j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .

2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.jmrt.com.br

Review Article

Parametric review of microwave-based materials

processing and its applications

Praveen Kumar Loharkar a,∗ , Asha Ingle b , Suyog Jhavar c

a Department of Mechanical Engineering, MPSTME, SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS), Shirpur Campus,
Maharashtra 425405, India
b Department of Mechanical Engineering, MPSTME, SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS), Mumbai 400056,

Maharashtra, India
c Department of Mechanical Engineering, Atria Institute of Technology, Bangalore 560024, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The realization of microwave’s heating ability is a significant discovery in the history of sci-
Received 12 November 2018 entific research. The thermal ability of microwave has led to the invention of devices and
Accepted 4 April 2019 processes that could replace conventional heating methods and reduce humankind’s depen-
Available online 28 May 2019 dency on fossil fuels. In the early days, microwave heating was limited to food processing
and drying. Researchers over the years have examined the utility of microwave in materials
Keywords: processing and showed encouraging outcomes. Currently, microwave-based materials pro-
Cladding cessing research is aligned toward exploring the processing of novel materials and achieving
Heating greater reliability and control in the existing processes. This, in turn, requires extensive
Joining knowledge of the parameters of the microwave heating processes. This review provides
Melting insights into microwave-based heating parameters and their effect on the response param-
Microwave eters of major microwave processing applications. Four significant parameters viz., heating
mechanisms, dielectric and magnetic properties, load and applicators have been identified
and factors influencing these parameters have been critically examined to understand the
requirements of efficient microwave-based materials processing. This review analyzes the
existing state of research and identifies the future scope of research in this field. It reveals
optimization studies, commercialization of the process at large scale, simulation studies for
better understanding of heating mechanisms and innovation in processing set-ups as few
of the potential areas with a wide scope for investigation.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mails: ploharkar@gmail.com (P.K. Loharkar), asha.ingle@gmail.com (A. Ingle), suyogjhavar@gmail.com (S. Jhavar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.04.004
2238-7854/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Praveen Kumar Loharkar obtained his
Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree in
Mechanical Engineering from University
of Pune, India and M.Tech. in Indus-
trial Design from Maulana Azad National
Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India. He
has three years of industrial and more
than five years of academic experience.
He is currently working as an Assistant
Professor in the Department of Mechan-
ical Engineering, SVKM’s NMIMS, Mukesh
Patel School of Technology Management and Engineering,
Shirpur Campus, India and pursuing Ph.D. from SVKM’s
NMIMS (Deemed-to-be University), Mumbai, India. He has
around 14 research publications in various international and
national journals and conferences. His research interests
include mechanical engineering design and advanced man-
ufacturing processes.
Dr. Asha Ingle obtained her Bachelor
of Engineering (BE) degree from Visves-
varaya Regional College of Engineering,
Nagpur, India in Metallurgical Engineer-
ing and M.Tech. and Ph.D. from Indian
Institute of Technology, Mumbai, India.
She has worked in the corporate R&D divi-
sion of Crompton Greaves Ltd, Mumbai,
India for twelve years before moving to
Academics seven years ago. She is cur-
rently a Professor in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering at SVKM’s NMIMS (Deemed-to-be
University), Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management
and Engineering, Mumbai, India. She has published exten-
sively and also has 10 filed patent applications and 5 design
registrations to her credit. Her areas of interest include char-
acterization of materials, process optimization, silicon steels,
advanced manufacturing processes and failure analysis of
materials.
Dr. Suyog Jhavar is currently working
as an Associate Professor in Mechan-
ical Engineering at Atria Institute of
Technology, Bangalore. He is also pro-
fessor in-charge for Centre of Excellence
in Additive Manufacturing at the insti-
tute. He received Ph.D. in Metal Additive
Manufacturing from Indian Institute of
Technology Indore, India in 2014 and Mas-
ter of Technology in Welding engineering
from Indian Institute of Technology Roor-
kee, India in 2010. He has served in various national and
international organizations including University of Texas,
USA as Assistant Research Scientist. He is specialized in
metal additive manufacturing, welding engineering, advanced
and hybrid materials processing techniques. He has pub-
lished several book chapters, research papers in SCI-indexed
journals of international repute. He has addressed several
international technical programs and has visited Singapore,
USA, China, and Israel for his academic interests. He is
also a recognized reviewer for many international jour-
nals in his field of specialization and a member of expert
committee at Shanghai Additive Manufacturing Association,
China.
3307
Abbreviations
MOR modulus of rupture, psi
YS yield strength, MPa
UTS ultimate tensile strength, MPa
Symbols
ε* complex permittivity, Fm−1
ε dielectric constant, Fm−1
ε dielectric loss factor, Fm−1
tan ı magnetic loss tangent
tan ıε dielectric loss tangent
r relative magnetic permeability
r relative magnetic loss factor
εr relative dielectric constant
εr relative dielectric loss factor
c velocity of light, ms−1
εeff effective dielectric loss factor
ε0 permittivity of free space, 8.854 × 10−12 Fm−1
Erms local value of the electric field, Vm−1
f frequency, cps
ω angular frequency, rad/s
eff effective magnetic loss factor
0 magnetic permeability of vacuum,
4␲ × 10−7 Hm−1
Hrms local value of the magnetic field, Am−1
L change in length of the compact, mm
L0 initial length of the compact, mm
B0 collection of material parameters
t sintering time, s
D particle diameter, ␮m
R gas constant, J kg−1 K−1
T absolute temperature, K
Q activation energy of diffusion, J
1. Introduction
Microwaves are electromagnetic radiations having a wave-
length between 1 mm and 1 m and are an important
constituent of many modern technologies [1]. These radi-
ations are used extensively in the field of network and
communications, medical treatments, remote sensing, and
food processing applications [2]. Microwaves exhibit unique
uniform heating characteristics that have led to the develop-
ment of applications beyond food processing, which involve
thermal energy [1–6]. For example, various materials process-
ing applications, such as sintering, joining, cladding/coating,
melting/casting, etc. require high temperature for processing
of materials [7]. The unique heating ability of microwaves
has inspired researchers to explore avenues for utilizing
this source of energy in materials processing and industrial
applications [8]. The use of microwaves in these applica-
tions have produced encouraging results in terms of shorter
processing times, better mechanical properties and superior
control over the process [2,8–16]. Another aspect of using
3308 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Fig. 1 – Microwave processing of metals: chronological
development [16].
microwaves is its economic viability and emission-less char-
acteristics. Subsequently, development of microwave-based
processing technology is significant as it minimizes depen-
dency on fossil fuels as well as other high-energy based
heating systems. As there is an increased awareness of
reduced emissions and attempts toward the use of greener
technologies in the field of manufacturing, microwave heat-
ing presents itself as an effective alternative to conventional
heating based processes.
In the context of processes involving metals, microwave-
based heating methodologies are still at the preliminary stages
of development. It is mostly limited to laboratory experi-
ments. Fig. 1 shows the chronological order of development
of microwave-based metal processing [16]. It is evident that
microwave-based heating has the potential to replace their
conventional counterparts at the commercial level in metal
processing applications, such as sintering, surface engineer-
ing, joining, melting and drilling.
Large-scale commercialization of microwave-based pro-
cessing applications is a potential area for research. The
major challenge, however, lies in the unique source of energy
in the case of microwaves, which differentiates it from the
conventional processes and involves an altogether different
mode of heating. It requires knowledge of physics involved in
the propagation of electromagnetic radiations and its behav-
ior. The lack of synchronization between researchers from
physics/electronics domain and materials processing domain
is one of the major cause of the slow pace of development in
this domain of research. Heating efficiencies can be improved
with the design and development of dedicated applicators
through collaboration.
There have been several studies to explore theories, various
interaction mechanisms, applications and numerical simula-
tions in different microwave processing domains but there is
a need for consolidated information on parametric evaluation
for microwave-based metal processing [1,2,8–20]. The objec-
tive of this review is to summarize and discuss parameters
and corresponding factors affecting microwave processing
including discussion on input variables involved in microwave
processing and their effect on response variables. The follow-
ing sections will discuss the process and material parameters
related to major applications of microwave heating developed
in the past two decades. In addition, the paper summarizes
this novel processing concept and methodologies in develop-
ing microwave-assisted materials processing.
2. Parameters affecting microwave-based
heating processes
It is imperative to identify and understand the parameters and
the factors that govern these parameters to optimize and con-
trol microwave-based materials processing. Since microwaves
are electromagnetic radiations, the heating process is pri-
marily influenced by dielectric and magnetic properties of
the materials being processed. The authors have identified
four significant parameters affecting microwave heating as (i)
dielectric and magnetic properties, (ii) heating mechanisms,
(iii) load subjected to microwave heating and (iv) applica-
tors used for heating the materials and underlying factors
that govern these parameters. Fig. 2 depicts parameters and
corresponding factors affecting microwave-based heating pro-
cesses.
2.1. Dielectric and magnetic properties
Electromagnetic nature of microwaves results in the interac-
tion of inherently present electric and magnetic fields with
the electrons, ions, and molecules at micro-levels. In order to
understand the microwave-heating phenomenon, a numeri-
cal study has also been used [21]. The results have indicated
that dielectric properties have a strong effect on heating.
The dielectric parameter that characterizes heating ability is
known as complex permittivity, ε∗ [2]. It is expressed by Eq. (1):
ε∗ = ε − jε (1)
where the real term, ε , quantifies the ability to store energy
while the imaginary term and ε , is the measure of the ability
to convert the stored energy into useful heat.
The ratio of the imaginary term and the real term is
known as loss tangent, tan ıε , which assesses if the material
is suitable for microwave-based heating. Several methods for
determining dielectric constant and dielectric loss factor have
been presented in the literature [22,23]. Table 1 presents the
principle of few methods used for characterization of electro-
magnetic properties.
The magnetic component of microwaves also contributes
to heating. Yoshikawa et al. [24] studied the effect of
microwave interaction on iron particles and ferromagnetic
materials. It has been found that the source of heating in these
materials was their magnetic effect. In the case of magnetic
materials, the property characterizing loss and storage of mag-
netic energy is a complex permeability [25]. Eq. (2) expresses
permeability in real and imaginary terms.
∗ =  − j (2)
The real term of complex permeability, ∗ is known as
magnetic permeability,  while the imaginary term is called
magnetic loss factor,  . The magnetic properties result in
heating due to losses depending on the resonant frequencies
corresponding to a given material. For example, the resonant
frequency of a water molecule is 2.45 GHz [26]. Both complex
permittivity and magnetic permeability are variable quanti-
ties and are affected by frequency, temperature and material
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326 3309

Fig. 2 – Parameters affecting microwave-based heating processes.

composition. Complex permittivity is a function of dielectric 2.2. Mechanism of heating

constant (refer to Eq. (1)). With the increase in temperature,
dielectric constant and imaginary part of complex permittiv-
ity increases for a particular frequency and drops with the
increase in frequency [27].
Fuzerova et al. [28] discussed variation in magnetic perme-
ability in soft magnetic composites. The variation in the real
and imaginary part of magnetic permeability using a mixture
of Somaloy 700 powder (insulated iron particles) and amor-
phous Vitroperm (Fe73 Cu1 Nb3 Si16 B7 ) with respect to frequency
and sample composition. Thus, by controlling the material
composition and frequency of radiations, the magnetic prop-
erties of the specimen can be altered.
The chemical nature of a specimen is another factor that
affects the rate of microwave heating. Evaluation of the effect
of composition, structure, and impurities in the substance was
carried out by Yixin and Liu [29]. The experimental investiga-
tion revealed that microwave absorption is a function of the
chemical state of the material subjected to microwaves and
thus, it plays an important role in heating efficiency.
In conclusion, the factors such as frequency of radiations
are governed by the standards laid down by governing bodies
[2,25] and temperature of processing is limited by the applica-
tion and control available. Therefore, the only factor that can
be controlled by the researcher is the material being used and
its composition. In cases where the material to be processed
do not have required dielectric or magnetic properties, the use
of hybrid heating is devised [15]. Refer Section 2.2.3 for detail
discussion on this mechanism.
Prediction and control over the response of the material sub-
jected to the microwave environment are significantly affected
by mechanisms involved in heating. Researchers, such as Hao
et al. [30], Sun et al. [20], Mishra and Sharma [19], have stud-
ied microwave-heating mechanisms. Hao et al. [30] specifically
developed a model termed as “flat-ball” to express the rela-
tionship between sintering time and density. It is clear that
microwave heating is primarily due to the electric field and
magnetic field heating. Subsequent sections discuss the var-
ious aspects of the two heating modes and the advent of a
hybrid-heating concept.
2.2.1. Electric field heating
Heating due to the electric field is attributed to various
mechanisms, namely polarization of dipolar molecules, ionic
conduction and Maxwell–Wagner effect [20]. The mechanisms
involved in the electric field and magnetic field heating are
presented in Fig. 3.
The polarization of dipolar molecules occurs under the
effect of the applied electric field, which is an inseparable part
of any electromagnetic radiation. The heat generated through
this phenomenon is because of frictional interaction due to
“to and fro” movement of these molecules under the effect of
a time-varying electric field [2].
In the mechanism involving ionic conduction, the charge
carriers, such as electrons and ions, undergo forward-reverse
movement when the electric field is applied [20]. This leads

Table 1 – Methods for characterization of electromagnetic properties [22,23].

Method Principle

Transmission/reflection
line method
Open-end co-axial line
method
Free space method
Resonance cavity method
The sample is placed within a wave-guide, a device such as vector network analyzer (VNA) is used for the
measurement of transmitted/reflected signal parameters. These parameters help in identifying the
electromagnetic characteristics of the sample.
A co-axial probe is made to get in contact with the sample and the reflection coefficient is used to
identify material properties using VNA.
In this method, vector network analyzer is connected to two antennas, the sample is placed between
these two antennas and the signals are analyzed using VNA for determining material properties.
Presence of a sample within a cavity leads to variation in the resonant frequency, which is detected by
the vector network analyzer. This aids in the determination of properties.
3310 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326

Table 2 – Comparison between electric field heating and

magnetic field heating.
Particulars Heating-electric Heating-magnetic
field field

Mechanisms Polarization due Losses due to

to dipolar effect eddy current
Conduction of Losses attributed
ions to Hysteresis
Maxwell–Wagner Magnetic
polarization resonance losses
Residual losses
Materials Aqueous Magnetic-
electrolytic dielectric
solutions materials (ferrite)
Carbon materials Powder of
conductive
materials
Ferromagnetic
materials (steel,
nickel etc.)
Microwave power P= P=
loss density ω · εeff · ε0 · E2r.m.s ω · eff · 0 · Hr.m.s
2

(per unit where ω = 2f where ω = 2f

volume) at any
location (x,y,z)

Table 3 – Susceptor material properties at different

temperatures [32].
Fig. 3 – Mechanisms of electric and magnetic field heating. Material tan ıε (25 ◦ C) tan ıε (500 ◦ C) tan ıε (900 ◦ C)

Al2 O3 0.0005 0.002 0.01

ZrO2 0.0002 0.04 0.25
to the induction of currents which releases heat. In materials
AlN 0.004 0.004 >0.01
that consist of excess electrons like carbon, a cause of elec-
tric field heating is attributed to the Maxwell–Wagner effect
[20]. Here, the heat is generated due to interfacial polariza-
tion. The excess electrons also termed as  electrons available 2.2.3. Microwave hybrid heating
in carbon, are unable to couple with the changing phase of the
Energy generated in electric and magnetic field heating is
electric field component of the microwave, thereby, resulting
inadequate to achieve desired heating effects. This is primar-
in dissipation of energy [31]. In the context of microwave-
ily due to the inability of materials to interact with microwaves
based materials processing applications, there are quite a few
effectively. In microwave hybrid heating, high microwave
materials that do not interact with microwaves or reflect the
absorbent material, known as susceptors are used, such as
microwaves altogether. This is quite prominent in the case
carbon, silicon carbide and alumina for rapid heating. This
of metals. Therefore, susceptors such as charcoal, graphite,
absorption property is a function of temperature [32]. The loss
and silicon carbide are used due to their heating capability as
tangent increases with increase in temperature thus enhanc-
a result of the Maxwell–Wagner effect. These susceptors are
ing the microwave heating characteristics. Table 3 shows the
used as per the requirement of the set-up as described in detail
value of loss tangents at different temperatures for selected
in Section 2.2.3.
materials that are used as susceptors. The loss tangent (tan ıε )
value >0.01 suggests good absorption capacity.
2.2.2. Magnetic field heating
Owing to the in microwave hybrid heating, applications,
The magnetic field component of microwaves also causes
such as sintering, coating and joining have attracted the atten-
heating under the effect of microwave irradiation. Several
tion of several researchers. Table 4 summarizes research on
loss mechanisms have an effect on temperature rises, like
powder metals and their use in microwave-hybrid heating.
in the case of magnetic materials and conductors. These are
losses due to eddy current, Hysteresis, magnetic resonance
and residual losses. Sun et al. [20] and Mishra and Sharma [19] 2.3. Load
discussed this in detail. Table 2 is a comparison between the
two modes of heating under the influence of microwaves. Load in the context of microwave hybrid heating refers to the
Mathematical modeling of heat transfer and generation material being heated inside the chamber. The factors that
mechanisms in microwave-based materials processing is an affect this parameter selection are size, penetration depth – a
area that needs further investigation to achieve greater relia- factor dependent on the electrical conductivity of the material
bility and reproducibility of experimental results. – and load positioning in the applicator [2].
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326 3311

Table 4 – Microwave direct/hybrid heating applications.

Reference Material Powdered/bulk Susceptor/direct Application

Gupta and Sharma Austenitic stainless steel Bulk substrate and Graphite Cladding
[33] (SS-316)/EWAC powder as clad powder as clad
material (40 ␮m) material
Gupta and Sharma Austenitic stainless steel Bulk substrate and Graphite Cladding for wear
[34] (SS-316)/WC10Co2Ni Clad material powder as clad resistance
(40 ␮m) material
Gupta et al. [35] Austenitic stainless steel Bulk substrate and Graphite Cladding for wear
(SS-316)/(EWAC (Ni-based) + 20% powder as clad resistance
Cr23 C6 ) Clad material (40 ␮m) material
Sharma and Gupta Austenitic stainless steel Bulk substrate and Graphite Cladding for wear
[36] (SS-316)/EWAC + 20% WC10Co2Ni powder asclad resistance
Clad material (40 ␮m) material
Pathania et al. [37] Mild steel/EWAC + 20% WC10Co2Ni Bulk substrate and Charcoal Cladding for wear
Clad material (40 ␮m) powder asclad resistance
material
Zafar and Sharma SS304/WC-12Co Bulk substrate and Charcoal Cladding for wear
[38–40] powder as clad resistance
material
Roy et al. [41] Al, Cu, Co, W, Ni Metal powders SiC/MoS2 Sintering
Fe and steel
Mo, WC and Sn and their alloys
Saitou [42] Ni (99.8%, 45 ␮m), SUS316L (45 ␮m), Powder SiC powder Sintering
Co (99.5%, 5 ␮m) Cu (99.5%, 75 ␮m)
and Fe (99.5%, 45 ␮m)
Agrawal [7] Copper-steel Powder Direct Sintering
Prabhu et al. [43] W (99.95%, 5–7 ␮m) Powder Direct Sintering
Xu et al. [44] Al (purity: 96%, average diameter: Powder Direct Sintering
120 ␮m)
Shannigrahi et al. Ferrite Powder SiC Sintering
[45]
Bykov et al. [46] Al2 O3 –Ni (2–2.5 ␮m) Powder Direct Sintering
Thuault et al. [47] Kaolin bowls Bulk SiC Sintering
Yang et al. [48] SiC Fiber bundles Direct Sintering
Li et al. [49] SiC (125 ␮m) Powder Direct Sintering
Ghobadi et al. [50] Al2 O3 nanocomposites Powder Direct Sintering/composites
synthesis

2.3.1. Penetration depth
Selection of a load for microwave interaction is based on
an understanding of the parameter known as penetration
depth. A material with all other parameters constant would
behave differently under the microwave environment when
the dimensions change. Penetration depth is defined as: “The
depth at which electric field component drops to 1/e times
the magnitude of electric field intensity at the surface” [20].
Mathematically, it is expressed by Eq. (3):
[25], the penetration depth is fixed for a given operational
frequency of the applicator.
A typical value of penetration depth (at 2.45 GHz) for
conductors (opaque/reflecting materials), absorbing materi-
als and transparent materials is shown in Table 5adapted
from [51]. This categorization helps in understanding load
attributes and facilitates selection of crucible materials.

√
2c  −1/2 2.3.2. Size
d=  (1 + tan2 ıε · tan2 ı + tan2 ıε + tan2 ı )
1/2
tan ı tan ıε Size of the load under treatment affects the uniformity in
ω εr r
heating. Maximum efficiency is attained only when load
(3)
dimensions are close to the order of penetration depth. In
the case of materials with unfavorable di-electric and mag-
where tan ı = r /r and tan ıε = εr /εr .
netic properties, powdered materials have exhibited superior
The magnitude of penetration depth is used to catego-
ability to interact with microwaves. Studies have attempted
rized materials as transparent, reflectors and absorbing. Due
to understand the behavior and utility of powdered metals
to inherent properties, conventionally processed materials
in microwave-based applications. Whittaker and Mingos [52]
such as plain carbon steels, alloy steels, aluminum and cop-
found that powder metals show good coupling characteristics
per have low penetration depths and therefore, microwaves
with microwaves. Experiments were carried out in a power
do not effectively heat these materials. These are termed as
controlled 2.45 GHz microwave oven. The study revealed that
transparent materials. This might be a reason for the slow rate
there was no morphological change compared with conven-
of progress in microwave-based processing technologies. Eq.
tional syntheses after microwave syntheses. To understand
(3) shows that frequency has an inverse relationship with pen-
the nature of heat absorption in a powder sample, Mondal
etration depth. Since the frequency band for industrial heating
et al. [53] examined the influence of microwave field on the
is limited to specific values such as 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, etc.
3312 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Table 5 – Penetration depth for different category of materials [51].
Sr. No. Reflectors
Material Penetration depth Material
◦
1 Silver 0.33 ␮m Water + 20 C
2 Aluminum (100% purity) 0.86 ␮m Nitrile rubber, natural
3 Brass (70% Cu) 1.4 ␮m Cooked meat + 40 ◦ C
4 Stainless steel (304) 4.3 ␮m Sand soil, dry
5 Titanium, pure 3.3 ␮m Spruce 10% moist.
thermal profile of copper powder with different particle sizes
and porosity under the condition of constant power. A thin
layer of graphite was used as a susceptor. It was observed
that particle size inversely affects the heating rate that is,
the heating rate increases with reduced particle size while
higher porosity provides higher heating rates. Ghosh et al.
[54] combined powdered aluminum, alumina, to synthesize
composites. The results were quite effective owing to the
exposure of each powdered particle to radiation. All these
studies revealed that the size of the sample is an important
factor in the processing of materials and therefore, a key com-
ponent of process effectiveness.
2.3.3. Load positioning in the applicator
Several studies have attempted to identify the optimum loca-
tion for the positioning of the load. Microwaves form a
standing wave pattern inside the chamber due to the inter-
ference phenomenon. The location with maximum amplitude
has the maximum possible energy for conversion into thermal
energy. Therefore, it is important to know these locations for
load positioning.
2.4. Applicators
Applicators are chambers in which microwave processing is
carried out. The applicator type i.e., single mode or multi-
mode and cavity design and size have a direct effect on
microwave heating efficiency. It influences the availability of
power for processing [55]. Researchers have for long been
finding ways to customize applicators for improving power
concentration and in turn heating efficiencies. It has led
to the development of various industrial microwave heat-
ing systems and customized set-ups. Based on the modes of
microwave frequencies generated by the source, the applica-
tors are classified as single mode and multi-mode. Rana and
Rana [18] discussed in detail microwave reactors. The follow-
ing sections discuss the applicator types and their impact on
applications.
2.4.1. Single mode applicators
These applicators operate at single mode microwave fre-
quency. The radiations propagate through waveguides. These
waveguides are transmission media, similar to that of an elec-
trical cable used for passing electricity and can be circular or a
rectangular cross-section. In rectangular waveguides, either
a transverse electric mode or a transverse magnetic mode
of wave propagation can exist depending on the boundary
conditions. These applicators provide better control over the
microwave process parameters due to the predictability of
Absorbers Transparent
Penetration depth Material Penetration depth
16 mm Quartz, pure 200 m
650 mm Aluminum oxide 30 m
®
11 mm PTFE (Teflon ) 90 m
2000 mm Ice, −12 ◦ C 12 m
77 mm Polythene, 25 ◦ C 40 m
the field across the load. The challenge with the single mode
applicators is the proper selection of system components and
precise impedance matching to avoid loss of power. A typi-
cal single mode applicator configuration is shown in Fig. 4.
The microwave is generated by the magnetron and passed
through a series of components placed inside a transmission
line known as waveguides, analogous to electrical transmis-
sion lines. Theisolator protects the generator from cutting off
the reflected microwave transmission back to the source [8].
Sometimes circulators are also used to perform the task of
directing microwaves to desired space using multiple ports. In
order to enable thetransfer of waves without obstruction and
reversal, which will damage the source, it is important to have
a matching of impedance. Stub tuners are used for impedance
matching and minimizing reversal of waves [56]. Maximum
heating in the cavity or the heating zone is achieved when the
standing waves developed after interference with the reflected
wave are constructive in nature. Constructive interference is
achieved by having a movable shorting plunger. The load or
the material to be processed has to be placed in this heating
zone [57].
Researchers have designed single mode applicators for
various heating applications to achieve closer process con-
trol. For instance, Gower [58] developed a beam applicator for
melting of ceramicsand Uhm et al. [59] fabricated a unique
microwave torch to synthesize carbon nanotubes. A single
mode applicator prototype developed by Pavuluri et al. [60]
was 10 times faster in heating the integrated circuit pack-
ages required for electronic components. The single-mode
applicator with a cylindrical cavity developed by Prapuchanay
et al. [61] exhibited superior heating performance compared
with multi-mode microwave ovens. Customized single-mode
applicators have been developed for microwave drilling appli-
cations [62–68]. These applicators have provided novel means
for drilling concrete, silicon, glass [65], bones [66] and Litz wire
[68].
Saitou [42] carried out series of experiments in a single
mode applicator using selected metal powders, such as iron,
cobalt, nickel, copper and stainless steel to investigate the
mechanism of microwave sintering. Sintered SiC tube was
used as a susceptor. The applicator had the provision for estab-
lishing a controlled atmosphere (nitrogen gas for nickel and
cobalt and hydrogen gas for other materials). It was achieved
by providing two ports to the applicator chamber: one for cre-
ating a vacuum which in turn, created space for the gas to be
introduced while the other port acted as an inlet to the gas;
H2 /N2 mixture in this case. Nitrogen was used as it is one of
the best low-cost alternative to argon for creating inert atmo-
sphere to avoid the formation of undesired compounds during
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Fig. 4 – Typical single-mode microwave processing system.
Fig. 5 – Multi-mode microwave processing system.
the sintering process [69]. However, there is a tendency for
nitrogen uptake by the material and formation of nitrides [70].
Therefore, to ensure sinter quality, hydrogen is used for iron,
copper and stainless steel. It develops a reducing atmosphere
in the furnace and absorbs the oxygen from the oxide layers
between the particles formed under the high temperature of
the furnace. This improves bonding and reduces porosity [71].
Yoshikawa et al. [24] carried out a similar experiment using a
1.5 kW single mode applicator. This enabled easier prediction
of the locations with higher strength of magnetic fields and
electric fields. The area with higher strength magnetic field
showed greater efficiency in heating ferromagnetic materials
while nickel-oxide, another material used here, showed better
heating results at the location with higher strength of the elec-
tric field. The factor that limits the utilization of single-mode
applicators is its inability to support larger size specimen.
2.4.2. Multi-mode applicators
Multi-mode applicators, shown in Fig. 5 are designed to
accommodate multiple modes of microwave radiations emit-
ted from a microwave source such as a magnetron. This leads
to the distribution of energy in a larger cavity. Eventually, the
energy efficiencies obtained in these applicators are lower
compared with that achieved in single-mode applicators. For
the material processed in multi-mode applicators, the posi-
tion of the load is insignificant as the uniformity in heating is
obtained by rotating the load or by using a mode stirrer, i.e. a
component that reflects the microwaves to desired locations.
Multi-mode applicators are the most commonly used test
chambers for microwave treatment. The domestic ovens
are a prime example of a multi-mode set-up. Vollmer [26]
described the physics of how these ovens operate while the
use of simulations has been reported in applications involv-
ing multi-mode applicators as well. For instance, Ju and Zhao
[72] used a simulation software (HFSS) in the designing of
3313
applicators while Srinath et al. [73] used simulations to pre-
dict microwave-heating behavior in a multi-mode setup. There
was a good agreement between the experimental and simula-
tion results. These simulation results revealed the distribution
of electric and magnetic fields along with thermal losses and
the temperature distribution in the applicator.Thus, favor-
able results obtained using experiments and simulation of
microwave-based heating can be used for development of
large-scale furnaces for industrial applications.
2.4.3. Design modifications and accessories in applicators
In order to understand the effects of process variables, several
researchers have done modifications in multi-mode applica-
tors, such as provision for temperature measurement, gas
supply and vacuum creation. The set-up used by Roy et al.
[41] was an industrial one with a maximum power rating up
to 6 kW, working at frequency 2.45 GHz. Facility for mount-
ing susceptors was also available to enable hybrid heating.
The temperature at 1400 ◦ C was suitable for achieving sin-
tering of all the combinations of metal and alloy samples.
Various metal powder components were successfully sintered.
On evaluation, these sintered components exhibited superior
metallurgical properties. Agrawal [74] also used an industrial
batch type microwave furnace with a high power rating (up
to 6 kW) at 2.45 GHz to sinter copper-steel powdered compo-
nents. Temperature, to the order of 1260 ◦ C, was achieved in
this experiment. These studies suggested that judicious usage
of multi-mode applicators could lead to a significant magni-
tude of temperature. A significant investigation in this context
has been carried out by Prabhu et al. [43]. Sintering of high
melting point material, tungsten was performed in a multi-
mode microwave furnace with variable power input facility
at 2.45 GHz. The furnace had the facility of creating a vac-
uum. Even using domestic ovens at different power ratings
yielded desired results in cladding and coating processes [14].
Although there was no clear mention of the temperature levels
achieved in these experiments the quality of clads and their
properties reveal that complete melting of the clad materials,
such as EWAC (Ni-based) + 20% Cr23 C6 , WC10Co2Ni and EWAC,
etc. have taken place. Table 6 shows the temperature achieved
in different applicators.
An important component of the microwave applicator
design is the selection of microwave source. Generally, com-
mercial ovens use a magnetron. Apart from this, other
generators, such as power grid, gyrotron, traveling wave tube
and klystron are available [25]. The selection of the generator
is factorized by power. Gyrotron and klystron are high power
devices with a frequency range greater than the one used for
domestic heating (2.45 GHz) while power grids exhibit very
3314 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326

Table 6 – Applicator type and temperature attained.

Reference Temperature ◦ C Power/frequency Applicator

Das et al. [75] 1310 800 W/2.45 GHz Multi-mode

Gupta and Sharma [33] Melting point of WC10Co2Ni 900 W/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Gupta et al. [35] Melting point of EWAC (Ni-based) + 20% 900 W/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Cr23 C6
Gupta and Sharma [34,76] Melting point of EWAC + 20% WC10Co2Ni 900 W/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Pathania et al. [37] Melting point of EWAC + 20% WC10Co2Ni 900 W/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Roy et al. [41] 1200 1.4 kW/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Saitou[42] Fe: 775–1250 1.5 kW/2.45 GHz Single Mode
Co: 900–1200
Ni: 900–1300
SS316L: 900–1200
Cu: 600–1000
Agrawal[7] 1260 6 kW/2.45 GHz2 kW/2.45 GHz Multi-mode-Batch furnace
Prabhu et al. [43] 1600, 1700, 1800 3 kW/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Shannigrahi et al. [45] 900–950 0.5–3 kW/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
(1400-capacity of furnace)
Bykov et al. [46] 1250 5 kW/24 GHz Multi-mode
Thuault et al. [77] 1200 6 kW/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Yang et al. [48] 1200 4 kW/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Li et al. [49] 1800 3 kW/2.45 GHz Multi-mode
Hassan et al. [78] 1300 5 kW/30 GHz Multi-mode
Ghobadi et al. [50] 1520 900 W/2.45 GHz Multi-mode

high-power characteristics at lower frequencies [25]. Thus, one
can choose these microwave sources as per the requirement
of the application.
The parameters discussed above are the basis for the suc-
cessful implementation of microwave heating in materials
processing. This field of research has much to offer in terms of
exploring materials for processing, the design of applicators,
controlling factors, such as frequency, the atmosphere inside
the furnace, analyzing mechanisms of heat generation among
others for getting desired experimental outcomes.
3. Applications of microwave processing
The extent of control over the parameters discussed above
determines the effectiveness of the microwave processing
applications. The following sections discuss the development
in microwave-based heating applications and the relation-
ship between corresponding response parameters and input
parameters discussed in previous sections.
3.1. Microwave sintering applications
The conventional methods of sintering use resistance heat-
ing or heating through conventional modes of heat transfer
that is, conduction, convection and radiation. These methods
have limitations such as slow heat transfer rate and uneven
heating. The development of microwave heating attracted
attention when it was observed that microwave sintering
offered several advantages over conventional sintering. The
energy transfer from microwaves to materials is achieved by
absorption. This heating is uniform in nature and therefore
yields superior characteristics of the processed material quan-
tified as response parameters [79].
Gradually, it was understood that apart from drying
microwave energy could be used in efficient sintering of
ceramics [74]. For instance, sintering of WC/Co composites
through microwave led to a drastic reduction in processing
time and offered superior mechanical properties [7,10,74].
Similar advantages have also been reported in the case of
metal powders [41,42].
The outcome of the sintering process is measured in terms
of three distinct parameters: mechanical properties, sintered
density, and porosity. In order to understand the effect of
microwave heating on mechanical properties, Roy et al. [41]
used components of varied alloy compositions, such as iron,
nickel, molybdenum, aluminum, tungsten, tungsten carbide
and tin, manufactured through powder metallurgy route on a
commercial basis. The applicator had controlled environment
and provision for single mode as well as multi-mode opera-
tions while susceptors (SiC and MoS2 ) were used to enhance
heating efficiency. The results indicated the superiority of
microwave sintering process, which boosted toughness and
ductility of the materials.
For materials with high melting points (such as tungsten –
about 3683 K), these characteristics are relevant as it is pro-
cessed primarily through powder metallurgy route. Prabhu
et al. [43] carried out sintering of tungsten powder and acti-
vated tungsten powder. Activation of the tungsten powder was
achieved using the ball milling process. The experiment was
carried out with three different experimental conditions based
on variable sintering temperatures (1873 K, 1973 and 2073 K)
and varying power input in a 3 kW, 2.45 GHz-controlled atmo-
sphere (5% H2 and 95% N2 ) multi-mode microwave furnace.
It was observed that activated tungsten showed better prop-
erties in terms of sintered density as shown in Fig. 6. This
enhancement is due to the increased surface area, smaller
particle sizes and increased strain energies developed during
activation using the ball milling process.
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Fig. 6 – Sintered density versus temperature for activated tungsten and as received tungsten [43].
A unique output parameter identified by Saitou [42] for
evaluating the sintering process effectiveness is “Shrinkage
Measurement” [80]. The shrinkage parameter can be mea-
sured using Eq. (4).
 L n/2  −Q 
−1
= B0 t(2n Dm RT) exp
L0 RT
Values of numerical constants, n and m, depending on the
sintering mechanism:
n = 2, m = 1 for viscous or plastic flow;
n = 5, m = 3 for volume diffusion;
n = 6, m = 4 for grain boundary diffusion; and
n = 7, m = 4 for surface diffusion.
The samples used in the study consisted of several metal
powders, viz. copper, cobalt, iron, nickel and stainless steel
subjected to sintering in single mode applicator within a con-
trolled environment. It was observed that microwave-heating
process has an impact on shrinkage, which is dependent
on material parameters as expressed in Eq. (4). It was also
pointed out by the author that the reasons for shrink-
age are still unknown and further studies are required to
understand it [42].
Ferrite is an important component in many engineering
applications, especially in electrical and electronic devices due
to its magnetic properties. It is processed through powder
metallurgy route and requires sintering. Conventional sin-
tering causes a loss in fineness of the particles as a result
of high temperatures [45]. Microwave sintering of the ferrite
powders led to superior properties [45]. Microwaves, exhibit
selective heating characteristics due to different interaction
abilities of materials as discussed in Section 2.3.1. This abil-
ity of microwaves was used in the sintering of Ni–Al2 O3
functionally graded material [46]. The samples obtained
were free from defects, such as cracks and delamination.
Fig. 7a–c compares a few response parameters of microwave
sintering with conventional sintering of selected samples
[41,74]. Microwave sintering resulted in a greater degree of
3315
hardness, modulus of rupture (MOR) and reduced processing
time.
In short, the response parameters in sintering are sintered
density, hardness, flexural strength and toughness in gen-
eral and magnetic properties and shrinkage in particular. The
superior properties of microwave-sintered components are
(4) attributed to the following reasons [41]:
• Bulk heating characteristics of microwaves resulting in heat
transfer in dual directions (from penetration depth to both
the sides of the sample.
• Fast processing speed leading to microstructure-dependent
property enhancement such as finer grain size and devel-
opment of round edge porosities. It also minimizes the
formation of undesired compounds and at the same time,
provides energy advantage due to low consumption of
power.
Sintering is a well-known application in microwave
processing wherein a lot of development in design and devel-
opment of dedicated microwave furnaces has taken place.
There is very little understanding of the mechanisms involved
in sintering. Large-scale commercialization is also yet to be
realized. At the same time, the optimization of the process
parameters and predictable control over the process is still a
challenge and demands extensive research.
3.2. Cladding and surface coating applications
Many engineering applications require materials that exhibit
strong resistance to chemical attacks and wear with an
ability to perform intended function even in hostile envi-
ronments and operating conditions [81]. Marine applications,
aeronautical applications, oil and gas refineries and drilling
applications, agricultural applications, and defense applica-
tions are few of those applications that involve extreme as well
as adverse environments [82,83]. The materials used in these
applications also need to have sufficient strength, hardness
and toughness to withstand the various structural and ther-
mal loads experienced by them [84–88]. The effects of adverse
3316 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326

Fig. 7 – (a) Comparison of hardness achieved in the microwave and conventional sintering. (b) Comparison of MOR achieved
in the microwave and conventional sintering. (c) Comparison of time required to achieve the desired temperature [41,74].

environmental and severe operating conditions are primarily

limited to surfaces.
There are different ways to modify or enhance surface
properties, such as modification of chemical composition by
surface nitriding, surface cyaniding, carburizing, vanadizing
and modification in the surface characteristics by mechanical
and thermal processes and development of layers or overlays
on the surfaces using coating and cladding processes. Conven-
tional surface modification methods are thermal spraying [82],
high-velocity oxyfuel spraying [89], tungsten inert gas (TIG)
cladding, laser cladding, and submerged metal arc welding
(SMAW) based cladding, etc [84] . Laser cladding is the most
effective process in terms of its superior properties resulting
in reduced cracks, porosity and errors in bonding along with
Fig. 8 – Microstructure of EWAC microwave cladded
the controlled cooling rate. The major issue with laser-based
cross-section (Reprinted from Surface and Coatings
processes is the cost and thermal stresses developed due to
Technology, 205 /21-22, Dheeraj Gupta, A.K. Sharma,
the concentration of heat [33].
Development and microstructural characterization of
With a greater understanding of microwave heating phe-
microwave cladding on austenitic stainless steel,
nomenon, several applications of coating and cladding using
5147-5155, 2011, with permission from Elsevier.) [33].
microwave thermal energy have been reported. Gupta and
Sharma [33] demonstrated successful cladding of EWAC (97%
nickel) over austenitic stainless-steel substrate. The pro-
cess was carried out in the domestic microwave oven (1 kW, In extension to this work, Gupta and Sharma [29] car-
2.45 GHz). The clad exhibited metallurgical bonding with the ried out cladding experiments to gauge the effectiveness of
substrate and developed intermetallic compounds, such as microwave cladding of a composite (EWAC-Ni-based and 20%
iron-nickel and nickel-silicide. The average microhardness Cr23 C6 powder) over austenitic stainless steel. The results
achieved was about 304 + 48 HV, which is twice than that of the were encouraging as the obtained clads exhibited desired
substrate material. Additionally, the clads were observed to be properties. Using similar methodologies, the cladding of anti-
of a superior quality which was evident through its pores-free wear powders to improve wear resistance have been achieved
characteristics as can be seen in Fig. 8. [37,38,40].
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Table 7 – Parametric summary of microwave-based coating and cladding research.
Reference Material
Das et al. [75] Commercial aluminum
(purity ∼99%).
Cylindrical
samples/aluminum
oxide coating solid
(length ≈ 10 mm,
ϕ ≈ 18 mm)
Gupta and Sharma [33] Austenitic stainless
steel (SS316)/EWAC
powder as Clad material
(40 ␮m)
Gupta and Sharma [34] Austenitic stainless
steel
(SS-316)/WC10Co2Ni
Clad material (40 ␮m)
Solid substrate
(35 mm × 12 mm × 6 mm)
and powder as Clad
material
Gupta et al. [35] Austenitic stainless
steel (SS-316)/(EWAC
(Ni-based) + 20% Cr23C6)
Clad material (40 ␮m)
Solid substrate
(35 mm × 12 mm × 6 mm)
and powder as Clad
material
Sharma and Gupta [36] Austenitic stainless
steel
(SS-316)/WC10Co2Ni
Clad material (40 ␮m)
Solid substrate
(35 mm × 12 mm × 6 mm)
and powder as Clad
material
Gupta and Sharma [76] Austenitic stainless
steel
(SS-316)/EWAC + 20%
WC10Co2Ni Clad
material (40 ␮m)
Solid substrate
(35 mm × 12 mm × 1 mm)
and powder as Clad
material
Pathania et al. [37] Mild steel/EWAC + 20%
WC10Co2Ni Clad
material (40 ␮m)
Zafar and Sharma [38] SS304/WC-12Co as Clad
material
Samples of size
20 mm × 10 mm × 6 mm
The quality of the coating and cladding is determined
by characterizing and measuring response parameters, such
as micro-hardness, wear resistance, deformation index,
and thickness. In order to understand the conditions
under which these parameters have attained the desired
3317
Power Remarks
800 W, 2.45 Hz 1. Preheating: 200 h Muffle furnace heating in air (600 ◦ C)
2. Coating thickness:17 ± 3.2 ␮m (porous coating)
3. Preheating: 200 h Muffle furnace heating in air
(600 ◦ C) + 60 min: microwave heating (1050 ± 25 ◦ C)
4. Coating thickness: 42 ± 0.1 ␮m (porous coating)
5. Preheating: 200 h Muffle furnace heating in air
(600 ◦ C) + 90 min: microwave heating (1310 ± 25 ◦ C)
6. Coating thickness: 661 ± 58.9 ␮m (thick and dense
coating)
900 W, 2.45 Hz 1. Vicker’s microhardness
•Clad: 304 ± 48 HV
•SS-316 substrate: 175 HV
2. Processing time: 360 s
3. Preheating: the EWAC powder was pre-heated at 100 ◦ C
for 24 h in a conventional Muffle furnace
900 W, 2.45 GHz 1. Vicker’s microhardness: 1064 ± 99 HV
2. Porosity: 0.89%
3. Wear resistance.
4. Processing time: 360 s
900 W, 2.45 GHz 1. Vicker’s microhardness:
2. Clad: 425 ± 140 HV
3. Porosity: 0.9%
4. Processing time: 360 s
5. Preheating: EWAC and Cr23 C6 powder particles were
preheated at 100 ◦ C for 24 h
900 W, 2.45 GHz 1. Flexural strength (3-point bend test): 629 ± 8 N
Deformation: 0.76 mm.
2. Vicker’s microhardness:
•Clad: 416 ± 20 HV
•SS-316: ∼200 HV
3. Processing time: 360 s
4. Preheating: EWAC and WC10Co2Ni particles were
preheated at 100 ◦ C for 24 h.
900 W, 2.45 GHz 1. Vicker’s microhardness:
•Clad: 1042 ± 124 S HV
•SS-316: ∼250 HV
•SS-316, microhardness near the clad surface: 377 ± 68 HV
2. Processing time: 120 s
3. Preheating: WC10Co2Ni particles were preheated at
100 ◦ C for 24 h.
900 W, 2.45 GHz 1. Wear test parameters
•Sliding distances (meters) 500, 1000, 1500
•Sliding speed (m/s) 0.5, 1, 1.5
•Normal load (kg) 0.5, 1, 1.5
2. Wear resistance is measured to be 128 times mild steel
3. Vickers micro-hardness: 980 ± 52 HV
1.4 and 1.1 kW, 2.45 GHz 1. Vicker’s microhardness
•NM Clad: 1564 ± 53 HV
•MM Clad: 1138 ± 90 HV
levels, the results of various researchers are presented
in Table 7.
Microwave-based cladding or coating has the potential to
be developed as an alternative to conventional surface mod-
ification techniques. Microwaves ability to achieve uniform
3318 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
heating makes a case for strong thermal stress-free surface
modification. Another important observation in the area of
surface modification application is the lack of studies on the
effect of process and response parameters. This could be a
result of the lack of suitable experimental set-ups and the
early days of development of such an application. This offers
tremendous scope for future research on the reliability of the
process control, the advent of clads of novel materials and
optimization of processes.
3.3. Microwave joining of materials
A wide variety of materials such as plastics, mild steel, stain-
less steel, copper have been tested for suitability of joining
through microwave energy. The process is based on utiliz-
ing the heat developed by microwave energy for melting
interfacing powder material at the joint either directly or
through hybrid heating and fusion of the melted powder with
the rectangular plates or cylindrical specimen to be joined
[90–100].
Siores and Diego [101] carried out pioneering work in
microwave joining. Set-ups for carrying out joining of plas-
tics and metals were developed and bonding agents having
low loss factors were used for the joining purpose to enhance
microwave absorption. The set-ups were specially devised to
utilize microwave energy with minimum losses. Diagnostic
tools were incorporated for measuring process parameters,
such as the strength of the electric field, the temperature of the
specimen, incident and reflected power and joining interface
pressure. This provided an opportunity to detect and control
joining processes with the help of microcomputer. Investi-
gations showed that microwaves can be successfully used
for joining not only high loss materials such as mullite, alu-
mina, but also low loss materials viz. plastic polymers and
metals. Rods of the composite of alumina (48%), zirconium
(32%), SiO2 (20%) were butt welded in a single mode applicator
using microwaves generated by the variable power source with
pulsating input [90]. It was observed that at higher power
ratings, 1 and 1.25 kW, and loading pressure of about 1 MPa,
the joint strength was found to be reduced. It was due to
the formation of blowholes and flash. On the other hand,
very low power and loading pressure of magnitude 0.5 MPa
resulted in incomplete joints. Ahmed and Siores [90] have
also reported that joint quality is affected by the rate of
temperature rise which can be controlled with the use of inci-
dent power pulsing. Therefore, an efficient microwave joining
process requires close control over the rate of temperature
rise.
A significant development in microwave joining was the
advent of methodologies for joining metals. Experiments were
carried out to weld bulk SS316L using microwave hybrid
heating [102]. The joint was formed by fusing powdered sand-
wich layer heated through microwave interaction in 900 W
multi-mode applicator at 2.45 GHz frequency. The joints were
characterized for morphology and mechanical properties and
were found to have good strength and microhardness owing
to the formation of carbides in the intermetallic phases due to
the use of charcoal as a susceptor. Using a similar methodol-
ogy, copper plates were joined using microwave hybrid heating
with the help of charcoal as a susceptor material [98]. Hybrid
heating provided the initial rise in temperature to a critical
one of the sandwich layers comprising a powdered slurry of
copper. Beyond this temperature, the powder started coupling
with microwaves. It was found that the joint had a uniform
microstructure, an outcome of uniform heating. This resulted
in superior microhardness, denser microstructure, significant
tensile strength, and high elongation.
This development is significant due to poor weldability
of copper through conventional methods. Another impor-
tant field in microwave-based joining is the preparation of
high-quality dissimilar joints. Upon successful processing
of high-quality similar metal joints of copper–copper and
SS316L–SS316L, experiments were carried out for joining two
different metals SS316L and MS with Ni as an interfacing
material [103]. Due to strong intermetallic bonding, high ulti-
mate tensile strength (up to 346.6 MPa) and hardness of 133 HV
were obtained. This method was found to be time-efficient.
The use of clean energy in the form of microwave radiations
made the process eco-friendly too. Bansal et al. [92] examined
MS-MS joints formed with nickel as an interfacing material
in a multi-mode applicator of 900 W rating at an exposure
time of 600 s and a frequency of 2.45 GHz. Complete melting
of the interfacing material at the interface led to diffusion
bonding which resulted in superior joint quality. The SEM
micrograph showed that the joint had a predominant ductile
fracture behavior. Badiger et al. [97] showed the joining of bulk
Inconel-625 alloy using a novel technique based on microwave
heating. The researchers followed a similar procedure with
that of earlier experimental studies. Butt joining of the square
specimens was carried out using nickel powder as an inter-
facing material. The joint strength obtained was observed
to be greater than 35% of the base metal strength. Most of
these experiments were conducted in a multi-mode domestic
microwave oven. Hoyt et al. [104] carried out soldering of cop-
per with lead telluride using a customized microwave-based
welding system. It was cost and time effective. Numerical sim-
ulation of the joining process has also been done on COMSOL,
a commercial package, to understand the temperature dis-
tribution and the results were compared with experimental
values [73].
It can be concluded that main response parameters in the
microwave-based joining of materials are: joint hardness, joint
strength, porosity, percentage elongation of the joint and time
required for processing as shown in Fig. 9.
The magnitude of response parameters of the joint
obtained using microwave-based heating for various combi-
nations of metals, interfacing powders and susceptors used is
shown in Table 8.
The magnitude of joint hardness, porosity, joint ultimate
tensile strength proves the efficacy of microwave-based join-
ing methodology. All these studies focused on investigating
the feasibility of joining different materials using microwaves
and quantified the magnitudes of response parameters using
experiments. The parametric effects of variables, such as pow-
der size, time of materials’ ‘microwave exposure have seldom
been reported. Gamit et al. [96] reported the results of time
dependency on the strength of the bond formed between the
two metal pieces. Although there was not much improvement
in the yield strength of the joint with time, it was revealed
that the exposure time has a synergistic relationship with the
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326 3319

Fig. 9 – Response parameters in microwave-based joining.

Table 8 – Comparison of microwave joining parameters.

Reference Material Susceptor Interfacing Joint UTS Joint hardness Porosity % Elongation Processing
combination material (MPa) (HV) (%) time (s)

Srinath et al. SS 316L–SS 316L Charcoal Ni-based 309 290 ± 14 0.78 11.5 900
[102] Plate sizes: powder
(25 × 12 × 6) mm3 (40 ␮m)
Srinath et al. Copper–copper Charcoal Copper 164.4 78 ± 7 1.92 29.21 900
[98] Plate sizes: powder
15 × 12 × 4) mm3 (50 ␮m)
Coin size:
18 mm × 12 mm)
Srinath et al. SS 316L and MS Charcoal Ni-based 346.6 133 0.58 13.58 450
[103] Plate sizes: powder
(25 × 12 × 6) mm3 (40 ␮m)
Srinath et al. MS-MS Charcoal Ni-based 240 420 ± 30 – 6 600
[92] Plate sizes: powder
(15 × 10 × 4) mm3 (40 ␮m)
and
(10 × 10 × 4) mm3
Bansal et al. SS 316–SS 316 Silicon SS 316 425 275 ± 20 0.94 9.44 720
[91] Plate sizes: Carbide powder
(25 × 15 × 4) mm3 (50 ␮m)
Badiger et al. Inconel-625–Inconel Charcoal Ni-based 326 350 ± 10 – 9.05 1260
[97] 625 powder
Plate sizes: (40 ␮m)
(12 × 102 × 6) mm3

metallurgical bonding formed between the interface material
and the bulk pipes of mild steels.
Investigation on the effect of powder size on joint hardness,
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and percentage elongation
in the joining of SS304 specimen was carried out by Bagha
et al. [94]. Four joints were prepared with interfacing pow-
der Nickel with a size of 50 ␮m, 40 ␮m, 30 ␮m, and 20 ␮m.
The effect of variation of powder size on the response vari-
ables is as shown in Fig. 10. It was found that the size of
powders has an inverse relationship with joint homogene-
ity, strength, and hardness. That is, there is an increase in
the joint hardness and ultimate tensile strength with the
reduction in powder size; while the ductility tensile strength
reduces with decreasing powder size. This is due to increased
microwave interaction with reducing powder size. This is
attributed to the close proximity of the powder size to the
penetration depth of the material.
The materials joined by microwave heating have shown
good characteristics and shorter processing times in differ-
ent investigations. Apart from conventional materials such
as steel and copper, this technique of joining can be used in
different applications involving difficult-to-join materials,
such as aluminum and its alloys, magnesium and its alloys
and various dissimilar joints.
The major challenges posed by the microwave-based join-
ing process is selection of suitable interfacing powder or filler
material compatible to the materials to be joined, preparation
of set-up that includes selection and positioning of susceptor
and masking materials to avoid bulk specimen from get-
ting exposed to microwaves while ensuring maximum heat
3320 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Fig. 10 – Effect of particle size.
transfer from the susceptor to the joint area. In addition, the
most significant challenge is to estimate the processing time,
which is still based on trial and error [96].
3.4. Microwave casting/melting applications
Researchers have also explored possibilities in utilizing
microwave-based heating technology in melting or casting
processes. One of the earlier usages of microwave energy for
casting process is the de-waxing operation in the investment
casting process. Brum et al. [105] evaluated the feasibility of
using microwave technology in dewaxing while Yahaya et al.
[106] implemented the concept of microwave hybrid heating
for in microwave dewaxing. It offered advantages, such as non-
degradation of wax quality and faster processing time.
Although microwave-based melting of copper, aluminum
and steel specimen have been reported earlier by Agrawal [7],
however, not many details are available on the experimental
parameters. Chandrasekaran et al. [107] carried out a simi-
lar investigation to understand the heating characteristics of
metals, such as lead, tin, copper, and aluminum in a multi-
mode oven under hybrid heating environment. The process
parameters selected were microwave power and the quantity
of material being processed (load). The results of the experi-
ment were compared with conventional melting. Microwave
heating resulted in rapid temperature rise attributed to the
increased interaction of microwaves with the material. Three
different power levels 100% (1300 W), 70% (910 W) and 40%
(520 W) and at various sample loads (25–150 g) were used for
investigation. An important outcome was the fact that melting
through microwave power was found to be twice faster than
conventional heating-based melting and it is also a cleaner
process with reasonable control.
The success achieved in the melting of metals using
microwave energy led to the research on casting. An in situ
casting set-up was developed in an industrial multi-mode
microwave oven (1.4 kW at 2.45 GHz) by Mishra and Sharma
[108]. This was used to melt a cylindrical piece of 100 g alu-
minum 7079 alloy. Major parts of the set-up were made up of
materials that exhibit good interaction with microwaves. This
included a pouring basin with SiC susceptor; alumina sprue
and a graphite mold in two pieces (cope and drag). The cast-
ing process got completed with microwave exposure for only
8 min and 45 s. COMSOL Multiphysics, a commercial package
was also used to indicate the thermal history of the load under
the influence of microwave irradiation. The simulation results
demonstrated that the location of charge to be melted had a
significant effect on heating characteristics.
An important parameter in microwave processing is the
rate of temperature rise. Xu et al. [44] performed the melt-
ing of copper powder of three different sizes of 25 ␮m, 38 ␮m,
and 74 ␮m. An additional experimental factor was quantity.
These were used in three different quantities, viz. 50 g, 100 g,
and 150 g. The samples were exposed to 1.3–1.8 kW power at
2.45 GHz in a multi-mode industrial applicator. The applicator
had a provision for temperature measurement and setting up
of a controlled atmosphere of Ar gas. The research resulted in
the development of a model for the rate of temperature rise
in copper of powder size 74 ␮m. The rise in temperature has
been expressed as a function of ‘t’ using Eq. (5).

8.8t + 443.7, R2 = 0.9993 (0 < t ≤ 26)
T= (5)
−294.5 + 49.9t − 0.46t2 , R2 = 0.9793 (26 ≤ t ≤ 55)
Xu et al. [44] also showed that an increase in temperature
leads to densification from 2.13 g/cm3 at room temperature
to 3.31 g/cm3 , 4.29 g/cm3 , 4.85 g/cm3 and 8.07 g/cm3 at 900 ◦ C,
1060 ◦ C, 1083 ◦ C and 1090 ◦ C respectively for the powder size of
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Fig. 11 – Response parameters in microwave-based casting/melting.
74 ␮m. Thus, the desired level of cast quality can be obtained
by controlling the temperature rise.
In general, the response parameters in any casting process
are the strength of the cast, porosity, microhardness of the
cast, the rate of temperature rise, different phases obtained
after the process, microstructure, and elemental analysis as
shown in Fig. 11.
For developing the understanding of the structure and
property of the cast, Mishra and Sharma [109] determined
the characteristics of the in situ Al–Zn–Mg alloy cast. Charac-
terization was done to obtain cast microstructure, elemental
analysis, phase analysis, porosity, micro-indentation hard-
ness and tensile strength. The porosity of the cast was found
to be less than 2%. Fig. 12 shows the comparison between
properties of received aluminum alloy material and cast
alloy. The cast alloy exhibited superior characteristics with
increased yield strength, 86 MPa against 70 MPa; ultimate ten-
sile strength, 149 MPa against 112 MPa and larger percentage
elongation, 1.92% versus 1.59%.
Melting application or casting through microwave energy
is a recent development in the context of microwave-based
heating applications and therefore, further research is antic-
ipated to establish its reliability at the commercial level for
different castable materials. The characteristics that make it
a lucrative research domain is the amount of energy savings
3321
that can be achieved through this process and superior cast
product quality in terms of mechanical properties that can be
obtained with better control over the process.
4. Conclusion and potential areas for
research
Efficient microwave-based processing techniques save cost,
time and energy. There is wide scope for introduction of novel
materials in microwave-based coating and cladding such as
the use of conducting polymers for anti-corrosion and stealth
applications, microwave-based joining and microwave-based
casting. Development of experimental set-ups is required for
dedicated application areas. It can enhance the predictability
of newly developed processes. Further research and analysis
are required to describe the relationships between the input
and response parameters for accurately achieving reliable pro-
cess control. Summary of the present research in the field of
microwave processing is described as follows:
• Four significant input parameters have been identified that
control the microwave-based heating process. These input
parameters are dielectric and magnetic properties, heating
mechanisms, load and applicators.
3322 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
Fig. 12 – Comparison between as received alloy and cast alloy properties.
• Each of these parameters is influenced by several factors
such as morphology and size of the material being pro-
cessed, frequency, positioning inside the applicator, the
type of applicator and the set-ups used, the dominant heat-
ing mechanisms, etc.
• The type of applicator i.e. single mode or multi-mode, size
of the material, heating mechanism and the temperature of
the process need finer attention and control.
• The material, especially metals when used in the pow-
der form with a size of the order of penetration depth
(around 10 ␮m) increases interaction, which results in uni-
form heating and superior properties along with a reduction
in processing time. This reduction is quite drastic that is,
from hours required in conventional processes to minutes
in microwave-based applications.
• Microwave-based processing scope can be widened using
a microwave hybrid heating approach at a large scale to
process the materials with poor microwave interaction.
• Selection of susceptors such as silicon carbide, charcoal,
graphite, alumina, mullite, zirconia, etc. requires a thorough
understanding of the applications. In addition, the selec-
tive heating capability of the microwave can be utilized in
composite materials synthesis as these have distinct phases
with variable microwave interaction capability.
• Future studies can focus on overcoming the challenge of an
uncontrolled rise of loss tangent at elevated temperatures,
which leads to excessive undesired heating.
• The common response parameter of all the microwave-
based heating applications is the rate of temperature rise
that indirectly affects product characteristics. Control over
the heating rate offers advantages in the form of improved
morphology and properties of the processed material.
• In the case of sintering, the response parameters are sin-
ter density, modulus of rupture, hardness, the rate of
temperature rise. Sintering has been the most widely prac-
ticed microwave-based materials processing application
and has shown to be effective in microwave-based process-
ing.
• Cladding and coating applications have exhibited enhanced
wear properties, improved micro-hardness and sufficient
thickness. Still, these are in their infancy stage and
demands further development for large scale processing.
• Microwave-based joining is characterized by joint strength,
joint hardness, porosity, percentage elongation. Joint qual-
ity is a function of the rate of temperature rise. Hence, hybrid
heating and careful selection of applicator with precise con-
trol is an area that needs to be intensively investigated.
Loss of weld strength (up to 50%) during microwave join-
ing. Therefore, the development of higher strength welds
and microwave joining of novel materials are impending
challenges.
• Melting or casting processes have exhibited advantages and
desired output parameters such as mechanical and physical
properties have been obtained in the cast product. However,
quantitative analysis of energy conserved using this clean
production methodology needs further extensive research.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgment
The work is a part of the research project titled, “Study
on the effect of microwave heating on metals(Grant ID
NMIMS/MPSTME/PROJECT/41)” funded by SVKM’s NMIMS
(Deemed-to-be University), Mumbai, India. The authors would
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326 3323

like to thank the university for providing funding and research [16] Mishra RR, Sharma AK. A review of research trends in
facilities. microwave processing of metal-based materials and
opportunities in microwave metal casting. Crit Rev Solid
State Mater Sci 2016;41:217–55,
references http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408436.2016.1142421.
[17] Zhao X, Huang K, Yan L. Review of numerical simulation of
microwave heating process. INTECH Open Access Publ;
2011. p. 27–8, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/13387.
[1] Thostenson ET, Chou T-W. Microwave processing:
[18] Rana KK, Rana S. Microwave reactors: a brief review on its
fundamentals and applications. Compos Part A Appl Sci
fundamental aspects and applications. OALib 2014;01:1–20,
Manuf 1999;30:1055–71,
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1100686.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1359-835X(99)00020-2.
[19] Mishra RR, Sharma AK. Microwave–material interaction
[2] Chandrasekaran S, Ramanathan S, Basak T. Microwave
phenomena: heating mechanisms, challenges and
material processing – a review. AIChE J 2012;58:330–63,
opportunities in material processing. Compos Part A Appl
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aic.12766.
Sci Manuf 2016;81:78–97,
[3] Pal R, Jha AK, Akhtar MJ, Kar KK, Kumar R, Nayak D.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.10.035.
Enhanced microwave processing of epoxy nanocomposites
[20] Sun J, Wang W, Yue Q. Review on microwave–matter
using carbon black powders. Adv Powder Technol
interaction fundamentals and efficient
2017;28:1281–90, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2017.02.016.
microwave-associated heating strategies. Materials (Basel)
[4] Aguilar-Reynosa A, Roman A, Ma. Rodrguez-Jasso R, Aguilar
2016:9, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma9040231.
CN, Garrote G, Ruiz HA. Microwave heating processing as
[21] Reeja-Jayan B, Harrison KL, Yang K, Wang CL, Yilmaz AE,
alternative of pretreatment in second-generation
Manthiram A. Microwave-assisted low-temperature growth
biorefinery: an overview. Energy Convers Manag
of thin films in solution. Sci Rep 2012;2:1–8,
2017;136:50–65,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep01003.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.01.004.
[22] Chen LF, Chen LF, Ong CK, Ong CK, Neo CP, Neo CP, et al.
[5] Beneroso D, Monti T, Kostas ET, Robinson J. Microwave
Microwave electronics measurement and materials
pyrolysis of biomass for bio-oil production: scalable
characterisation; 2004,
processing concepts. Chem Eng J 2017;316:481–98,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/0470020466.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.01.130.
[23] Angela A, DAmore M. Relevance of dielectric properties in
[6] Hazarika A, Deka BK, Kim D, Kong K, Bin Park Y, Park HW.
microwave assisted processes. In: Microw. mater. charact.
Microwave-synthesized freestanding iron-carbon
InTech; 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51098.
nanotubes on polyester composites of woven Kevlar fibre
[24] Yoshikawa N, Ishizuka E, Taniguchi S. Heating of metal
and silver nanoparticle-decorated graphene. Sci Rep
particles in a single-mode microwave applicator. Mater
2017;7:1–11, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep40386.
Trans 2006;47:898–902,
[7] Agrawal D, Material RI. Microwave sintering, brazing and
http://dx.doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.47.898.
melting of metallic materials. Non-Ferrous Mater Extr
[25] Council NR. Microwave processing of materials; 1994,
Process 2006;4:183–92,
http://dx.doi.org/10.17226/2266.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0371750X.2006.11012292.
[26] Vollmer M. Physics of the microwave oven. Phys Educ
[8] Kim J, Mun SC, Ko HU, Kim KB, Khondoker MAH, Zhai L.
2003;39:74–81, http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/39/1/006.
Review of microwave assisted manufacturing technologies.
[27] Solanki GK, Patel DB, Patel KD, Gosai NN, Gafur Mansur Y.
Int J Precis Eng Manuf 2012;13:2263–72,
Growth and dielectric properties of DVT grown
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12541-012-0301-2.
GeS0.25Se0.75 single crystals. Phys Chem 2012;2:67–72,
[9] Das S, Mukhopadhyay AK, Datta S, Basu D. Prospects of
http://dx.doi.org/10.5923/j.pc.20120205.02.
microwave processing: an overview. Bull Mater Sci
[28] Fuzerova J, Fuzer J, Kollar P, Hegedus L, Bures R, Faberova M.
2009;32:1–13, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12034-009-0001-4.
Analysis of the complex permeability versus frequency of
[10] Agrawal D. Latest global developments in microwave
soft magnetic composites consisting of iron and
materials processing. Mater Res Innov 2010;14:3–8,
Fe73Cu1Nb3Si16B7. IEEE Trans Magn 2012;48:1545–8,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/143307510X12599329342926.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TMAG.2011.2173173.
[11] Oghbaei M, Mirzaee O. Microwave versus conventional
[29] Hua Y, Liu C. Heating rate of minerals and compounds in
sintering: a review of fundamentals, advantages and
microwave field. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China (English
applications. J Alloys Compd 2010;494:175–89,
Ed) 1996;6:35–40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2010.01.068.
[30] Hao H, Xu L, Huang Y, Zhang X, Xie Z. Kinetics mechanism
[12] Yahaya B, Izman S, Konneh M, Redzuan N. Microwave
of microwave sintering in ceramic materials. Sci China, Ser
hybrid heating of materials using susceptors – a brief
E Technol Sci 2009;52:2727–31,
review. Adv Mater Res 2013;845:426–30,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11431-008-0217-3.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.845.426.
[31] Menéndez JA, Arenillas A, Fidalgo B, Fernández Y,
[13] Leonelli C, Mason TJ. Microwave and ultrasonic processing:
Zubizarreta L, Calvo EG, et al. Microwave heating processes
now a realistic option for industry. Chem Eng Process
involving carbon materials. Fuel Process Technol
Process Intensif 2010;49:885–900,
2010;91:1–8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2009.08.021.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2010.05.006.
[32] Kirby BW. Alternative crucibles for U–Mo microwave
[14] Singh S, Gupta D, Jain V. Recent applications of microwaves
melting; 2017.
in materials joining and surface coatings. Proc Inst Mech
[33] Gupta D, Sharma AK. Development and microstructural
Eng Part B J Eng Manuf 2016;230:603–17,
characterization of microwave cladding on austenitic
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954405414560778.
stainless steel. Surf Coatings Technol 2011;205:5147–55,
[15] Singh S, Gupta D, Jain V, Sharma AK. Microwave processing
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2011.05.018.
of materials and applications in manufacturing industries:
[34] Gupta D, Sharma AK. Investigation on sliding wear
a review. Mater Manuf Process 2015;30:1–29,
performance of WC10Co2Ni cladding developed through
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2014.952028.
3324 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
microwave irradiation. Wear 2011;271:1642–50,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2010.12.037.
[35] Gupta D, Bhovi PM, Sharma AK, Dutta S. Development and
characterization of microwave composite cladding. J Manuf
Process 2012;14:243–9,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2012.05.007.
[36] Sharma AK, Gupta D. On microstructure and flexural
strength of metal–ceramic composite cladding developed
through microwave heating. Appl Surf Sci 2012;258:5583–92,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.02.019.
[37] Pathania A, Singh S, Gupta D, Jain V. Development and
analysis of tribological behavior of microwave processed
EWAC + 20% WC10Co2Ni composite cladding on mild steel
substrate. J Manuf Process 2015;20:79–87,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2015.09.007.
[38] Zafar S, Sharma AK. Dry sliding wear performance of
nanostructured WC-12Co deposited through microwave
cladding. Tribol Int 2015;91:14–22,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2015.06.023.
[39] Zafar S, Sharma AK. Structure–property correlations in
nanostructured WC-12Co microwave clad. Appl Surf Sci
2016;370:92–101,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.02.114.
[40] Zafar S, Sharma AK. Abrasive and erosive wear behaviour of
nanometric WC-12Co microwave clads. Wear
2016;346–347:29–45,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2015.11.003.
[41] Roy R, Agrawal D, Cheng J, Gedevanlshvili S. Full sintering
of powdered-metal bodies in a microwave field. Nature
1999;399:668–70, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/21390.
[42] Saitou K. Microwave sintering of iron, cobalt, nickel, copper
and stainless steel powders. Scr Mater 2006;54:875–9,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2005.11.006.
[43] Prabhu G, Chakraborty A, Sarma B. Microwave sintering of
tungsten. Int J Refract Met Hard Mater 2009;27:545–8,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2008.07.001.
[44] Xu L, Srinivasakannan C, Peng J, Guo S, Xia H. Study on
characteristics of microwave melting of copper powder. J
Alloys Compd 2017;701:236–43,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.01.097.
[45] Shannigrahi SR, Pramoda KP, Nugroho FAA. Synthesis and
characterizations of microwave sintered ferrite powders
and their composite films for practical applications. J Magn
Magn Mater 2012;324:140–5,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmmm.2011.07.050.
[46] Bykov YV, Egorov SV, Eremeev AG, Holoptsev VV, Plotnikov
IV, Rybakov KI, et al. Temperature profile optimization for
microwave sintering of bulk Ni–Al2 O3 functionally graded
materials. J Mater Process Technol 2014;214:210–6,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.09.001.
[47] Thuault A, Marinel S, Savary E, Heuguet R, Saunier S,
Goeuriot D, et al. Processing of reaction-bonded B4C–SiC
composites in a single-mode microwave cavity. Ceram Int
2013;39:1215–9,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.07.047.
[48] Yang H, Zhou X, Yu J, Wang H, Huang Z. Microwave and
conventional sintering of SiC/SiC composites: flexural
properties and microstructures. Ceram Int 2015;41:11651–4,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.05.126.
[49] Li Y, Xu F, Hu X, Luan Y, Han Z, Wang Z. Micro-focusing
effect of electromagnetic fields and its influence on
sintering during the microwave processing of ceramic
particles of SiC. Ceram Int 2015;41:14554–60,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.07.172.
[50] Ghobadi H, Ebadzadeh T, Sadeghian Z, Barzegar-Bafrooei H,
Nemati A. Microwave-assisted sintering of Al2 O3 –MWCNT
nanocomposites. Ceram Int 2017;43:6105–9,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.02.003.
[51] No Title n.d. http://www.por.se/references/dieldata.html
[accessed 04.10.18].
[52] Whittaker AG, Mingos DMP. J Chem Soc Dalton Trans
1995:2073–9.
[53] Mondal A, Agrawal D, Upadhyaya A, Engineering M.
Microwave heating of pure copper powder with different
n.d.:517–20.
[54] Ghosh S, Pal KS, Dandapat N, Mukhopadhyay AK, Datta S,
Basu D. Characterization of microwave processed
aluminium powder. Ceram Int 2011;37:1115–9,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2010.10.012.
[55] Houšová J, Hoke K. Microwave heating – the influence of
oven and load parameters on the power absorbed in the
heated load. J Food Sci Czech 2002;20:117–24.
[56] Chaichumporn C, Ngamsirijit P, Boonklin N, Eaiprasetsak K,
Fuangfoong M. Design and construction of 2.45 GHz
microwave plasma source at atmospheric pressure. Proc
Eng 2011;8:94–100,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.03.018.
[57] Jamróz P, Kordylewski W, Wnukowski M. Microwave plasma
application in decomposition and steam reforming of
model tar compounds. Fuel Process Technol 2018;169:1–14,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2017.09.009.
[58] Gower SA. Development of a high power microwave plasma
beam applicator. Rev Sci Instrum 2001;72:4273,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1406920.
[59] Uhm HS, Hong YC, Shin DH. A microwave plasma torch and
its applications. Plasma Sources Sci Technol 2006:15,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0963-0252/15/2/S04.
[60] Pavuluri SK, Goussetis G, Desmulliez MPY, Adamietz R,
Tilford T, Ferenets M, et al. Open-ended single mode
resonant applicator for microelectronics packaging
applications n.d.:1–3.
[61] Prapuchanay E, Puangngernmak N, Chalermwisutkul S. A
single mode cylindrical microwave cavity for heating
applications of liquid material. In: 2012 9th int conf electr
eng comput telecommun inf technol ECTI-CON 2012. 2012.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ECTICon.2012.6254353, 0–3.
[62] Jerby E, Dikhtyar V, Aktushev O, Grosglick U. The microwave
drill. Science 2002;298:587–9,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1077062.
[63] Jerby E, Aktushev O, Dikhtyar V. Theoretical analysis of the
microwave-drill near-field localized heating effect. J Appl
Phys 2005:97, http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1836011.
[64] Jerby E, Dikhtyar V. Drilling into hard non-conductive
materials by localized microwave radiation. In: 8th ampere
proc. 2001. p. 1–9.
[65] Jerby E, Aktushev O, Dikhtyar V, Livshits P, Anaton A,
Yacoby T, et al. Microwave drill applications for concrete,
glass and silicon. In: Proc 4th world congr microw
radio-frequency appl. 2004. p. 156–65.
[66] Eshet Y, Mann RR, Anaton A, Yacoby T, Gefen A, Jerby E.
Microwave drilling of bones. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng
2006;53:1174–82,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2006.873562.
[67] Lautre NK, Sharma AK, Kumar P, Das S. Performance of
monopole concentrator during microwave drilling of
perspex; 2014. p. 1–6.
[68] Lautre NK, Sharma AK, Kumar P, Das S. Microwave drilling
with litz wire using a domestic applicator, vol 4; 2014. p.
9756, http://dx.doi.org/10.9756/BIJIEMS.6053.
[69] Kurgan N. Effects of sintering atmosphere on
microstructure and mechanical property of sintered powder
metallurgy 316L stainless steel. Mater Des 2013;52:995–8,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.06.035.
[70] Shvab R, Bergman O, Bengtsson S. Effect of sintering
atmosphere on the microstructure of high Cr-alloyed
sintered stainless steel, vol 13; 2013. p. 103–8.
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326
[71] Sintering Fundamentals n.d.
https://www.abbottfurnaceco.com/sintering-fundamentals/
[accessed 23.02.19].
[72] Ju H, Zhao Q. Simulation and experimental method for
microwave oven, vol 7; 2009. p. 188–91.
[73] Srinath MS, Murthy PS, Sharma AK, Kumar P, Kartikeyan
MV. Simulation and analysis of microwave heating while
joining bulk copper. Int J Eng Sci Technol 2012;4:152–8.
[74] Agrawal D. Microwave sintering of ceramics,composites,
metals and transparent materials. J Mater Educ
1997;19:49–57.
[75] Das S, Mukhopadhyay AK, Datta S, Basu D. Novel method of
developing oxide coating on aluminum using microwave
heating; 2003. p. 1635–7.
[76] Gupta D, Sharma AK. Microwave cladding: a new approach
in surface engineering. J Manuf Process 2014;16:176–82,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.01.001.
[77] Thuault A, Savary E, Bazin J, Marinel S. Microwave sintering
of large size pieces with complex shape. J Mater Process
Technol 2014;214:470–6,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.09.030.
[78] Hassan MN, Mahmoud MM, Link G, El-Fattah AA, Kandil S.
Sintering of naturally derived hydroxyapatite using high
frequency microwave processing. J Alloys Compd
2016;682:107–14,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.04.266.
[79] Chen Y, Wu Q, Wang X, Xie Q, Tang Y, Lan Y, et al.
Microwave-assisted synthesis of arene Ru(II) complexes
induce tumor cell apoptosis through selectively binding
and stabilizing bcl-2 G-quadruplex DNA. Materials (Basel)
2016:9, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma9050386.
[80] German RM. Powder metallurgy science. 2nd edn Princeton,
NJ: MPIF; 1994, n.d.
[81] Girisha KG, Rao KVS. Improvement of corrosion resistance
of AISI 410 martensitic steel using plasma coating, vol 5;
2018. p. 7622–7.
[82] Fauchais P, Vardelle A. Thermal sprayed coatings used
against corrosion and corrosive wear. Adv Plasma Spray
Appl 2012:3–39, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/34448.
[83] Ott EA, Groh JR, Mannan SK. Environmental behavior of low
thermal expansion Inconel alloy 783. Superalloys
2004;2004:643–52,
http://dx.doi.org/10.7449/2004/Superalloys 2004 643 652.
[84] Sandhu SS, Shahi AS. Metallurgical, wear and fatigue
performance of Inconel 625 weld claddings. J Mater Process
Technol 2016;233:1–8,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.02.010.
[85] Verdi D, Garrido MA, Múnez CJ, Poza P. Mechanical
properties of Inconel 625 laser cladded coatings: depth
sensing indentation analysis. Mater Sci Eng A
2014;598:15–21,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.01.026.
[86] Verdi D, Garrido MA, Múnez CJ, Poza P. Microscale
evaluation of laser cladded Inconel 625 exposed at high
temperature in air. Mater Des 2017;114:326–38,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.11.014.
[87] Liu W, Xu F, Li Y, Hu X, Dong B, Xiao Y. Discussion on
microwave-matter interaction mechanisms by in situ
observation of “core–shell” microstructure during
microwave sintering. Materials (Basel) 2016:9,
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma9030120.
[88] Chang C, Verdi D, Angel M, Ruiz-hervias J. Micro-scale
mechanical characterization of Inconel cermet coatings
deposited by laser cladding. Boletín La Soc Española
Cerámica y Vidr 2016;55:136–42,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bsecv.2016.01.001.
[89] Chinnakurli Suryanarayana R, Rupanagudi SK, Gudi HR,
Udupa VV. Corrosive wear behaviour of plasma sprayed
3325
inconel 718 and titania coatings on low carbon steel in
marine environment. Soc Tribol Lubr Eng Annu Meet Exhib
2016;2016:5–7.
[90] Ahmed A, Siores E. Microwave joining of 48% alumina ±32%
zirconia ±20% silica ceramics, vol 118; 2001. p. 88–95.
[91] Bansal A, Sharma AK, Kumar P, Das S. Characterization of
bulk stainless steel joints developed through microwave
hybrid heating. Mater Charact 2014;91:34–41,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2014.02.005.
[92] Bansal A, Sharma AK, Das S. Metallurgical and mechanical
characterization of mild steel–mild steel joint formed by
microwave hybrid heating process. Sadhana Acad Proc Eng
Sci 2013;38:679–86,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12046-013-0142-4.
[93] Kumar A. Microwave joining of stainless steel and their
charactrization; 2015.
[94] Bagha L, Sehgal S, Thakur A, Kumar H. Effects of powder
size of interface material on selective hybrid carbon
microwave joining of SS304–SS304. J Manuf Process
2017;25:290–5,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2016.12.013.
[95] Aravindan S, Krishnamurthy R. Joining of ceramic
composites by microwave heating; 1999. p. 245–9.
[96] Gamit D, Mishra RR, Sharma AK. Joining of mild steel pipes
using microwave hybrid heating at 2.45 GHz and joint
characterization. J Manuf Process 2017;27:158–68,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2017.04.028.
[97] Badiger RI, Narendranath S, Srinath MS. Joining of
Inconel-625 alloy through microwave hybrid heating and its
characterization. J Manuf Process 2015;18:117–23,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2015.02.002.
[98] Srinath MS, Sharma AK, Kumar P. A new approach to
joining of bulk copper using microwave energy. Mater Des
2011;32:2685–94,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2011.01.023.
[99] Tamang S, Aravindan S. An investigation on joining of
Al6061-T6 to AZ31B by microwave hybrid heating using
active braze alloy as an interlayer. J Manuf Process
2017;28:94–100,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2017.05.027.
[100] Bajpai PK, Singh I, Madaan J. Joining of natural fiber
reinforced composites using microwave energy:
experimental and finite element study. Mater Des
2012;35:596–602,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2011.10.007.
[101] Siores E, Do Rego D. Microwave applications in materials
joining. J Mater Process Technol 1995;48:619–25,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0924-0136(94)01701-2.
[102] Srinath MS, Sharma AK, Kumar P. A novel route for joining
of austenitic stainless steel (SS-316) using microwave
energy. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B J Eng Manuf
2011;225:1083–91,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2041297510393451.
[103] Srinath MS, Sharma AK, Kumar P. Investigation on
microstructural and mechanical properties of microwave
processed dissimilar joints. J Manuf Process 2011;13:141–6,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2011.03.001.
[104] Hoyt D, Y. Adonyi SK. Microwave joining – Part 1:
Closed-loop controlled microwave soldering of lead
telluride to copper. Weld J 2016;95:141–5.
[105] Brum FJB, Amico SC, Vedana I, Spim JA. Microwave
dewaxing applied to the investment casting process. J
Mater Process Technol 2009;209:3166–71,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.07.024.
[106] Yahaya B, Izman S, Idris MH, Dambatta MS. Effects of
activated charcoal on dewaxing time in microwave hybrid
heating. Procedia CIRP 2015;26:467–72,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2014.07.039.
3326 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):3306–3326

[107] Chandrasekaran S, Basak T, Ramanathan S. Experimental [109] Mishra RR, Sharma AK. Structure-property correlation in
and theoretical investigation on microwave melting of Al–Zn–Mg alloy cast developed through in-situ microwave
metals. J Mater Process Technol 2011;211:482–7, casting. Mater Sci Eng A 2017;688:532–44,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2010.11.001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.02.021.
[108] Mishra RR, Sharma AK. On melting characteristics of bulk
Al-7039 alloy during in-situ microwave casting. Appl Therm
Eng 2017;111:660–75,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.09.122.