer to Example 15—11. Specialize the solution (Equations f) for
= 1L 1. Verify that (g) reduces to the prismatic solution, (13—57),
when —* 0.
15—8. Consider a member comprising of three segments. Assuming the
flexibility matrices for the segments are known, determine an expression for
the member flexibility matrix in terms of the segmental flexibility matrices.
Generalize for n segments.
15—9. Discuss how you would apply the numerical integration schemes
described in Sec. 14—8 to evaluate defined by (15—69).
15—10. Verify (15—73) and (15—74).
15—11. Determine the fixed end forces for the member shown, using (15—77)
and (15—79).
X2 Prob. 15—11
15—12. Solve Prob. 15—3 using (15—84) and (15—87).

15—13. Verify (15—90) and (15—91). Apply them to Prob. 15—4.
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PROBLEMS 541
15—14. Starting with (15—87), develop expressions for the initial deforma-
tions due to an aribitrary distributed loading, h3 = b3(O). Specialize for b3 =
constant and verify(15—92).
15—15. Using the geometric relations and flexibility matrix for a circular
helix (constant cross section; Y2 coincides with the normal direction) developed
in Sec. 15—11:
(a) 1)evelop a matrix equation for the displacements at B due to a loading
referred to the global frame and applied at flint: See (15—85).
(b) Evaluate for the loading and geometry shown.
Prob. 15—15
Y3, b
I
I
Y2,fl
— ir/2
——
c =R/2
G =E/2
x1
15—16. Determine the reduced member flexibility matrix for no restraint

against rotation at an interior point P.
15—17. For the planar member shown, determine E and G corresponding to
Z = MB M4}
Then specialize for rotation releases at A, B and determine kg.
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Part IV
ANALYSiS OF A
MEMBER SYSTEM
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16
Direct Stiffness Method
Linear System
1 6—i. INTRODUCTION
We consider a system comprised of in members which are connected at j
joints. We suppose the geometry of the assembled system is defined with
respect to a global framet and use a superscript o to indicate quantities referred
to the global frame. The external force and displacement matrices for joint k
are denoted by
(p0) (ax!)
(16—1)
(jOt) (xxi)
(fbi)
where c is the number of translation (force) components, /1 is the number of

rotation (moment) components, and i + fi. Note that = 2, /3 = 1 for a
planar system subjected to in-plane loading and 1, /3 = 2 for a planar
system subjected to out-of-plane loading. For an arbitrary system, /3 = 3.
In what follows, we assume the material is linearly elastic and the geometry
is linear, i.e., we neglect the change in geometry due to deformation. The
governing equations consist of joint force-equilibrium equations and member
force-displacement relations. We have already developed the member force-
displacement relations in Chapter 15, so that it remains only to establish the
joint force-equilibrium equations. In this chapter, we apply the direct stiffness
method, which consists in assembling the system stiffness and initial force
matrices by superimposing the. contribution of each member. the next
chapter, we present the general formulation for a linear member system and
obtain the equations corresponding to the force and displacement solution by
t By global frame, we mean a fixed Cartesian frame.
545
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546 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 16
matrix operations. Finally, in Chapter 18, we extend the direct stiffness method
to include geometrical nonlinearity.
16—2. MEMBER FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS

In developing the relations between the end forces and end displacements
for a member, we considered the member geometry and loading to be referred
to a basic member frame (frame n) and used A, B to denote the negative and
positive ends of the member. The general relations were written (see (15—107))
as
= + +
+ +
Note that (a) also applies when there is only partial end restraint or internal
releases.
Now, we define n_ as the joints at the positive and negative ends of
member n. Replacing B by n,
n the member frame take the form
= + +
•
+ +
where
\T
— '
We transform the force and displacement quantities from the member frame
to the global frame for the system by applying
=
= (16—2)
to (b). This step is necessary since we are working with joint forces and displace-
ments referred to the global frame. The final expressions arc:
= + +
(16—3)
= + +
where the global member stiffness and initial force matrices are generated with
k — TI n rzou
= 16—4
Once the displacements are known, we evaluate using (16—3) and then
transform to the member frame.
Since the initial end force and stiffness matrices are generated in partitioned
form, it is natural to express (16—4) in partitioned form. Using the notation
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SEC. 16—3. SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS 547
introduced in Section 1 5—8, we write

(o
plion
=
ip
= (16—5)
t.MoJ (flxl)
()O,22
(Sxo)
Expanding (16—4) leads to

on
o — on,T n on
12 — 00. 12
on, Ti n on — o,T
k 21 = fi 21 ( )( ), 12
(16—6)
1 0 — ii on
11 "(')(),22 P
— Don,
L t 0,1
=
Note that is a natural property of the member whereas depends on
the orientation of the member frame with respect to the global frame. The
operations defined by (16--6) can be considered as the element matrix generation
phase.
The member force-displacement relations satisfy the equilibrium conditions
for the member and compatibility between the restrained end displacements
and the corresponding joint displacements. Actually, the equilibrium condi-
tions were used to determine Compatibility is satisfied by setting =
and = When there is only partial restraint at an end, there will
be displacement discontinuities. For example, if there is a rotation release at
the positive end, will not be equal to the end rotation matrix. We have
treated'r partial end restraint by defining an effective member stiffness matrix
k0. In the derivation of k0, we consider °1IA to be the displacements of the
supports (i.e., the joints) and enforce continuity of only the restrained end
displacements.
16—3. SYSTEM EQIJILIBRIIJM EQUATIONS

The equilibrium equations for joint k arc obtained by summing the end
forces for the members incident on k:
t See Sec. 16—12.

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In general, depends on and the displacements of those joints which are

connected to joint k. We define as the total (or system) external joint
force and joint displacement matrices:
= (if x 1)
16—7
(if <
and write the complete set of if joint force-equilibrium equations as
= 91'o + (16-8)
where contains the joint forces required to equilibrate the initial end forces
We have dropped the reference frame superscript for convenience.
The most efficient way to assemble and is to work with submatrices
of order 1, the natural partition size, and superimpose the contributions of
each member which follow directly from (16—3). This operation requires no
matrix multiplications. The terms due to member n are listed below.
In (Partitioned Form Is] x 1):
in row n÷
(16—9)
in row
111 X (Partitioned Form Isj x
in row column n+
in row column n_
oT in row n_, column
1
inrown...,columnn_
Since is symmetrical, only the upper or lower half has to be stored.
16—4. INTRODUCTION OF JOINT DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS

In this section, we extend the procedure described in Sec. 8—3 for introducing
joint translation restraints in the formulation for an ideal truss to an arbitrary
member system. Actually, only the notation for the joint force and joint
displacement matrices has to be changed.
The governing equations are:
= — =
1 1
= + = (16—11)
+
The stiffness and initial force matrices are assembled using (16—9) and
(16—10). It remains to introduce the prescribed external forces and displace-
ment restraints. If joint q is unrestrained, is prescribed, and we just add
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SEC. 16—4. INTRODUCTION OF JOINT DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS 549
to — q is completely restrained, is unknown. We replace

the matrix equation for with the matrix identity,
Finally, ifjoint q is partially restrained, some of the elements in 19q are unknown.
In this case, we replace the scalar equations for the unknown reactions by
scalar identities.
We suppose joint q is partially restrained and, for generality, consider the
translation and rotation restraint directions to he arbitrarily orientated with
respect to the basic frame. We define X'1, .. , as the orthogonal directions
.
for the translational restraint frame and as the orthogonal directions

for the rotational restraint frame. Quantities referred to the restraint frames
are indicated with primes and a single superscript is used for the total matrix:
=
(flxj)
L°"i (16—12)
Now,
P,q =
(16—13
T" — /3 q
We define 9/°" as the total rotation transformation matrix:

0 1
= I I
(16—14)
L0
With this notation, the transformation laws take the form
9/oqçpr
( 16—15 )
The modification requires two operations. First, we transform in

(16—11) to This is accomplished by premultiplying row q of PPO
with and postmultiplying column q of with 9/°" In the second step,
we replace the equations corresponding to the unknown elements in with
identities. This operation can also be represented in matrix form.
Suppose the rth element in is prescribed. We assemble four matrices,
Eq, and as follows:
1. EqandGq
We start with
E=I, G=O,
and set
+1
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550 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOID—.-LtNEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 16
2.
We start with an ith-order column matrix having zero elements and set the
element in row r equal to the prescribed displacement.
We start with an ith-order column matrix having zero elements and enter
the values of the prescribed forces and moments referred to the restraint frames.
Note that element r is zero.
Premultiplying transformed row q of 3r, t?P0 with Eq reduces the rth equation
to 0 = 0. Then, adding Gq to Eqirqq and + to — q introduces
the identity for the rth element and includes the prescribed external forces
in We also operate on the qth column of to preserve syrnnwtry and
include the terms due to prescribed displacements in The complete set of
operations for joint q are listed below:
1. €=1,2,...,q—l
T)a/e;
T)F
2. 9N, q q + +
= T)Eq + Gq (l616)
3. €=q+i,q+2,...,j
=
—
=
The operations defined by (16—16) are carried out for each joint, working
with successive joint members. We represent the modified equations as
= (16—17)
The superscript J is placed on % to indicate that the joint displacement matrices

are referred to the local joint restraint frames, which may not coincide with the
global frame. Again we point out that the primary advantage of this modifica-
tion procedure is that no row or column rearrangement is required. Solving
(16—17) yields the joint displacements (local restraint frame) listed in their
natural order, i.e., according to increasing joint number. The modified stiffness
matrix, will be positive definite when the system is stable.
Once QgJ is known, we transform the displacements from the restraint frames
to the global frame, using (16—15), and evaluate the member end forces from
(16—3). Next, we the total external force matrix, The contribution
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SEC. 16—4. INTRODUCTION OF JOINT DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS 551
of member n is
(16—IS)
in row fl...
Finally, we transform the external joint forces from the global frame to the
local restraint frames. This step determines the reactions and also provides a
statics check on the solution.
Example 16—1
Suppose joint q is completely restrained. Then, "li and = 0.. The forms
for E, G are
EqOi Gqlj
1. €=L2,...,q—l
—
—
,t,.
q
2.
3. j
Oi
Example 16—2
Suppose joint q is completely restrained against translation. Then, the translation
matrix and external moment matrix are prescribed. The appropriate matrices for
this case are
r0 01 r1
Gg =
= }
Example 16—3
We consider the case where joint q is restrained with respect to translation in one direc-
tion and there is no restraint against rotation. This corresponds to a "roller" support.
We take to coincide with the restraint direction and X'2, as mutually orthogonal
directions comprising a right-handed system. The translation, is prescribed. The
prescribed forces are P52, and
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We first assemble From (16—14),

rRoa'
= I
[ 13
where
= r,s 1,2,3
=
The forms of E, G, and are
=
=
We specialize the results for a planar system subjected to planar loading. In order for
only planar deformation to occur, the translation restraint direction must lie in the plane
of the system, which we take as the plane. It is convenient to select the orientation
of X'2 such that X3 coincides with X",. 'Ihe specialized forms are
=
= [S,.,] r,s = 1,2
0 1
(d)
=
Eq Gq
= ---H
0
Finally, we consider the case of a planar system subjected to an out-of-plane loading.

The translational restraint direction must be parallel to the direction in order for only
out-of-plane deformation to occur. For this case, and arc prescribed. The
specialized forms are
Eq Cq
= =
qe;
=
=
Note that (e) is obtained by settinge = 1, = 2 in (a) of Example 16—2.
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REFEREt'JCES
REFERENCES
1. R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, London,
1964.
2. MARTIN, H. C.: Introduction to Matrix Methods of StructuralAnalysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1965.
3. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Matrix computer Analysis of Structures, Prentice-Hall, New
York, 1966.
4. Gere, I. M. and W. Weaver: Analysis of Framed Structures, Van Nostrand, New
York, 1965.
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17
General Formulation
Linear System
17-1. INTRODUCTION
We consider a system comprising m linear elastic members interconnected
at j joints. We suppose there are i degrees of freedom per joint (i.e., the joint
displacement and force matrices are of order i x 1) and the geometry and joint
quantities are referred to a global frame. Also, we neglect geometry change
due to deformation. In the previous chapter, we applied the direct stillness
method, which is actually a displacement method, to this system. Now, in this
chapter, we first develop the governing matrix equations and then deduce the
equations corresponding to the force and displacement solution procedures.
We also establish variational principles for the force and displacement methods.
Finally, we discuss how one can introduce member deformation constraints in
the displacement method. Since the basic steps involved in the member system
formulation are the same as for the ideal truss formulation, we recommend that
the reader review Chapters 6 through 9 before starting this chapter.
Let r be the number of prescribed joint displacements. Then, the total number
of joint displacement unknowns, is
na = if — r (17—1)
The total number of force unknowns, flf, is equal to r (the reactions corre-
sponding to the prescribed displacements) plus qT, the total number of member
force unknowns:
nf=?+qT=r+(qj +q2+ '.. +qm) (17—2)
where represents the number of force unknowns for member n. By definition,

is equal to the number of force quantities that have to be specified in order
to be able to determine the total internal force matrix at an arbitrary point.
If the member is fully restrained at each end, q1, = i. For partial restraint, q,, is
equal to i minus the number of independent force releases. Note that when the
member is pinned at both ends, = 1 since there are only five independent
moment releases.
554
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SEC. 17—2. MEMBER EQUATIONS 555
There are qT equations relating the member forces and the joint displacements.
Also, there are ij equilibrium equations relating the external joint forces and
the member forces. The formulation is consistent, i.e., the number of equations
is equal to the number of unknowns. If flf if, the system is said to be statically
determinate since the force unknowns can be determined using only the equi-
librium equations. The difference, flf — ii, is generally called the degree of
static indeterminacy, and represents the order of the final system of equations
for the force method. For the displacement method, the final system ofequations
arc of order In what follows, we first establish the member force—joint
displacement relations by generalizing the results of Sec. 15—12. Then, we
assemble the joint force-equilibrium equations. Finally, we introduce the joint
displacement restraints.
17—2. MEMBER EQUATIONS

The reduced member equations were developed in Sec. 15—12. For conve-
nience, we summarize the notation and equations below (see (15—100)):
Z= member force matrix (q, x 1)
(ixi)
—
f" member flexibility matrix (i x i)

f, reduced member flexibility matrix (q,, x = ETfnE
= member deformation matrix (i x i) = —
= initial member deformation matrix (i x i) = + f"G

= — )
These equations include the effect of partial end restraint, internal force releases,
and reductions due to symmetry or antisymmetry. We can also use (a) for
complete end restraint by setting F = and G = 0.
Now, we introduce new notation which is more convenient. First, we note
that G contains the end forces at B due to the external member loads acting
on the primary structure defined by Z = 0. Also, — — are the
end forces at A. Then we write
=G
(17—3)
—
Next, we note that the equation relating Z and K", is a compatibility

requirement. The term fZ + ETeC?OZ is the relative deformation in the positive
sense of Z due to the member loads and the member redundants, Z, whereas
is the relative deformation in the negative sense of Z due to support
(joint) movement. The net relative deformation must be zero for continuity.
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556 GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP, 17
Then, we define
= reduced member deformation matrix (q,, x 1)
= = —
17—4
reduced initial member deformation matrix x 1)
= ETI/'O z = + f"G)
With this notation, the member equations take the form
—
B R,o
(175)
—
= + frZ
We generalize the relations for member n by setting
B—n÷ A=n_
E=E,, Z=Z. (17-6)
= "r, n = fr.
Since the joint quantities are referred to the global frame, we must transform
the end forces and displacements from the member frame (frame n) to the
global frame (frame o), using
=
The final equations follow.
Member Forces—End Forces

= TE)Z +
= 17 7
+
Member Forces—Joint Displacements (q,,
,t n+
( 17—8)
—
The force translation transformation matrix, 2C, is a second-order tensor,

i.e., it transforms according tot
and it
T
t See Sec. 10—2.

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SEC. 17—3. SYSTEM FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATtONS 557
Using (17—JO), we can express and 'r. as.
— TF)Z
= — .
We prefer to work with since it is a natural property of the member whereas

depends on the selection of the global frame.
17—3. SYSTEM FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS

Equation (17—8) represents the force-deformation relations for member n.
By defining general flexibility and deformation matrices, we can express the
complete set of member force-deformation relations as a single matrix
equation. We let
Z total member force matrix x 1)
= {Z1, Z2, , Z,,,}
. . .
= total reduced member deformation matrix x 1)

= 1, 2 m}
= total reduced initial member deformation matrix (q,. x 1)

— '17—12
I ro, , ro, mJ
f total reduced member flexibility matrix x
fr, 2
Note that f is quasi-diagonal, symmetrical, and positive definite. With this

notation, the force-deformation relations are given by
-V = -V,, + fZ (17—13)
It remains to generalize the deformation-displacement relations.

We define as the total joint displacement matrix referred to the global
frame.
(ij x 1)
= °/4, . . .
,
(17—14)
and express 'V as
= (17—15)
The partitioned form is
d12 ... -
1 (17-16)
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558 GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
Row n of d corresponds to member n. The submatrices in row n are of order

x i. Now, we see from (17—8) that there are only two non-zero elements in
row n and they are at columns n_. The assembly of d is defined by
d
17 17
=
sins = 0
S fl_
ii = 1, 2, . . . , in
It is of interest to express si in factored form. First, we define the following

matrices:
(inz x 1)
411
= _, ,..., 411,,,_ } (im x 1)
(mi x un)
E
E= (im x q1) ([7—18)
Em
(zinxirn)
(un x im)
Using this notation,the expression for "V takes the form

= -
T411) (a)
= ET9II(Q71+ —
Next, we relate 411÷, 411_ to using member-joint connectivity matrices for

the positive and negative (C_) ends:
411÷ C÷% - 19
17
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SEC. 17—4. SYSTEM EQU)L)BRIUM EQUATIONS 559
Note that rows a of C ÷, C correspond to member a. There is only one nonzero

—
element in a row. For row n, we enter in column n÷ of and column

n of C_. Finally, combining (a) and (17—19), we have
= —
17 20
and it follows that
d. =
= —
For an ideal truss, (17—21),reduces to (see Equation 6—28)

= —
where contains the direction cosines for the bars.
17—4. SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

We have used the member force-equilibrium equations in developing the
member force-displacement relations, so it remains only to satisfy equilibrium
of the joints. There arc i equations for each joint, and a total of if equations.
The expressions for the end forces in terms of the member forces are given
by (17—7). Assembling the joint force.equilihrium equations involves only
summing at each joint the end forces incident on the joint.
We define as the total external joint force matrix referred to the global
frame:
= (17—22)
1)
and as the initial (Z = 0) joint force matrix:

= 1' 2 (17—23)
(ijx j)
The elements of are the joint forces due to external forces acting on the
members with Z 0. We express the complete set of equations as
+
, p1,1 Z1
P1 = Z2
+ (17-24)
I
Zm
We assemble and working with successive members. The contribution

of member a follows from (17—7):
in row
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GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
Column n
TE
— Tdyn
n_n — (17—26)
= — TE
p171sn = 0
S fl+,
s=
Comparing (17—26) with (17—17), we see that
= (17—27)
We let
——
1' 1,, 2, (17—28)
=
Then, we can express as

= + C!1..O (17—29)
17—5. INTRODUCTION OF JOINT DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS;

GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The governing equations for the unrestrained system are
(17-30)
Now, we suppose r joint displacements are prescribed. We rearrange so

that the prescribed displacements arc last. We also rearrange and
cu1)
-+ U = (rxl)
(U2)
—* P = (17—31)
Pf
(r x
where U2, P1, and P1 are prescribed. We use B, A to represent the rearranged
forms d: x r)
(qr
A2]
[liii
I
B= = [An (17—32)
[ _J [ A2 j fr'qr)
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SEC. 17—5. JOINT DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS 561
Finally, we write the equations for the restrai;ied system as

Pi = + B1Z P1 + AfZ (na eqs.) (17—33)
P2 = 2 + B2Z P1, 2 + (r eqs.) (17—34)
= fZ + 1/,, A1U1 + A2U2
17 35
-
The unknowns are the member forces (Z), the displacements (U1), and
the r reactions (P2).
If the restraints are parallel to the directions of the global frame, the trans-
formation of d to A (or to B) involve only a permutation of the columns of
d (rows The same permutation is applied to the rows
Suppose joint q is partially restrained and the restraint directions do not
coincide with the global frame directions. We first transform the force and dis-
placement matrices for joint q from the global frame to the restraint frame, using
A O/Iq
(17—36)
=
T
This step involves postmultiplying column q of d by and premultiplying
row q of by We write the transformed equations as
= J)1 + 4L
(1737)
+ fZ =
where the superscript J indicates that joint forces and displacements are referred
to local restraint frames. The final equations are obtained by permuting the
columns of d2 (rows of the rows of and then partitioning.
The transformation of a71 to U can be expressed as a matrix product,
U = DQ/ = (17—38)
where contains the rotation matrices for the joint restraint frames,
= ... (17—39)
and H is the row permutation matrix. One can generate H by starting with
I and permuting the rows according to the new listing of the joint displace-
ments, i.e., with the prescribed displacements last. Now, D is an orthogonal
matrix,
(17—40)
Then,
= DTU
P=
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and it follows that

P, —
A = (17—41)
B AT =
The partitioned forms are obtained by partitioning D:
[D 1 (n x (j)
D= (r
., (17—42)
LD2J
Finally, we can write
A1 = = BT
A2 = = Bf (17-43)
P1 1=
2 =
To determine the requirement for initial stability, wc consider (17—33),

B1Z = P2 -.
which represents nj equations in unknowns. For the equations to he con-
sistent for an arbitrary loading, the rank of 'B1 must equal n,,. Therefore, the
stability requirement for the system is
r(B1) = ;(A1) = (17—44)
Since B1 is of order x a necessary hut not sufficient condition for stability
(17—45)
Equation (17—44) is the stability requirement for a geometrically linear system.

It is also the initial stability requirement for a geometrically nonlinear system.
In the next chapter, we develop the stability criteria for a geometrically non-
linear system subjected to a finite loading.
17—6. NETWORK FORMULATION

In the formulation presented in the previous articles, we worked with the
actual joint displacements and external joint forces referred to the global frame.
The governing equations are given by (17—30), which we list below for
convenience:
= +
where
— Tc)
= +
One assembles d, 9PI, using(17—17), (17—25), which are actually the expansions
of(b). By introducing new joint variables, we can express d in terms of only one
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SEC. 17—6. NETWORK FORMULATION 563
connectivity matrix, C.4 — C. The rule (17—17) for assembling d still

applies except that now
Let Y denote some arbitrary point. Suppose we express the actual force and
displacement matrices for joint k in terms of their equivalents at point Y.
We define
= statically equivalent force at Y due to the
actual force matrix at joint k.
(1746)
= displacement at Y due to rigid body motion about
joint k.
The actual and equivalent quantities are related by
— r)r°
Y, k kY k
(17—47)
k
where
0
kY
(17-48)
= — 0 — 4i) plane
I" 0
Xy2; — Xy1
0
t
planar
We could operate on (b), but it is more convenient to start with (17—11):
—
'Kr,, =
Now, by definition,
=
Substituting for using (17—47), and noting that
we obtain
'Kr,,, = (17—48)
The remaining steps are the same as followed previously. We let

'Wy = {0/t°y, 1, 'Wy 2 (17—49)
and write
'K = (17—50)
The generation of follows from (17—48). For now n,
= = (17—51)
= 0 (q,, x 1)
S
s= 1, 2 j
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564 GENERAL FORMULATION—UNEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
To express in factored form, we let

1+Y
= (irn x irn) (17—52)
+ Y
Then,
C_)
(17—53)
=
We transform the joint forces, using (17—47), and write the resulting equations
as
= + (17-54)
= + fZ =
To relate corresponding terms in (a) and (17—54'). we generalize (17—47):
(17—55)
= (if x i/)
• jY
It follows that ,, r
—
(17—56)
g,YI =
The expression for reduces to (17--53) when (d) and (c) are introduced.
The formulation developed above can be interpreted as a network formula-
tion since the connectivity term appears seperately in the factored form of d.
A simplified version which does not allow for member force releases has been
presented by Fenves and Branin (see Ref. 1). The only operational advantage
of not working with the actual joint quantities is in the generation øf d,m÷ and
d,,,. This advantage is trivial compared to the additional operations required
to generate ., to introduce the displacement restraints, and finally, to
transform to once the solution is obtained. Another serious disadvantage
is that the equations tend to become ill-condii.ioned.
Fenves and Branin's primary objective was to show that the governing
equations for a member system can be cast in a form such that geometrical and
topological effects are separated, i.e., a network formulation. DiMaggio and
Spillars (Ref. 2) have also presented a network formulation for a rigid jointed
member system. Actually their formulation is a special case of our first formula-
tion. It is not, strictly speaking, a true network formulation since connectivity
is not completely separated from geometry (see (17—21)). The only way that one
can separate connectivity from geometry is to redefine the joint variables. Note
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SEC. 17—7. DISPLACEMENT METHOD 565
that the ideal truss is an exception. Connectivity and geometry are naturally
uncoupled for this system.
Whether one interprets the governing equations for a member system from a
network viewpoint is of academic interest only. In the displacement method,
the equations reduce to the equations for the direct stiffness method. The
only possible advantage of the network interpretation is in the force method.
There one can use certain concepts of the mesh methodt to select a primary
structure, provided that there are no member force releases or partial joint
restraints. However, the selection of a primary structure for a rigid-jointed
frame having fixed supports is quite simple, and even this advantage is debatable.
17—7. DISPLACEMENT METHOD

The governing equations are given by (17—33), (17—34), and (17—35). Once
the member forces are known, we can find the reactions from (17—34). Now,
we start by solving (17—35) for Z in ternis of the displacements,
Z = Z1 + kA1UE + kA2U2 17-57)

where
= initial member force matrix (q1 x 1)
= (17—58)
k= = reduced member stiffness matrix x
Note that k is quasi-diagonal, symmetrical, and positive definite. The matrix,

Z1, contains the initial member forces due to external loads acting on the
members and initial deformation resulting from fabrication errors or tempera-
ture changes.
We substitute for Z in (17—33) and write the result as
= P0 + + K12U2 (17—59)
where
= (nd x lid)
K12 = ATkA2 x r)
(17—60)
= + (lid X 1)
The elements of P0 are the joint forces due to the initial end forces. Since
A1 is of rank (when the system is stable) and k is positive definite, it
f See Sec. 9—5.

See Prob. 2—18.
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that K1.1 is positive definite. Conversely, jfK1 is not positive definite, the system
is unstable. The joint displacements are determined by solving (17—59) and the
member forces are obtained by back substitution in (17—57).
Operating on the restrained equations, as we have done above, is not efficient
since the various coefficient matrices must be generated by matrix multiplica-
tion. By first manipulating the unrestrained equations and then introducing
the displacement restraints, one can avoid any matrix multiplication. This
procedure corresponds to the direct stiffness method.
Operating on (17—30), we obtain
Z = Z1 + kd°ll (17-61)
and
= + c/TZ +
(17—62)
= +
Equation (17—62) is identical to (16—8). The of reduces to
(16—9), (16—10) when we introduce the factored forms of d, Z1.
First, we review the definitions of the member stiffness matrices,
The effective member stiffness matrix (see (16—104)) has been
defined as
k to the global frame and applying (16- 107) reads to

T n
ke.n e.H
=
and
L0 .._1O
fl+n+ — e,fl
Now, substituting for d using (17—21), the expression for takes the form
= —
where
= (17—63)
Finally, we expand (d):

= + T)C
+ + —
One can easily show that (17—64) reduces to (16—10) when the properties of
C... are taken into account.
The initial end actions for member n
= + TE)( — kr, n'17ro. n)
T, TEn(_kr.
,, n)
t See Eqs. (17—7), (17—8), and (17—il).

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SEC. 17—8. FORCE METHOD 567
Using the factored forms for d, and 4, the expression for takes the
form
= +
(17—65)
+ —
The general form defined according to (16—9) is

= + (17—66)
Substituting (e) in (17—65) results in (17—66).
In Sec. 16—4, we presented a procedure for introducing joint displacement
restraints and represented the modified equations as
= (ii eqs.)
Now, (f) consists of (17—59) plus r relations for the prescribed displacements.
We obtain (f) by starting with
=
[0 IrJ L
U2
and permuting the rows and columns. This operation can be represented in
terms of the permutation matrix, 11, defined by
u=[IdllJ
= HTP
Then,
It follows that is positive definite when K11 is positive definite, i.e., when
the system is stable.
17—8. FORCE METHOD

We start with the governing equations for the restrained system:
B1Z = P1 P1, (fld eqs.) (a)
BfU1 + = 'V0 + fZ (qr eqs.) (b)
= 2 + 82Z (r eqs.) (c)
Equation (a) represents equations in unknowns where Also,

B1 is of rank The system is statically determinate when n4. We let
be the degree of static indeterminacy, i.e., the number of member force
redundants:
= — (17—67)
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Since B1 is of rank we can solve (a) for member forces in terms of the net
prescribed joint forces (P1 — P1 i) and r member forces. The compatibility
equations for the member force redundants are obtained by eliminating U1
from (b). This is possible since (b) represents qT equations whereas U1 is only
of order x 1. In the next section, we specialize the principle of virtual forces
for a member system and utilize it to establish the compatibility equations.
We suppose the first 0d columns of B1 are linearly independent. If the system
is initially stable, the member force matrix Z can always be rearranged so that
this condition is satisfied. We partition Z after row
1z,)
Z (17—68)
1) (ZR) 1)
The elements of ZR are the force redundants for the system. We refer to the
system obtained by setting ZR = 0 as the primary system. Continuing, we
partition B1 and B2 consistent with (17—68):
(fld 0 qj-) x fld) ("s 'Jo,)
B1 =[ BIR
17 69
B2 —
(i (r 0 "d> (r °qo,)
The equilibrium equations take the form

= P1 — BIRZR (17—70)
P1,2 + + B2RZR (17—71)
We write the solution of (17—70) as

ZP + KZR (17—72)
The force influence matrices can be expressed as

("a 1)
Zr,,, = (B1pY'(P1 —
ZPR =
but it is not necessary to determine Actually, the solution procedure
can be completely automated.( The complete solution for is
xqo,)
z (17-74)
Note that the member forces due to are self-equilibrating, i.e., they satisfy
B1Z = 0. Finally, we substitute for in the expression for P2 and write the
result as
P2 = P2,0 + P2 RZR (17—75)
t See Sec. 9—2.
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SEC. 17—8. FORCE METHOD 569
where
(rXI)
= P1,2 + J37PZP,0
'17—76)
B2R + B2pZp,ft
(r X
It remains to determine Zft.

Equation (b) represents qr equations in unknowns, U1. Since = +
qft, there are excess equations. We partition (b) consistent with the partioning
of Z,
rDT 1 rDT 1 I.e' 1 1 1
1 + 2 —
+
V R)
L"2RJ o,R) L PR *ftftJ ft
and obtain the following two sets of equations relating to U1 and ZR:
BfPU1 + 'V'p + + (fld eqs.) (17—77)

BfftU, + = = 1'O.J( + + fRRZR eqs.) (d)
The joint displacements can he determined from (17—77) once Zft is known.
Eliminating U1 from (d) leads to
RU2 I/R + ZP
17—78
+ + fftftZft ± + + fpftZR)
Equation (17—78) represents the compatibility equations for the force redun-
dants. Finally, we substitute for using (17—72) and write the resulting
equations as
fZRZR = A (17—79)
where
>< qg)
—f
— 'RR
7T 4• 7
1-q', R'PP'—P. ft
7T c 17T
—
A = P2, ftU2 — + o) — p +
These equations are similar in form to the corresponding equations for the
ideal truss developed in Sec. 9—2.
The flexibility matrix, fzR, can be expressed as
=
—
lil
[Zp
J
[zp,R1T f[ZP.R1
'RRJ
[ZP ft
(17—81)
j j
Now, f is positive definite for a deformable system. Then, it follows that fzR
is also positive definite. In a later article, we consider the case where certain
member deformations may be prescribed.
Once the preliminary force analyses have been carried out, the remaining
steps are straightforward. We generate A, solve for Zft. and then determine
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Zr,, P2 by back substitution. If the displacements are also desired, they can be
determined by solving (17—77).
The final number of equations for the force method is usually smaller than
for the displacement method VS. lid). However, the force method requires
considerably more operations to generate the equations. The force method
can be completely automated, but not as conveniently as the direct stiffness
method. Also, automating the preliminary force analyses requires solving an
additional set of nd equations. Another disadvantage of the force method is
that the compatibility equations tend to he ill-conditioned unless one is careful
in selecting force redundants.
17—9. VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES

In Chapter 7, we developed variational principles for the displacement and
force formulations for an ideal truss, Now, in this section, we develop the
corresponding variational principles for a member system. The extension is
quite straightforward since the governing equations are almost identical in
form.
We start with the force-equilibrium equations,t
P = P, + ATZ
The partitioned form is
= P,,1 + AfZ
= P1,2 +
To interpret (a) as a stationary rcquircment, we consider the deformation-
displacement relation,
"K = AU = A1U1+ A2U2
The first differential of "K due to an increment in U is
d"K = A AU = A1 AU1 + A2 AU, (17-82)
Then, the requirement that
PTAU = + ZTd.K (17-83)
be satisfied for arbitrary AU is equivalent to (a). If we consider U, to be pre-
scribed, (17—83) results in only (b). We refer to (17—83) as the principle of virtual
displacements for a member system.
In the displacement method, we substitute for Z in the joint force-equilibrium
equations, using
Z= — "1/',,)
= (AU —
The form of (17—83) suggests that we define a scalar quantity, V = V(U),
having the property
dV = = dV(U) (17—84)
t We work with the governing equations for the restrained system. See (17—33), (17—34), (17—35).
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SEC. 17—9. VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES 571
One can interpret V as the strain energy function for the members. For the
linear case, V ôan be expressed as
V= —
17 85
= — —
Continuing, we define the potential energy function, as

V+ — PTU (17-86)
The Euler equations for H,, are the unpartitioned joint force-equilibrium
equations expressed in terms of U. Finally, we introduce the joint displacement
constraint condition, U2 =02, by writing (17—86) as
H,, = V + 1U1 + — — — U2) (17-87)
where U1, U2, and P2 are variables. The Euler equations for (17—87) are the
partitioned equilibrium equations (Equations (h), (c)) expressed in terms of the
displacements with U2 set equal to 02, i.e., they are the governing equations
for the displacement formulation presented in Sec. 17—7.
If only the equations for P1 are desired, we set U2 = 02 in (17—87),
= V + 1U1 — (17—88)
where
V= + A202 — + A202 — (17—89)
The Euler equation for (17—88) is (17—59), and the second differential has the
form
i2rr — /tITTIATI A \AIT
'4 — 1)
(17—90)
= AUrK11 AU1
Since K11 is positive definite, we can state that the displacements defining the
equilibrium position correspond to a minimum value of defined by (17—88)
or (17—87).
We consider next the force-method formulation. We let AP, AZ be a statically
permissible virtual-force system. By definition,
= ATAZ = BAZ (17-91)
Premultiplying both sides of (d) with AZT and introducing (17—91) leads to
the principle of virtual forces,
APTU = (17-92)
Note that (17—92) is valid only for a statically permissible virtual-force system,
i.e., one which satisfies (17—91).
The compatibility equations follow directly from the principle of virtual
forces by requiring the virtual-force system to be self-equilibrating. If AZ
satisfies -
AP1 = B1 AZ = 0 (17-93)
then (17--92) reduces to
= (17-94)
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572 GENERAL FORMULATION—LiNEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
This result is valid for an arbitrary self-equilibrating virtual-force system. The

formulation presented in the previous section corresponds to taking
[ZP,Rl
AZ A ZR
= (17-95)
AP2 =
We define the member complementary energy function, V's' = V*(Z), such
that
dV* = (17—96)
For the linear case,
and
= 4ZTfZ + ZT.K0 (17—97)
We also define the total complementary energy function, as

= — (17—93)
The deformation compatibility equations, (17—94), can he interpreted as the

stationary requirement for 11. subject to the following constraints on Z, P2:
= —
= + B2Z
The constraint conditions are the joint force-equilibrium equations. Operating
on (g), and noting that P, 2 are prescribed, lead to the constraint
conditions on the force variations
B1 AZ = 0
AP2 = B2 AZ
Note that (h) require the virtual-force system to be statically permissible and
self-equilibrating.
In the previous section, we expressed Z, P2 as
Z
= +
P20 + P2RZR
This representation satisfies (g) and (h) identically for arbitrary AZR, Sub-
stituting for Z, P2 in (17-98) and expanding V* using (17-97), we obtain
= + ZR]
+ (17-99)
— ZR 2. RU2 + const
The Euler equations for (17—99) are (17—79), and the second differential has the
form
= AZR (17—100)
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SEC. 17—10. MEMBER DEFORMATION CONSTRAINTS 573
Since is positive definite, it follows that the true forces, i.e., the forces that
satisfy compatibility as well as equilibrium, correspond to a minimum value
of
Instead of developing separate principles for the displacements and force
redundants, we could have started with a general variational principle whose
Euler equations are the complete set of governing equations. One can easily
show that the stationary requirement for
rIR = ZT(8TU1 + — — Pfu1
IT IT ( 7—10
T 1 —
considering Z, U1, U2, and P2 as variables, lead to the partitioned joint

force-equilibrium equations and the member force-joint displacement relations.
This principle is a specialized form of Rcissner's principle.
We obtain (17—87) from (17—101) by introducing the force-displacement
relations as a constraint condition on Z,
Z k(BfU1 + —
= —
and noting that, by definition,

ZT(BTIJ1 ± — V" = y
Introducing the joint force-equilibrium equations as constraint conditions
reduces 11a to —11. as defined by (17—98).
17—10. INTRODUCTION OF MEMBER DEFORMATION CONSTRAINTS

Suppose a member is assumed to he either completely or partially restrained
with respect to deformation due to force. The rigidity assumption is introduced
by setting the corresponding deformation parameters equal to zero in the local
flexibility matrix, g. For example, if axial extension is to be neglected, we set
1/AE = 0. For complete rigidity, we set g Now, in what follows, we
discuss the case where neglecting member deformation parameters causes the
mmher flexibility matrix t. to be singular, This happens, for example, when
axial extension is neglected for a straight member. The rank is decreasedt by
I and the axial force-deformation relation degenerates to
= — = v,, +
- (a)
where is the initial axial deformation due to temperature and fabrication

error. Note that now the axial force has to be determined from the equilibrium
equations. For rigidity, = 0, and the force-displacement relations
(see (17—5)) degenerate to
(b)
See (16—75).
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One can interpret (a), (b) as either member deformation constraints or as con-
straint conditions on the joint displacements. In general, the decrease in rank
of the system flexibility matrix f is equal to the number of constraint conditions.
We consider first the force method. The governing equations are given by
fZrZR = A (qR eqs.)
where
=
"Zr L
Suppose these are c deformation constraints. Then, f is of rank — C. In

order to solve (c), must be nonsingular, i.e., it must be of rank This
requires
qT — C (17—402)
That is, there must be at least unconstrained member deformations. This

condition is necessary but not sufficient as we will illustrate below. Aside from
insuring that the flexibility matrix is of rank there is no difliculty involved in
introducing member deformation constraints in the force formulation.
Example 17—1
Consider the ideal truss shown. For this system.
qT 4
q4 = 2
We take the forces in bars 3, 4 as the redundants:
cF1) IF3
(F2J ff4
Then,
Zr5[0ri 0
1
and
1 1 0
01
0
=
We can specify that, at most, two bars are rigid. No difficulty is encountered if only one
bar is rigid. However, we cannot specify that bars 1, 3 or 2, 4 are rigid.
We consider next the displacement formulation. Since f is singular, k does

not exist and, therefore, we cannot invert the complete set of force-displacement
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Fig. E17—1
0
0
relations, i.e., (17—57) are not applicable. In what follows, we first develop the
appropriate equations by manipulating the original set of governing equations.
We then show how the equations can be deduced from the variational principle
for displacements.
The governing equations are
P1 = P1 1 + AfZ eqs.)
+ fZ = A1U1 + A2U2 (qT eqs.)
Now, we suppose there are c deformation constraints and the elements of
are listed such that the last c elements are the prescribed deformations. We
partition '/7' and Z as follows:
1
= (cx1)
z (17—103)
=
where contains the constrained member deformations and Z. the corre-
sponding member forces. We use subscripts c, u to indicate quantities asso-
ciated with the constrained and unconstrained deformations. Continuing, we
partition
A
A1
(cx I'd)
(q-r 'ia)
—
(cxr) (17—104)
•) (qr—e)xi
(qT xl) 05 (cx I) -
f = fT
= 0
(cxc)
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The deformation constraints are introduced by setting = 0. Note that, in

order for f to be singular, there must be no coupling between and i.e.,
f must have the form shown above. Using this notation, the governing equations
take the form
P1 + + AfCZC (17—105)
= + = + A2aU2 (17106)
= = A1,U1 + A2,02 (17—107)
Equation (17—107) represents c constraint conditions on the unknown joint

displacements, U1. The rank of A1, is equal to the number of independent
constraint equations. One can easily demonstrate that c independent constraint
conditions are required in order to be able to analyze the system for an arbitrary
loading.
Example 17—2
Suppose we specify that bars 1, 3 are rigid for the system considered in Example 17—I.
The constraint equations arc (we take = {e1, e1})
— = — U21
e3 = = —u11 +
For (a) to be consistent, we must have

er,., + e30 = + U41
Even if(b) is satisfied, we cannot find the forces in bars 1, 3 due to Pi 1.
In what follows, we assume A1, is of rank c. We solve (17—106) for 4 and

substitute in (17—105). This is permissible since is nonsingular. The resulting
equations are
4= (17—108)
= + —
and
+ AfCZC = P1 — — — (17—109)
A1,U1 = — A2,02 (17—110)
Now, the coefficient matrix, is nonsingular only when the structure

obtained by deleting the restraint forces (4) is stable. By suitably redefining
4, we can transform (17—109) such that the coefficient matrix is always non-
singular. Suppose we write
Z. =4+ —
=4+ + A2,02 — (17—ill)
where 4 represents the new force variable and is an arbitrary symmetrical

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positive definite matrix of order c. Substituting for in (17—109), we obtain

P1 = P1,1 +
(a)
+ T [k,, 1 ([A1,, A2,,1
-
By defining
rk 1 rf 11
= (17-112)
L kcj = L
and noting (17—104), we can write (a) as
Pi + ATk'(A2tY2 — + (Afk'A1)U1 +
Using the notation introduction in Sec. 17—7 (see (17—60)), we let
Kr, ATk'A,,
= (17—113)
= ±
Finally, the governing equations take the form
Z — (17-114)
= =
K11U1 + = — — K1202 = H1 (17—115)
= — = H2 (17—116)
Since A1 must he of rank for stability and we have required to be positive

definite, it follows that K1 is positive definite. Also, the solution for U1 must
satisfy (17—116) and we see from (17—111) that is equal to the actual
constraint force matrix, for arbitrary k'.
The expressions for Z and with Z. deleted, have the same form as the
unconstrained expressions (17—57) and (17—59). Now, it is not necessary to
rearrange Z such that the constraint forces arc last. One can work with the
natural member force listing,
Z = {Z1, . . . , Z,,,}
and take arbitrary values for the member deformation parameters that are to be
negelected. We obtain K11 and Fl1 by first generating using the
direct stiffness method and then deleting the rows and columns corresponding
to the prescribed displacements. The constrained deformations, 1/v, can be
listed arbitrarily. It is only necessary to specify the locations of the constraint
forces (elements of in. the natural member force listing. Once the
ments and constraint forces are known, we can determine the force matrix for
member n by first evaluating (see (17—8) and (17—11))
Z =k'r, r, ro. ,,j
— (O/g° — "
fl / '. n+ n n -—
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where k.,, is the modified stiffness matrix, and then adding the constraint forces
in the appropriate locations. In what follows, we describe two procedures for
solving (17—115) and (17—116).
In the first method, we solve (17—115) for U1,
U1 = — (17—118)
and then substitute in (17—116),

= — 112 (17—119)
The coefficient matrix for is positive definite since K1 is positive definite

and is of rank c. Note that, with this procedure, we must invert an ndth
order matrix and also solve a set of c equations. For the unconstrained case,
we have to solve only equations.
Example 17—3
We suppose bar 2 (Fig. E17—3) is rigid. The constraint equation is
e2 = U, =
To simplify the example, we consider only the effect of joint forces. Using the notation
introduced above, the various matrices for this example are
U1 {u1,u2}
P1 Pz}
= e1 4= F1 k,, =
e2 4= F2 =
11,1=2 c=1
(P1 U2, are null matrices.)
Fig. E17—3
0 Bar is rigid
We start by assembling A1,
=
e2
1
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and then partition according to (17-104):
Ii
1]
Note that we cannot invert (17—109), since Af,,k,,A1,, is singular.

Now, we assume an arbitrary value for the stiffness of bar 2,
—
a is an arbitrary positive constant, and assemble K1 i:
0
=
L kJ LU a
k1•[I' 1
K11 = Afk'A1 —
The governing equations (17—114), (17—115), and (17-116) reduce to
K11U1 +
= +
= P1
[u-.] (h)
(i)
= 0 (j)
The solution follows from (17—118), (17—119). We just have to take
H1 = H2 = 0 = (k)
The inverse of K11 is
1 [1+2a —ii
(1)
+Ij
I
(1k1[-l
Then
.L[1 +11
=
= ak1
ak1
F'2—p2—p1 (n)
Substituting for F'2 in (17—118), we obtain

U1 = 2p'
Id1
U2 = 0
Finally, we substitute for U1, u2 in (h):
F1 =
F2 = F'2 = P2 — P1
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GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
Instead of first solving (17—115) for U1 in terms of one can start with
(17—116),
= — = H2
which represents c relations between the displacements. Since A is of rank
c, we can express c displacements in terms of rid — c displacements, i.e., there
are only nd — c independent displacements.
We suppose the first c columns of are linearly independent. Since
is of rank c, we can always permute the columns such that this requirement is
satisfied. We let
— c (17—120)
and partition U1:

(cx 1)
U1
(nxl)
(cxnd) (Cxc) (17—121)
The elements of U are the independent displacements. By definition, is

nonsingular. Then, solving (a) for the constrained displacements, we have
= — 2U (17—122)
Finally, we express U1 as
U1 = BU + H3 (17-123)
where
a) (cx
= (axx)
I
L f fl -J
I
(cxl)
H3 = (ax!)
(
0 j
Note that B is of rank n and
0 (17125)
The generation of B, H3 from H2 can be completely automated using the
same procedure as employed in the force method to select the primary structure.
We consider next the joint force-equilibrium equations, (17—115),
K11U1 + = H1 (fld eqs.)
Substituting for U1 leads to
(K11B)U + = -- K11H3 114
We eliminate from (b) by premultiplying by BT and noting (17—125). The

resulting system of n equations for U is
(BTK11B)U = BTH4 (n eqs.) (17—126)
Since B is of rank n, the coefficient matrix is positive definite. One can interpret
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BTK1 1B as the reduced system stiffness matrix. We solve for U and then
evaluate U1 from (17—123). It remains to determine the restraint forces,
We consider again Eq. (a). Assuming U.1 is known, we can write
= — K11U1 = 115 (n0 eqs.) (17—127)
The matrix, 115, is the difference between the external applied force, P1, and the
joint force due to member force with the constraint forces deleted, i.e.,
115 = — P1, 1 — ATZ (c)

where (see (17—114))
Z —
(d)
= k'(A1U1 + A2U2 —
We determine Z using the member force-displacement relations and assemble
P1 + AfZ by the direct stiffness method. Now has c independent rows.
In determining B, we permuted the columns such that the first c columns
are linearly independent. We apply the same permutation to (17—127) and
partition after row C:
[ATe. i
(17—128)
H5
2
Considering the first c equations, we have
1
(17—129)
Since is nonsingular, we can solve (17—129) for We obtain the final

member forces by adding the elements of
Z defined by (17—114) and (d).
In this approach, we have to invert a matrix of order c and solve a system
of no — c equations. Although the final number of equations is less than in the
first approach, there is more preliminary computation (generation of B) and
the procedure cannot be automated as easily.
Example 17—4
For this example (Fig. E17—4),

c—4 n=1 (a)
The constraint conditions are

e1 U12 n42 e10
= e2 = 021 — e,0 =
(b)
e3 U22 — 032 e30
e4 031 144j e4,
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Note that (b) corresponds to (17—107). The form corresponding to (17—116) is
+1 1e10 +
U12(
—1 +1 Je,0
+1 e30 + u32f
+1 ..e4,o + U41J
U31
1- I
A1, U1 FL2
Columns 2,4, 5, and either I or 3 comprise a linearly independent set. Then, we can take
either u1 or u21 as U. It is convenient to take U = u1 We permute the columns according
1
to
1 —*5
2—. 1
3-.2
The rearranged form of U1 is

U1 = {u12,u21,u22u31 u11}
= (U, U}
We determine U,by applying (17—122). This step is simple for this example since I.
Finally, we assemble U1 defined by (e) and then permute the rows to obtain the initial
Fig. E17—4
x2
ears 1,2,3,4 are rigid
listing of U1. The final result is

U11 +1 0
0 e1,,, -I— 1142
U21 = +1 {u11} + e2,0

U22 0 e30 + 1132
u31 0 e4,0 + U4j
1' I
B 113
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SEC. 17—10. MEMBER DEFORMATION CONSTRMNTS 583
The constraint forces are determined from (17—127), which for this example has the form
+1
+1
I
+1 =
[ F4
H5,5
I I I
H,
We permute the rows of (g) according to (d) and consider only the first four equations.
The resulting equations correspond to (17—129).
It is of interest to derive the equations for the constrained case by suitably

specializing the variational principle for displacements. We start with the
unconstrained form of developed in Sec. 17—9,
= V + !5L1U1 —
where
V=
"K = A1U1 + A202
Now, the displacements are constrained by

= + =
Then, V reduces to
V= )Tk('K —
+
We obtain the appropriate form of by substituting for V using (d) and
introducing the constraint condition, "Kr — = 0:
= V + — + — (17-430)
The elements of 4 are Lagrange multipliers. One can easily show that the
stationary requirement for (17—130) considering U1 and 4 as independent
variables leads to (17—109) and (17—110).
Since = v", we can add the term
'(1"' —
to (d). Taking
V= — — (17—131)
in (17—130) leads to (17—115) and (17—116).

In the second approach, we substitute
U1=BU+H3 (f)
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in (a) and (17—131):

= V + — + H3)
V — (17—132)
—
A1BU + A1H3 + A2U2
The variation of considering U as the independent variable is
= AUT[BT(P1 1
P1) +
+ BTATkr(ASH3 + A2U2 — (g)
= — BTH4]
Requiring to be stationary for arbitrary AU results in (.17—126). Note that

we could have used the reduced form for V, i.e., equation (d). Also, we still
have to determine the constraint forces.
REFERENCES
1. FENVES, S. J., and F. H. BRANIN, JR., "Network-Topological Formulation of Struc-
tural Analysis," J. Structural Div., A.S.C.E., Vol. 89, No, ST4, August, 1963, pp.
483—514.
2. DIMAGOT0, F. L., and W. R. SPILLARS. "Network Analysis of Structures," .1. Eng.
Mech, Div., 4.S.C.E., Vol 91, No. EM3, June, 1965, pp. 169—188.
3. ARGYRIS, J. H;, "The Matrix Analysis of Structures with Cut-Outs and Modifica-
tions," Proc. Ninth International congress App!. Mech., Vol. ô, 1957, pp. 131—142.
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18
Analysis of
Geometrically
Nonlinear Systems
18-1. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we extend the displacement formulation to include geometric
nonlinearity. The derivation is restricted to small rotation, i.e., where squares
of rotations are negligible with respect to unity. We also consider the material
to be linearly elastic and the member to be prismatic.
The first phase involves developing appropriate member force-displacement
relations by integrating the governing equations derived in Sec. 13—9. We treat
first planar deformation, since the equations for this case are easily integrated
and it reveals the essential nonlinear effects. The three-dimensional problem
is more formidable and one has to introduce numerous approximations in order
to generate an explicit solution. We will briefly sketch out the solution strategy
and then present a linearized solution applicable for doubly symmetric cross-
sections.
The direct stiffness method is employed to assemble the system equations.
This phase is essentially the same as for the linear case. However, the governing
equations are now nonlinear.
Next, we described two iterative procedures for solving a set of nonlinear
algebraic equations, successive substitution and Newton-Raphson iteration.
These methods are applied to the system equations and the appropriate re-
relations are developed. Finally, we utilize the classical stability
criterion to investigate the stability of an equilibrium position.
18-2. MEMBER EQUATIONS—PLANAR DEFORMATION -
Figure shows the initial and deformed positions of the member. The
centroidal axis initially coincides with the X1 direction and X2 is an axis of
symmetry for the cross section. We work with displacements (u1, u2, co3),
585
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586 ANALYSIS OF GEOMETRICALLY NONUNEAR SYSTEMS CHAP. 18
distributed external force (b2), and end forces (F1, F2. M3) referred to the
initial (X1-X2-X3) member frame. The rotation of the chord is denoted by
p3 and is related to the end displacements by
— U,42
L
The governing equations follow from (13—88). For convenience, we drop the
subscript on x1, and M3, w3, 13. Also, we consider h1 = rn3 = 0.
Deformed position
1182
b2 dxi
x1 ,
Centroidai exis
Fig. 18—1. Notation for p'anar bending.
=0
(F1u2, + F2) + b2 0 (a)
F2 =
Force-Displacement Relatio,is
F1
= ULx +
F2
= U2. — CO (b)
2
M
= (0,
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SEC. 18—2. MEMBER EQUATIONS—PLANAR DEFORMATION 587
Boundary Conditions
Forx = 0:
= UAI or 1F110 = —FAI

U2 = or iF2 +
w= WA3 or Mb =
Forx =
U1 = or FIlL +FB1
or IF2 + = F112 (d)
= or Ml,.
Integrating (a) leads to
F1 = P
F2 +
Pu2 = — C3P — C2Px + Jx(Jx b2 dx)dx
where C2, C3 are integration constants. We include the factor P so that the
dimensions are consistent. The axial displacement is determined from the
first equation in (a),
('1.
PL 1
2
11111 — UAI (u2 dx (18—2)
= —
j
Combining the remaining two equations in (a), we obtain
M = El
/ +
P\ u2 +
ri
Finally, the governing equation for u2 follows from the third equation in (e),
+ + C3)+ —
where (18—3)
2__
El
The solutions for u2 and M arc

= C4 cos px + C5 sin + C2x + C3 + U2b
co (i + C4 sin j.tx + C5 cos px)
(18—4)
+ C2 + b2 dx + (i + x -
where U2b denotes the particular solution due to b2. If b2 is constant,
U2b
b(EI —
1/ (18—5)
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588 ANALYSIS OF GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR SYSTEMS CHAP. 18
Enforcing the boundary conditions on u2, w at x = 0, L leads to four linear

equations relating (C2 C5). When the coefficient matrix is singular, the
member is said to have buckled. In what follows, we exclude member buck-
ling. We also neglect transverse shear deformation since its effect is small for a
homogeneous cross section.
We consider the case where the end displacements are prescribed. The net
displacements are
u = (u — 1.
(18—6)
CD' = (a5 U2bX)X_OL
Evaluating (18—4) with A2 = oc, we obtain

C2 = — jzC5
C3 = — C4
— —
—
— C
sin 1iL ,u sin (18—7)
1 1 . 1— COS/LL
C5 = — — 1tL — —
D= 2(1 —
Note that D 4 0 as This defines the upper limit on P, i.e., the member
buckling load:
PJrnax (18_8)
The end forces can be obtained with (c—e). We omit the algebraic details
since they are obvious and list the final form below.
MA3 = + + — — uA2)]
MB3 = + + UA2)]
—
+ + — UA2)] — (u52 — uA2)

(18—9)
2 1 P
FB2 = — + C0A3 — — Unz)] +
P1. ('Lj PL
2
— = (u2, dx = — erL
—j
where
D= 2(1 — cos — pL sin pL
— 1iL cos
Dç62 = — sin iL)
= + cos 1zL)
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SEC. 18—2. MEMBER EQUATIONS—PLANAR DEFORMATION 589
The functions were introduced by Livesley (Ref. 7), and are plotted in Fig.
18 —2. They degenerate rapidly as —+ 27t. The initial end forces depend on
the transverse loading, b2. If b2 is constant,

bL
A2 — 52 —
bL2 1
- (18—10)
1 — —
=
In order to evaluate the stiffness coefficients, P has to be known. If one end,
say B, is unrestrained with respect to axial displacement, there is no difficulty
since is now prescribed. The relative displacement is determined from
PL
UB1 = UA1 + — Le.
('L
= dx = er( jiL, UA2, U52, WA, w5)
—— j
(UB2 —
Dg54 =
+
sin
— w43) 2 +
L j (18—11)
(U52 —
C5 = — WAS) + — WA3
= sin jiL cos jiL) + 2(1 — cos
= (1 — cos jiL)
(1 — eos jiL'\
—
4 if sin jiL cos jiL
= + + -
We call Cr the relative end shortening due to rotation. However, when both
axial displacements are prescribed, we have to resort to iteration in order to
evaluate P since e, is a nonlinear function of P. The simplest iterative scheme is
p(i+ 1) = (u51 — UAI) + (18—12)
and convergence is rapid when jiL is not close to 2it. -
Expressionsfor the incremental end forces due to increments in the end

displacements are needed in the procedure and also for
stability analysis. If jiL is not close to 2ic, we can assume the stability functions
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+02
pL
—2
—4
—6 Oi
—8
—10
Fig. 18—2. Plot of the 0 functions.
are constant and equal to their values at the initial position, when operating
on (18—9). The resulting expressions are
(IMA3 + Aco,43 + c&2 — AU42)]
dMB3 = dMç3 + + — (Au,32 —
dP42 + + AWA3 — —
(18—13)
P
— ——h-——- dP
—
— ,JL'i .41
41 112 112 42 1 42
dFB1 = dP dF41 = —dP
dP = — Au41) + AEder
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SEC. 18—3. MEMBER EQUATIONS—ARBITRARY DEFORMATION 591
where the incremental initial end forces are due to loading, Lxb2. We can
obtain an estimate for by assuming Au2 is constant.
AuA2)
Au12.x dx (18—14)
The coefficients in (18—13) arc tangent stiffnesses. They are not exact since
we have assumed and Au2, constant. To obtain the exact coefficients,
we have to add
El3 F , — 1LA2 , 1
+
— j 4)3] dCuL)
(18-15)
d(,uL) = — dP
2b13
to dM4 and similar terms to dM5, . . , , The derivatives of the stability
functions are listed below for reference:
— 2(1iL)2 sin
D
=
(18—16)
- 41 + + - pL)
= —
We also have to use the exact expression for

ae tie.
der = + ——Au52 + + -—-- + —--—A(1zL)
cIUA2 (WA
in the equation for dP. An improvement on (18—14) is obtained by operating

on (18—11), and assuming ,tL is constant.
18—3. MEMBER EQUATIONS—ARBITRARY DEFORMATION

The positive sense of the end forces for the th case is shown
in Fig. 18—3. Note that the force and displacement measures are referred to
the fixed member frame. The governing equations for small rotations were
derived in Sec. 13—9. They are nonlinear, and one must resort to an approximate
method such as the Galerkin scheme,t in which the displacement measures are
expressed in terms of prescribed functions (of x) and parameters. The problem
is transformed into a set of nonlinear algebraic equations relating the
eters. Some applications of this technique are presented in Ref. 5.
t This method is outlined in Sec. 1O—6.

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M52, WB2
x2
!152
x1
//
I
//
P2
Note: The centroidal axis coincides

with X1, X2 and X3 are prin-
cipal inertia directions.
Fig. 18—3. Notation for three-dimensional behavior.
If we consider b1 = 0, the axial force F1 is constant along the member and the
nonlinear terms involve and coupling terms such as co1M2;
Neglecting these terms results in linearized equations, called the Kap pus
equations. Their form is:
F1 P
+ x3w1,1) + F2]+ b2 0
dx1
[P(u,3 i + F3] + b3 = 0
d
1+ 1 + rn-1- + — + 711w1 =0
dx1
1142 1
— F3 + = 0
M, + F2 + in3 = 0 (18—18)
M4,1 + = 0
— 11
+ +
=
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= u1, i + 1
+ u53, 1 + + w1, i—
I "F2 F3 X3r
U52,1 — CO3 ..— +
GA2 A23 J
1/F2 F3 x2
U53, + Ui2 = + +
GA23 A3 J
M2 M3
(Dz,ij7-
f + C01,t + X3rF7 ± X2rF3)
Boundary Goiidif ions (± for x = L, — for x= 0)
P =
P(u521 + + F2 =
P(u,3 •t — i) + F3 = ±F3
+ M!1 + — + 711w1 =
M2 = ±M2 M3 = ±M3 =
To interpret the linearization, we consider (13—81). If one neglects the
nonlinear terms in the shearing strains,
Y12 u12 + 112.1 -
Y13 u13 + U3,1

takes the extensional strain as
a1 u1 + zfu2, i + U3, + + 1
and assumes
+ = 0
+ = 0
+ = 0
one obtains (13—81). Equations are exact when the section is doubly sym-
metric, Assumptions (a) and (b) are reasonable if is small w.r. to u2 and 1
u3, However, they introduce considerable error when co1 is the dominant
term. This has been demonstrated by Black (Ref. 5).
When the cross section is doubly symmetric,
= = X2r = X3r = =0
A23
(18—19)
1
= r2
—
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(r is the radius of gyration with respect to the centroid) and the problem
uncouples to—
1. Flexure in plane
2, Flexure in X1-X3 plane
3. Restrained torsion
We have already determined the solution for fiexure in the X1-X2 plane.
If we introduce a subscript for /L and
P P
Cu2)2 =
El2 (18—20)
= cbjCu3L)
and then replace
(02
U3 —* —U2 —4
(18—21)
F2 F3 M'2
F3 —F2 -
in (18—9), (18—13), we obtain the member relations for flexure in the X1-X3
frame. For example,
MA3 + + — U.42)]
(18—22)
E12
= + + + U43)]
and
F42 =
F43 = + [_WB2 W42 — U43)] — — U.43)
The expressions for the axial end forces expands to

=P J'Al =
AE
P = — U41) + AE(Cri + er2 + er3)
r2 Ci-' 1 CL (18—23)
dx1 er2 dx1
= j J
1
er3 = f
(u3 dx1
2L
where is obtained from er2 by applying (18—21).
We generate the restrained torsion solution following the procedure described
in Example 13—7. If the joints are moment resisting (i.e., rigid), it is reasonable
to assume no warping, which requires f = 0 at x = 0, L. The corresponding
solution is summarized below:
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________1+P _
r2P
P=— U
GJ 1+P
GJ Erlcb 1 + + '>
- GJ
MB1 <1)A1)
MA1 —MB1
(18—24)
2
1+
sinh 1uL [iiL(1 + Cr(1 + P))
(
— +
GJ(1 + P)
1
—
[ 1—coshuL
+ —-——--—(1 —
/1(1 + Cr(1 + P))[ sinh,uL
We neglect shear deformation due to restrained torsion by setting C,. 0.
If warping restraint is neglected,
En4, 0 c%)
(18—25)
I +P
At this point, we summarize the member force-displacement relations for
a doubly symmetric cross section. For convenience, we introduce matrix
notation:
= {F1P2F3M1M2M3}8
{u1u2u3w1w2w3}B
etc. (18—26)
+ + kBJl%A +
= ÷ + —
where contains nonlinear terms due to chord rotation and end shortening
{AE(eni + er2 + e,.3); uA2); — uA3); 0; 0; contains
the initial end forces due to member loads; and
AE
L
El3 El3
El2 El2
'P33
GJ
Sym
El3
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AE
L
El3
. El2 El2
k44 =
GJ
El3
Operating on leads to the incremental equations. i.e., the three-

dimensional form of (18—13). Assuming the stability functions are constant and
taking
dP
—
(18—27)
— UA2)(AU82 + — iiA3)(AuB3 — AuA3)
+ r2(w81 — — AWAI)}
we obtain
+ (knE + + (kBA —
(18 —28)
= + (knA — Mi11 + (kAA + kr)L\%A
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SEC. 18-4. SOLUTION TECHNIQUES; STABILITY ANALYSIS 597
where k, is the incremental stiffness matrix due to rotation,
0 P3 Pz rp1 0
2 LFB1.
f.J3 + P2P3 r 2 p1p3 0 0
AE
kr + —r2p1p2 0 0
L TAT
Symmetrical (r2p1)2 0 0
0 0
0
p3 = — uA2) p2 = — UA3) Pi = — WA1)
1fF is close to the member buckling load, one mustinclude additional terms
due to the variation in the stability functions and use the exact expression for der
Kappas's equations have also been solved explicitly for a monosymmetric
section with warping and shear deformation neglected. Since the equations are
linear, one can write down the general solution for an arbitrary cross section.
It will involve twelve integration constants which are evaluated by enforcing the
displacement boundary conditions. The algebra is untractable unless one
introduces symmetry restrictions.
18—4. SOLUTION TECHNIQUES; STABILITY ANALYSIS

In this section, we present the mathematical background for two solution
techniques, successive substitution and Newton-Raphson iteration, and then
apply them to the governing equations for a nonlinear member system.
Consider the problem of solving the nonlinear equation
= 0 (18—29)
Let represent one of the roots. By definition,

= 0 (18—30)
In the method of successive substitution,t (18—29) is rewritten in an equivalent

form,
x= g(x) (18—31)
and successive estimates of the solution arc determined, using

q(k)
— (18—32)
where represents the kth estimate.

The exact solution satisfies
x=g
t See Ref. 9.
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Then,
= —
Expanding in a Taylor series about

= g(k)
+ g(T — + — +
and retaining only the first two terms lead to the convergence measure
— — (18—33)
where is between and T.

In the Newton-Raphson method,t is expanded in a Taylor series about
= + Ax + + =0
where Ax is the exact correction to
Ax = —
An estimate for Ax is obtained by neglecting second- and higher-order terms:
=
(18—34)
+
The convergence measure for this method can be obtained by combining (a)
and (18—34), and has the form
— — (18—35)
Note that the Newton-Raphson method has second-order convergence whereas

successive substitution has only first-order convergence.
We consider next a set of n nonlinear equations:
'I' = = 0
(18—36)
= x2,...,
An exact solution is denoted by Also, =
In successive substitution, is rearranged to
ax = c — g (18—37)
where a, c are constant, g = g(x), and the recurrence relation is taken as

—
=c (18—38)
The exact solution satisfies
a5 = c —
Then,
1)) — g(k))
=
t See Ref. 9.
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SEC. 18—4. SOLUTION TECHNIQUES; STABILITY ANALYSIS 599
Expanding g in a Taylor series about

= g(k)
+ — +
9i,i 91,2 91n
= 92,1 92,2 92,n
=
L0xrJ
'
and retaining only the first two terms results in the convergence measure
(x — = a (18—39)
where lies between xk and For convergence, the norm of 'g. must be
less than unity.
The generalized Newton-Raphson method consists in first expanding
about
= + + = 0
where
= = [T'—j —
= (18—40)
Neglecting the second differential leads to the recurrence relation

=
= ( 18—41 )
+
The corresponding convergence measure is
— = (18—42)
Let us now apply these solution techniques to the structural problem. The
governing equations are the nodal equations referred to the
qlobcil system frame,
1?e — =0 (1843)
where contains the external nodal forces and — is the summation of
the member end forces incident on node i. One first has to rotate the member
end forces, (18—26), from the member frame to the global frame using
=
k° =
In our formulation, the member frame is fixed, i.e. is constant. We introduce
the displacement restraints and write the final equations as -
e m
1844
Pm + + KUP1
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Note that K and depend on the axial forces while Pr depends on both the
axial force and the member rigid body chord rotation, if the axial forces are
small in comparison to the member buckling loads, we can replace K with
K1, the linear stiffness matrix.
Applying successive substitution, we write
KU = —
and iterate on U, holding K constant during the iteration:
= P1 — (18—45)
We employ (18—45) together with an incremental loading scheme since K is

actually a variable. The steps are outlined here:
1. Apply the first load increment, and solve for U(I), using K K1.
2. Update K using the axial forces corresponding to Pe(l)• Then apply
Pe(2) anditerate on
K (1) (ni_pe(1) e(2)
_p(n—1)
r
3. Continue for successive load increments.

A convenient convergence criterion is the relative change in the Euclidean
norm, N, of the nodal displacements.
N=
'\ . (18—46)
— 1 e (a specified value)
Jabs va]uc
This scheme is particularly efficient when the member axial forces are small
with respect to the Euler loads since, in this case, we can take K = K1 during
the entire solution phase.
In the Newton-Raphson procedure, we operate on Vi according to (18—41):
=— 4,(fl)
Now, Pe is prescribed so that

= due to
+ dPr + K LW + (18—47)
= —
where denotes the tangent stiffness matrix. The iteration cycle is

AU(n) = —
( 18—48 )
= +
We iterate on (18—48) for successive load increments. This scheme is more
expensive since has to be updated for each cycle. However, its convergence
rate is more rapid than direct substitution. If we assume the stability functions
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SEC. 18—4. SOLUTION TECHNIQUES; STABILITY ANALYSIS 601
are constant in forming due to AU, the tangent stiffness matrix reduces to
dI( 0 dP, 0
(18—49)
K + Kr
where K. is generated with (18—28). We include the incremental member loads
in at the start of the iteration cycle. Rather than update at each cycle,
one can hold fixed for a limited number of cycles. This is called mod (fled
Newton-Raphson. The convergence rate is lower than for regular Newton-
Raphson but higher than successive substitution.
We consider next the question of stability. According to the classical stability
criterion,t an equilibrium position is classified as:
stable — >0
neutral d2W,,, — d2We 0 (18—50)
unstable d2 W,, d2 <0
where d2 is the second-order work done by the external forces during a
displacement increment AU, and is the second-order work done by the
member end forces acting on the members. With our notation,
d2w, Pe)TAU
= (d AU
(18—51)
= AUTK, AU
and the criteria transform to
/ \T < 0 stable
/
(AU)TK, AU Pe) AU = 0 neutral (18—52)
—
>0 unstable
The most frequent case is Pe prescribed, and for a constant loading, the tangent
stiffness matrix must be posil.ive definite,
To detect instability, we keep track of the sign of the determinant of the
tangent stiffness matrix during the iteration. The sign is obtained at no cost
(i.e., no additional computation) if Gauss elimination or the factor method
are used to solve the correction equation, (18—48). When the determinant
changes sign, we have passed through a stability transition. Another indication
of the existence of a bifurcation point (K1 singular) is the degeneration of the
convergence rate for Newton-Raphson. The correction tends to diverge and
oscillate in sign and one has to employ a higher iterative scheme.
Finally, we consider the special case where the loading does not produce
significant chord rotation. A typical example is shown in Fig. 18—4. Both the
t See Sees. 7—6 and 10—6.
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______________________
frame and loading are symmetrical and the displacement is due only to short-
ening of the columns. To investigate the stability of this structure, we deletet
the rotation terms in K, and write
K
K is due to a unit value of the load parameter The member axial
forces are determined from a linear analysis. Then, the bifurcation problem
reduces to determining the value of 2 for which a nontrivial solution of
(K + 2K;)AU 0 (18—54)
exists. This is a nonlinear eigenvalue problem, since K = K(2).
12X
I I
Fig. 18—4. Example of structure and loading for which linearized stability analysis
is applicable.
In linearized stability analysis, K is assumed to be K1 and one solves

K, AU = —2K AU (18-55)
Both K, and K; are symmetrical. Also, K1 is positive definite, Usually, only
the lowest critical load is of interest, and this can be obtained by applying
inverse iterations to
(—K;)Au
1 (18—56)
REFERENCES
1. TIMOSHENKO, S. P., and J. M. GERE: Theory of Elastic Stability, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1961.
2. KOLLBRUNNSR, C. F., and M. MEIsTER: Knicken, Biegedriilknicken, Kippen. 2d ed.,
3. BLEICH, F.: Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.
t Set Pi P2 = = 0 in (18—28).
See Refs. 11 and 12 of Chapter 2.
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REFERENCES 603
4: BLYRGERMEISTEa, G.. and F!. STEUP: Stabilidhsrheorie, Part 1, Akademie-Verlag.

Berlin, 1957,
5. CFJtLVER, A. H., ed.: Thin- Walled Structures, Chatto & Windus, London, 1967.
6. VLASOV, V. Z.: Thin Walled Elastic Beams, Israel for Scientific Transla-
tions, Office of Technical Services: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C., 1961.
7. LIVESLItY, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Anal vsis, Pergamon Press, London,
1964.
8. AROYRIS, J. H.: Recent Advances in Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon
Press, London, 1964.
9. HILDEBRAND, F. B.: Introduction to Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1956.
10. GALAMBOS, T. V.: Structural Members and Frames, Prentice Hall, 1968.
11. BRUSU, D. and B. ALMROTH: Buckling of Bars, Plates, and Shells, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1975.
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index
Associative multiplication, 8 Constraint conditions treated. with La-

Augmented branch-node incidence ma- grange multipliers, 76, 80
trix, 124, 222 Curved member
Augmented matrix, 33 definition of thin and thick, 434
Axial deformation, influence on bending thin, 487
of planar member, 472 slightly twisted, 487
Bar stiffness matrix, 180 Defect, of a system of linear algebraic

Bifurcation; Neutral equilibrium equations, 31
Bimoment, MqS, 373
Deformation
Branch-node incidence table, 121, 145 for out-of-plane loading of a circular
member, transverse shear, twist, and
Cç1, Cr, C,,r—coefficients appearing in bending, 498
complementary energy expression for planar member, stretching and
for restrained torsion, 387, 388, 416 transverse shear vs. bending, 454
Canonical form, 58 Deformation constraints
Cartesian formulation, principle of vir- force method, 573
tual forces for a planar member, 465 displacement method, 576
Castigliano's principles, 176 variational approach, 583
Cayley—Hamilton Theorem, 63 Deformed geometry, vector orientation,
Center of twist, 383, 389 239
Characteristic values of a matrix, 46 Degree of statical indeterminacy
Chord rotation. p. 586 member, 555, 567
Circular helix, definition equation, 84, 86 truss, 210
Circular segment Determinant, 16, 37, 39
out-of-plane loading, 504 Diagonal matrix, 10
restrained warping solution, 509 Differential notation for a function, 70, 72,
Classical stability criterion 79
continuum, 256 Direction cosine matrix for a bar, 119
member system, 603 Discriminant, 40, 59
truss, 170 Distributive multiplication, 8
Closed ring, out-of-plane loading, 503
Cofactor, 19
Column matrix, 4 Echelon matrix, 29
Column vector, 4 Effective shear area, cross-sectional prop-
Complementary energy erties, 302
continuum, 261 Elastic behavior, 125, 248
member system, 572 End shortening due to geometrically non-
planar curved member, 434 linear behavior, 589
restrained torsion, 385; 387, 388 Engineering theory of a member, basic
unrestrained torsion-flexure, 301 assumptions, 330, 485
Conformable matrices, 8, 35 Equivalence, of matrices, 27
Connectivity matrix, member system, 563 Equivalent rigid body displacements, 334,
Connectivity table for a truss, 121, 143. 414, 430
Consistency, of a set of linear algebraic Euler equations for a function, 73
equations, 31, 44 Eulerian strain, 234
605
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606 INDEX
First law of thermodynamics, 248 Maxwell's law of reciprocal defiections.

Fixed end forces 356
prismatic member, 523 Member, definition, 271
thin planar circular member, 528 Member buckling, 588
Flexibility matrix Member force displacement relations. 537,
arbitrary curved member, 515 546, 556
circular helix, 534 Member on an elastic foundation, 384, 369
planar member, 462 Mesh, network, 220
prismatic member, 345, 521 Minor, of a square array, 19
thin planar circular member, 526 Modal matrix, 52
Flexural warping functions, 296, 300/n Modified Neuton-Raphson iteration, 601
Frenet equations, 91 Moment, MR,
Mushtari's equations, 444
Gauss's integration by parts formula. 254
Geometric compatibility equation Natural member reference frame, 92
arbitrary member, 499 Negative definite, 58
continuum, 259, 264 Negligible transverse shear deformation,
member system, 569 planar member, 443, 454, 498
planar member, 463, 466 Network, topological, 220
prismatic member, 355 Neutral equilibrium, 170, 256, 601
truss, 160, 212, 216, 223 Newton-Raphson iteration, member sys-
unrestrained torsion, 279, 315 tem, 598
Geometric stiffness matrix for a bar, 200 Normalization of a vector, 49
Geometrically nonlinear restrained torsion Null matrix, 4
solution, 595
Green's strain tensor, 234 One-dimensional deformation measures,
335, 338, 432
Hookean material, 126, 249 arbitrary member, 491
Hyperelastic material, 248 Orthogonal matrices and trnasformations,
50, 53
Incremental system stiffness matrix Orthotropic material, 250, 251
member system, 601 Permutation matrix, 42, 135
truss, 193 Permutation of a set of integers, 16, 37
Inelastic behavior, 125 Piecewise linear material, 126, 146
Initial stability Plane curve, 98, 425
member system, 562 Poisson's ratio, 252
truss, 137 Positive definite matrix, 58, 63
Invariants of a matrix, 59, 62 Positive semi-definite matrix, 58
Isotropic material, 252 Postmultiplication, matrix, S
Potential energy function, member system,
Kappus equations, 592 571
Kronecker delta notation, 11 Premuftiplication, matrix, 8
Primary structure
Lagrange multipliers, 76, 80, 583 member system, 568
Lagrangian strain, 234 planar member, 463
Lamé constants, 253 prismatic member, 354
Laplace expansion for a determinant, 20, truss, 211
38 Principle minors, 55
Linear connected graph, 218 Principle of virtual displacements
Linear geometry, 120, 143, 237 member system, 570
Linearized stability analysis, 602 planar member, 442
Local member reference frame, 92 Principle of virtual forces
arbitrary member, 490, 492, 512
Marguerre equations, 449, 456 member systens, 571
Material compliance matrix, 249 planar member, 435, 458
Material rigidity matrix, 249 prismatic member, 338, 351
Matrix iteration, computational method,
201 Quadratic forms, 57
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INDEX 607
Quasi-diagonal matrix, 15, 38 modification for partial end restraint,

Quasi-triangular matrix, 39 535
prismatic member, geometrically non-
Radius of gyration, 434 linear behavior, 588, 595
Rank of a matrix, 27, 42, 43 prismatic member, linear geometry, 522
Rayleigh's quotient, 75, 79 Strain and complementary energy for pure
Reissner's principle torsion, 280
continuum, 270 Strain energy density. 248
member, 383, 414 Stress and strain component trnasforma-
member system, 573 tions. 249
Relative minimum or maximum value of a Stress components
function, relative extrema, 66 Eulerian, 242
Restrained torsion solution, prismatic Kirchhoff, 246
member Stress function, torsion, 276
linear geometry, 391 Stress resultants and stress couples, 272
nonlinear geometry, 595 Stress vector, 240
Restrained torsion stress distribution and Stress vector transformation, 242
cross-sectional parameters Submatrices (matrix partitioning), 12, 36
channel section, 401 Successive substitution, iterative method
multicell section, 411 member system, 597
symmetrical I section, 398 truss, 193
thin rectangular cell, 407 Summary of system equations, force equi-
Rigid body displacement transformation, ibrium and force displacement, 561
109 Symmetrical matrix, Il, 35
Rotation transformation matrix, 101, 232 System stiffness matrix
Row matrix, 4 member system, 548, 550, 565
truss, 179, 180, 188, 206
Self-equilibrating force systems, 160, 211,
258 Tangent stiffness matrix
member systems, 568 for a bar, 193
Shallow member, assumptions, 448 prismatic member, 590, 596
Shear center, 297, 300, 309, 378, 389 Tensor invariants, 232
Shear flow, 287 Torsion solution, rectangle, 281
Shear flow distribution for unrestrained Torsional constant, J, 276, 278, 323
torsiOn, 308 Torsional warping function, 274, 377
Similarity transformation, 53, 62 Transverse orthotropic material, 252
Simpson's rule, 475 Transverse shear deformation
Singular matrix, 22 planar member, 454, 498
Skew symmetrical matrix, 11 prismatic member, 355
Small strain, 120, 235 irapezoidal rule, 474
Small-finite rotation approximation, 238 Tree, network, 220
Square matrix, 4 Triangular matrix, 12
Stability of an equilibrium position, 171, Two-hinged arch solutions, 467, 470
195
Stability functions (4), prismatic member, Unit matrix, 10
589
Statically equivalent force system, 103, 106
Statically permissible force system, 159, Variable warping parameter, f, for re-
216, 257 strained torsion, 372
Stationary values of a function, 67, 79 Vector, definition (mechanics), 4/n
Stiffness matrix
arbitrary curved member, 516, 520 Work done by a force, definition, 153, 156
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JEROME J. CONNOR, Sc.D.

THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY • NEW YORK

Ttrn RONALD PRESS COMPANY

All Rights Reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74—22535

With the development over the past decade of computer-based analysis

1 Introduction to Matrix Algebra

2 Characteristic-Value Problems and Quadratic Forms 46

3 Relative Extrema for a Function 66

4 Differential Geometry of a Member Element 81

4—1 Parametric Representation of a Space Curve 81

4—3 Unit Tangent Vector 85

5 Matrix Transformations for a Member Element 100

Il—ANALYSIS OF AN IDEAL TRUSS

6 Governing Equations for an Ideal Truss

7 Variational Principles for an Ideal Truss 152

8 Displacement Method—Ideal Truss 178

8—4 Incremental Formulation; Classical Stability

9 Force Method—Ideal Truss

Ill—ANALYSIS OF A MEMBER ELEMENT

10 Governing Equations for a Deformable Solid 229

11 St. Venant Theory of Torsion-Flexure of

12 Engineering Theory of Prismatic Members 330

12—3 Force-Displacement Relations; Principle of

13 Restrained Torsion-Flexure of a Prismatic Member 371

13—1 Introduction 371

14 Planar Deformation of a Planar Member 425

15 Engineering Theory of an Arbitrary Member 485

15—9 Member Matrices—Prismatic Member 520

tV—ANALYSIS OF A MEMBER SYSTEM

16 Direct Stiffness Method—Linear System 545

17 General Formulation—Linear System 554

18 Analysis of Geometrically Nonlinear Systems 585

a two-dimensional array, such as

a11, a12, . . ,a1,

a two-dimensional array, the first subscript defines the row location of an

a11 a12 - - a1,,

a,,,1 am2 a,,,,,

* In print, a matrix is represented by a boldfaced letter.

* This is the mathematical definition of a vector. In mechanics, a vector is defined as a quantity

1—2. EQUALITY, ADDITION, AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

It is obvious from the example that addition is commutative and associative:

1—3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

Scalar multiplication is commutative. That is,

Now, we write (1—9) as a matrix product:

We consider next the product of two matrices. This product is associated

Interchanging the order of summation, and letting

Noting (1—12), we can write (1—15) as

where p is in x .s and y is S x 1. Now, we also express which defines

(1)(1) + (0)(O) (IXI) + (O)(1) (1)(O) + 1) (1)(— 1) + (01(3)

If the product ab is defined, a and b are said to be confbrmable in the order

Therefore, in multiplying b by a, one should distinguish preinultiplication, ab,

[b11 b121[aji aizl — [bjjaj1 + b12a21 b11a12 + b12a22

When ab = ha, the matrices are said to commute or to be permutable.

1—4. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

amj am2 a,,,

Since the transpose of a column matrix is a row matrix, an alternate notation

The transpose of p will be of order s x m and the typical element is

transposed matrices in reversed order. This rule is also applicable to multiple

(ab)T = bTaT = [2 —1] = [4 13 6]

1—5. SPECIAL SQUARE MATRICES

Square Matrix, Order 2